PASSIVE DESIGN STRATEGIES APPLIED TO OFFICE

BUILDINGS IN GAUTENG

Author: Scott Sydney Quarmby

Submitted in fulfilment of part of the requirements for the

Degree of BSc (Hons) Construction Management

In the Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment and

Information Technology

Department Construction Economics

University of Pretoria

Study Leader
Prof C Du Plessis

October 2013
Declaration by student

I, the undersigned, hereby confirm that the attached treatise is my own work and that
any sources are adequately acknowledged in the text and listed in the bibliography.

I accept the rules of assessment of the University of Pretoria and the consequences
of transgressing them.

This treatise is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
BSc Honours (Construction Management) at the University of Pretoria.
It has not been submitted before for any other degree or examination at any other
University.

__________________________
Signature of acceptance and confirmation
Scott Sydney Quarmby
October 2013

i
Abstract
Treatise Title: Passive Design Strategies Applied to Office Buildings in
Gauteng

Author: S.S. Quarmby

Study leader: Prof C. Du Plessis

Institution: University of Pretoria, Faculty of Engineering, Built

Environment and Information Technology

Submission Date: October 2013

This treatise seeks to identify which passive design strategies are commonly applied
or not applied to office buildings in Gauteng and the reasons therefore.

The treatise commences with a literature review in terms of which desktop research
was conducted to understand the history of architecture, construction and electricity
in the country and highlighting the urgent need to reduce energy consumption. In this
chapter the varying forms of human comfort and how to achieve its optimum level is
analysed. Thereafter the differences of passive and active strategies are considered
and the manner in which they can be utilised to minimize energy consumption. On
the international plane much has been done in the design of buildings using active
design strategies. The author thus investigates passive design in the international
context. Thereafter the design, construction and motivation of passive design are
elaborated upon.

The crux of the treatise is contained in Chapter 5. In order to answer the question
which prompted the study, namely, which passive design strategies are commonly
applied or not applied to office buildings in Gauteng, and why, a study was
conducted in which eight buildings were identified and willing architects were
interviewed to ascertain which passive strategies had been used or not used and the
reasons therefore. Chapter 5 sets out answers presented by architects to questions
relating to the use of passive strategies in the design of selected buildings.

ii
Acknowledgements

I would never have been able to start, nor finish my research report without the
guidance of my research supervisor, help from friends and family, and support from
my girlfriend.

I would like to express my deep gratitude to Professor Chrisna Du Plessis, my

research supervisor, for her patient guidance, enthusiastic encouragement and
useful critiques of this research work. I would also like to thank all of the architects,
who took part in the research, for giving up their time to assist me in the collection of
my data.

My indebted thanks are extended to my friends, Mischa Muller in particular, for their
help, constructive recommendations and encouragement, and my family, Eric, Tania
and Gordon, for providing the inspiration to pursue my research topic.

Finally, I wish to convey gratitude to my girlfriend, Romi Brammer, for her assistance,
sensible advice, and ceaseless support throughout this study. She stood by me
through good times and bad, constantly raising my spirits and giving me confidence.

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 “We cannot ignore the damage that our buildings
inflict on the natural environment. As the
consequences of our past inaction becomes ever
apparent, designing for a sustainable future becomes
a necessity, not a choice. Sustainable design means
doing the most with the least means. Following the
logic of ‘less is more’, it employs passive architectural
means to reduce energy consumption, minimising the
use of non-renewable fuel and reducing the amount
of pollution.”
- Norman Foster -

“It is doubtful that real personal change can occur

without the conscious and painful process of
self-criticism that is required to reject power and ego.”
- Janis Birkeland -

iv
Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................ iii
Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Background ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Aim and purpose of this study ...................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Research questions ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Importance of the Study ............................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 2: Literature Study..................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 A brief history of architecture and construction in Gauteng ........................................................ 7
2.3 A brief history of electricity in South Africa ................................................................................ 12
2.4 The need to reduce South Africa’s energy consumption............................................................ 15
2.5 Human Comfort .......................................................................................................................... 17
2.5.1 Factors contributing to human comfort .............................................................................. 18
2.5.2 Measuring human comfort .................................................................................................. 20
2.5.3 Human comfort and productivity levels .............................................................................. 22
2.6 Active and passive strategies for reducing energy consumption ............................................... 23
2.6.1 Biomimetic principles to aid passive strategies ................................................................... 24
2.7 Passive design in the international context ................................................................................ 26
2.7.1 Evolution of international energy-efficiency standards....................................................... 26
2.7.2 International examples of passive design strategies ........................................................... 27
2.8 Climatic characteristics specific to Gauteng ............................................................................... 28
2.9 Reasons for South Africa’s limited application of passive design strategies .............................. 34
2.10 South Africa’s move toward becoming green........................................................................... 35
2.10.1 Green Star Rating ............................................................................................................... 36
2.11 Design and construction of passive buildings ........................................................................... 38
2.11.1 Building Information Modelling ......................................................................................... 40
2.11.2 Building envelope maintenance ........................................................................................ 41
2.12 Motivation for passive design ................................................................................................... 42
Chapter 3: Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 44
3.1 Methods of data collection ......................................................................................................... 44
3.2 Data-gathering Instruments........................................................................................................ 45

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 3.3 Data Processing and Analysis ...................................................................................................... 46
3.4 Ethical Considerations................................................................................................................. 46
3.5 Delimitations ............................................................................................................................... 47
3.6 Conclusion to methodology ........................................................................................................ 47
Chapter 4: Which passive design strategies are relevant to office buildings in Gauteng?................... 49
4.1 Orientation .................................................................................................................................. 49
4.2 Building layout ............................................................................................................................ 52
4.3 Fenestration ................................................................................................................................ 53
4.3.1 Window design .................................................................................................................... 53
4.3.2 Low-emissivity (low-e) coatings ........................................................................................... 54
4.3.3 Aerogel glazing ..................................................................................................................... 54
4.3.4 Double and Triple pane glazing ............................................................................................ 55
4.3.5 Switchable reflective glazing ................................................................................................ 56
4.3.6 Holographic optical elements .............................................................................................. 56
4.3.7 Window Frames ................................................................................................................... 56
4.4 Insulation .................................................................................................................................... 57
4.4.1 Insulation of the roof ........................................................................................................... 59
4.4.2 Insulation of walls ................................................................................................................ 60
4.5 Thermal mass .............................................................................................................................. 60
4.5.1 Thermal mass in the building form ...................................................................................... 60
4.5.2 Thermal batteries ................................................................................................................. 61
4.6 Shading ........................................................................................................................................ 62
4.6.1 Façade Shading .................................................................................................................... 62
4.6.2 Roof Shading ........................................................................................................................ 64
4.6 Ventilation................................................................................................................................... 64
4.7.1 Passive stack ventilation through the roof .......................................................................... 65
4.7.2 Ventilation through walls ..................................................................................................... 67
4.7.3 Ventilation through the façade ............................................................................................ 67
4.7.4 Night time ventilation .......................................................................................................... 68
4.7.5 Infiltration ............................................................................................................................ 69
4.8 Materials ..................................................................................................................................... 70
4.9 Evaporative Cooling .................................................................................................................... 74

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Chapter 5: Interview data analysis........................................................................................................ 78
5.1 Which passive design strategies are commonly applied or not applied to office buildings in
Gauteng? ........................................................................................................................................... 78
5.1.1 Data analyses of evaluation framework .................................................................................. 79
5.2 Why are the passive design strategies identified in sub-question 2 applied or not applied to
office buildings in Gauteng? ............................................................................................................. 83
5.2.1 Data interpretation guidelines ............................................................................................. 83
5.2.2 Data Analysis of interview responses: Building-specific questions ..................................... 84
5.2.3 Data Analysis of interview responses: Architect-specific questions .................................. 115
Chapter 6: Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 122
6.1 Statement of the main research question ................................................................................ 122
6.2 Summary of the findings ........................................................................................................... 122
6.2.1 Sub-question 1 ................................................................................................................... 122
6.2.2 Sub-question 2 ................................................................................................................... 123
6.2.3 Sub-question 3 ................................................................................................................... 123
6.3 Final conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 124
6.4 Recommendations for future research..................................................................................... 126
Reference List...................................................................................................................................... 127
Annexures ........................................................................................................................................... 138
Annexure 1: Informed consent form .............................................................................................. 138
Annexure 2: Framework for the evaluation of buildings ................................................................ 139
Annexure 3: Framework for interview (Building-specific questions) ............................................. 142
Annexure 4: Framework for interview (Architect-specific questions) ............................................ 146
Annexure 5: Building A1.................................................................................................................. 148
Annexure 6: Building A2.................................................................................................................. 160
Annexure 7: Building A3.................................................................................................................. 173
Annexure 8: Building B1 .................................................................................................................. 185
Annexure 9: Building B2 .................................................................................................................. 196
Annexure 10: Building B3 ................................................................................................................ 207
Annexure 11: Building C1 ................................................................................................................ 217
Annexure 12: Building C2 ................................................................................................................ 228

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Relationship between PMV and PPD 22
Figure 2: Map of Gauteng 30
Figure 3: All climatic categories of Gauteng 30
Figure 4: Cwa region of Gauteng 31
Figure 5: Cwb region of Gauteng 31
Figure 6: Bsh region of Gauteng 31
Figure 7: Bsk region of Gauteng 31
Figure 8: Temperature changes from 2013 to 2100 for the continent of Africa 32
Figure 9: Potential cost savings throughout the design process 40
Figure 10: Sun path diagram 51
Figure 11: Insulation categories 58
Figure 12: Radiant-transmittive roof section 59
Figure 13: Passive ventilation through a central stack 66
Figure 14: Passive ventilation through a chimney 66
Figure 15: Exterior protrusions affecting air flow 68
Figure 16: Energy roof pond 75

List of Tables
Table 1: Interim Gauteng Minimum Targets 17
Table 2: Recommended passive design strategies for South Africa 33
Table 3: Categories, points and weighting 37
Table 4: Comparative analyses of the buildings 38
Table 5: Solar reflectance and infrared emittance of conventional roof 73

List of Graphs
Graph 1: Annual percentage rise in Eskom electricity rates, 2001-2012 14
Graph 2: Typical yearly selling price of Eskom electricity, 2001-2012 14
Graph 3: Consideration of local climate 84
Graph 4: Building subject to urban heat island 84
Graph 5: Measures to reduce heat generation 85
Graph 6: Orientated according to wind 85

viii
Graph 7: Orientated according to sunlight 86
Graph 8: Orientated according to views 87
Graph 9: Orientation limitations 87
Graph 10: Floor plan 88
Graph 11: Selection of electrical devices 89
Graph 12: Openable windows 89
Graph 13: Window sealing characteristics 90
Graph 14: Position of windows 90
Graph 15: Low-emissivity coatings 91
Graph 16: Aerogel glazing on windows 91
Graph 17: Exterior single pane windows 92
Graph 18: Exterior double pane windows 92
Graph 19: Exterior triple pane windows 93
Graph 20: Vacuum glazed windows 93
Graph 21: Argon gas between glazing panels 94
Graph 22: Krypton gas between glazing panels 94
Graph 23: Dehydrated air between glazing panels 95
Graph 24: Electrochromics 95
Graph 25: Gasochromics 96
Graph 26: Holographic optical elements 96
Graph 27: Insulated window frames 97
Graph 28: Level of air infiltration through the facade 97
Graph 29: Skylights 98
Graph 30: Insulation on the roof 98
Graph 31: Insulation of the building envelope 99
Graph 32: Insulation of ground floor slab 100
Graph 33: Materials chosen for the thermal mass properties 100
Graph 34: Thermal battery 101
Graph 35: Building shaded by other structures 101
Graph 36: External shading devices 102
Graph 37: Shading devices designed according to the sun path 103
Graph 38: Internal shading devices 103
Graph 39: Shading devices and the view 104

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Graph 40: Shading devices on the roof 105
Graph 41: Passive natural ventilation 105
Graph 42: Active natural ventilation 106
Graph 43: Exterior protrusions to aid in the flow of wind 107
Graph 44: Night time ventilation 107
Graph 45: Passive ventilation through the roof 108
Graph 46: Passive ventilation through the walls 109
Graph 47: Passive ventilation through the windows 109
Graph 48: Particle filters 110
Graph 49: Environmentally friendly construction materials 110
Graph 50: Solar reflective coatings on roofs 111
Graph 51: Phase change materials 111
Graph 52: Organic-based phase change materials 112
Graph 53: Experimental materials 113
Graph 54: Traditional materials 113
Graph 55: Roof ponds 114
Graph 56: What is passive design 115
Graph 57: Why passive design is considered to be passive design 115
Graph 58: What is active design 116
Graph 59: Active and passive design mutually exclusive 117
Graph 60: Passive strategies most relevant to Gauteng 117
Graph 61: Passive strategies not applied to Gauteng 118
Graph 62: Computer aided modelling 118
Graph 63: Biomimetics 119
Graph 64: Interior health and design 119
Graph 65: South Africa’s perception of passive building 120
Graph 66: Change in the company’s design 120
Graph 67: Additional passive strategies 121

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List of Annexures
Annexure 1: Informed consent form 138
Annexure 2: Framework for the evaluation of buildings 139
Annexure 3: Framework for interview (Building-specific questions) 142
Annexure 4: Framework for interview (Architect-specific questions) 146
Annexure 5: Building A1 148
Annexure 6: Building A2 160
Annexure 7: Building A3 173
Annexure 8: Building B1 185
Annexure 9: Building B2 196
Annexure 10: Building B3 207
Annexure 11: Building C1 217
Annexure 12: Building C2 229

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List of abbreviations
BIM : Building Information Modelling
BMS : Building Management System
CAD : Computer Aided Design
CBP : Computational Building Performance
CHC : Chlorofluorocarbon
CO2 : Carbon Dioxide
CSIR : Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
DC : Direct Current
DL : Day Lighting
DME : Department of Minerals and Energy
EC : Electrochromics
EPBD : Energy Performance of Building Directive
EPS : Extruded Polystyrene
Eskom : Electricity Supply Commission
EU : European Union
FBE : Free Basic Electricity
GBCSA : Green Building Council of South Africa
GCM : General Circulation Models
GDP : Gross Domestic Product
GFA : Gross Floor Area
GHG : Green House Gas
HCFC : Hydrofluorocarbon
HOE : Holographic Optical Elements
HPI : High-Performance Insulation
HVAC : Heat Ventilation and Air Conditioning
LEED : Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
NA : Not Applicable
PCM : Phase Change Materials
PIR : Polyisocyanurate
PMV : Predicted Mean Vote
PPD : Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied
PSD : Passive Solar Design

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PSV : Passive Stack Ventilation
PV : Photovoltaic
SANS : South African National Standard
SC : Solar Gain Control
SR : Solar Reflectance
SRI : Solar Reflective Index
UK : United Kingdom
UPVC : Un-plasticised polyvinyl chloride
VOC : Volatile Organic Compound
WGBC : World Green Building Council
WMO : World Meteorological Organisation

xiii
Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Introduction

There is a general trend in the world today towards leading more energy conscious
lives. Whilst buildings can consume excessive amounts of energy, they can also be
designed to use energy more wisely. Energy-efficiency, especially in the construction
industry has recently gained popularity in South Africa and Gauteng’s climate is one
that could gain from the benefits of passive design strategies to decrease energy
consumption (Holm 1996a, p. 1).

In this study the extent to which passive strategies are applied to office buildings in
Gauteng is researched and analysed. The outcome of this study will seek to assist
Gauteng designers, in particular, to determine whether passive strategies are viable
design strategies for achieving human comfort whilst reducing energy consumption.

1.2 Background

It has become well-known that buildings are at present one of the largest energy
consumers and greenhouse gas emitters. The levels of carbon dioxide (CO2), the
greenhouse gas largely accountable for climate change, have in the past been
steadily dropping, until around 50 years ago when they began to rise rapidly (van
Wyk 2009, p. 15). Studies have shown that globally the energy used to light, cool
and ventilate buildings accounts for 30-40% of the total primary energy consumption
and approximately 40% of CO2 emissions (Biello 2013, p. 26). On the other hand, the
building sector has the potential to significantly reduce the primary energy use and
subsequent CO2 emissions (Dodoo et al. 2011, p. 1589). While South Africa has a
rather benign climate, our buildings, both old and new, have failed to take advantage
of this. In summer the buildings are hot, while the opposite is true in winter. The need
for occupants of these buildings to be comfortable has led to the installation of
energy consuming heating and cooling devices. Although these devices may initially
have a relatively low cost, their nature of being high energy consumers results in an
on-going cost for the building owners (Holm & Viljoen 1996, p. 1).

1
In recent years there has been an increased interest in green construction. This
interest may be partly due to new environmental legislation and the ever-increasing
pressure from first world countries. The Department of Minerals and Energy (DME)
set out energy-efficient targets in 2003 and requested the industry to establish a
code for energy-efficiency in buildings. This was as a result of a study put forward by
the DME which revealed South Africa's increasing need for electricity. It was clear
from the study that South Africa would run out of base electricity generating capacity
by 2007 if urgent steps were not taken to limit energy consumption (Barnard 2009, p.
12).

During mid-2003 the South African National Standard (SANS) 204 document was
initiated and it took almost 2 years to draft the first report, the final document was
approved on 2 August 2011, and published on 9 September 2011 (SABS 2012; Saiat
2011). The aim of the SANS 204 code is to specify design and construction
standards to ensure energy-efficiency, thereby reducing the building’s energy
consumption and thus its energy requirements (Hutchinson 2011, p. 7). It is,
however, important to note that the SANS 204 objective is to reduce operational
energy use of new buildings without reducing comfort and convenience (Reynolds
2012, p. 4). At first, the code was voluntary, but as of 10 November 2011, when it
was finally implemented, the legislation has become mandatory (Mulholland and
Matshe 2009; Saiat 2011). The requirements will address heat flow in and out of the
building through the building envelope, and services that use energy, for example,
Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) and hot water (Reynolds 2012, p.
4). The standard only addresses energy used by a building’s services to operate. It
does not include energy (embodied energy) used in the manufacturing of building
materials or the construction of a building. It also does not include portable
appliances within a building such as computers and coffee machines (Reynolds
2012, p. 4).

During 2004, the Department of Minerals and Energy introduced the “Energy
Efficiency Strategy of the Republic of South Africa” to address the topic of
sustainable development and to identify the benefits of improving South Africa's
energy-efficiency (Mulholland and Matshe, 2009). The electricity regulations stated
2
that all buildings required energy-efficient fittings to be in place by 1 January 2010
and that the requirements for the supply of electricity, heating ventilation and air-
conditioning (HVAC) systems, as well as the heating of water should be met by 1
January 2012 (Mulholland and Matshe, 2009).

The Green Building Council of South Africa (GBCSA) is an independent non-profit

company established in 2007 with the aim of being the leader in “greening” South
Africa’s built environment. During 2008, the company launched the Green Star South
Africa Environmental Rating System for Buildings (Green Star SA) for new
commercial buildings that wish to be recognised as being “green” (Mulholland and
Matshe, 2009).

1.3 Aim and purpose of this study

From the above information it is clear that South Africa has undergone some major
changes in terms of building regulations and legislation in the last eight years. There
are many different types of energy-efficient building materials and construction
methods on the market. It is evident that there has been an increase in these
products and methods in recent years because of new legislation, the 2008/2009
energy crisis and growing global pressure to reduce emissions during construction
and operation of buildings. Several energy saving strategies related to buildings such
as the use of eco-friendly building materials, the reduction of peak energy demand,
and the reduction of GHG emissions both during construction and operational use of
the building are available to designers now more than ever before (Leskovarv &
Premrov 2011, p. 3410).

South Africa is regarded by Dieter Holm as having suitable climates for the
successful use of passive solar design. The application of passive design strategies
will have the direct effect of decreased energy consumption, while the indirect effects
of this will include improved health and reduced environmental pollution. Designing
all types of buildings according to passive principles is a viable and feasible option to
reduce energy consumption. This will benefit all South Africans, because a reduction
in energy demand will assist in postponing the need for additional energy supplies
(Holm 1996a, p. 1).

3
The goal of this study is thus to determine to what extent passive principles and the
appropriate strategies are applied to office buildings in Gauteng and ultimately to
assist South African and, particularly, Gauteng designers in determining whether
passive strategies are a viable alternative to active strategies as the primary design
consideration for modern office buildings in the country’s emerging energy-efficient
philosophy.

1.4 Research questions

The foundation of this research developed from the following questions:

Is the construction industry proactively becoming energy-efficient? Do architects
design only what is appealing from the outside, or do they consider environmental
aspects, comfort and energy-efficiency before they put pen to paper? Is the use of
energy-efficient technology really necessary if buildings are designed correctly? Is
the construction industry in South Africa adopting or rejecting the sustainable
practices of past generations? Are passive strategies being used more now, or are
designers moving towards active strategies, or is a combination of both being used?

From the above questions, the research question: “Which passive design strategies
are commonly applied or not applied to office buildings in Gauteng, and why?”
emerged.

In order for the main research question to be answered, the study has been broken
down into three sub-questions. By answering each of the sub-questions, the main
question as a whole may be answered. The sub-questions are laid out as:

Sub-question 1: ‘Which passive design strategies are applicable to the

specific climatic conditions of Gauteng?’

Sub-question 2: ‘Which passive design strategies are commonly applied or

not applied to office buildings in Gauteng?’

4
 Sub-question 3: ‘Why are the passive design strategies identified in sub-
question 2 applied or not applied to office buildings in Gauteng?’

Simply put, the study will look at which passive design strategies are relevant to the
specific climatic conditions of Gauteng. After which, the aim of the study will be to
determine the extent to which passive design strategies are applied or not applied to
office buildings in Gauteng, and the reasons therefore.

1.5 Importance of the Study

South Africa is currently Africa's largest (Aneki 2012), most refined and diverse
economy in Africa (Gauteng Online 2007, p. 2). Over time, Gauteng’s economy has
evolved from one focused on agriculture and mining to one dominated by finance,
trade and services. The province of Gauteng now accounts for one third (Gauteng
Online 2007, p. 9 & 16) of South Africa’s total gross domestic product (GDP), of
which 21% is credited to the finance industry, 19.7% from manufacturing, 12.8%
from trade and 15.7% from Government services. The city of Johannesburg is ruled
by finance and business services, while Pretoria’s economy centres on Government
services, motor vehicle businesses and transport (Gauteng Online 2007, pp. 10-11).
Gauteng has had to constantly construct office buildings to support the growing
number of financial and service-based businesses.

The cost of electricity in the country has risen rapidly over the last few years as the
National Electricity Regulator of South Africa (NERSA) approved increases in excess
of 20% each year since 2008. The price of electricity will then continue to rise by 8%
per year for the next five years, until 2017 (Botes, 2012). It is therefore, of paramount
importance that designers are able to design sustainable buildings which suit the
client’s requirements whilst consuming the minimum amount of energy in the
process (van Wyk 2009, p. 17).

Just as South Africa’s economy has evolved, so have humans’ need for comfort. It
has been proven by multiple studies that people are more content and, therefore,
more productive when they are in a comfortable and stress-free environment (Paul &
Taylor 2007, p. 1858; John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p. 324).

5
Occupants of buildings are more frequently demanding healthier and more
stimulating work environments (Gratia & De Herde 2003, p. 399; Menzies & Wherrett
2005, p. 623).

Changes in the environment are impacting on the building society in a tremendous

manner which has extended to encouraging alternatives to the traditional building
design. The questions of sustainability have begun to impact the lives of individuals,
corporations and the broader society on a daily basis, which is giving rise to
increased opportunities for responsible and holistic thinking by the construction
industry (John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, pp. 321 & 324). R Jansen
(2013, 3 October), in a personal conversation, expressed the view that universities
are incorporating passive building strategies into their building-related courses and
the country as a whole is moving towards green and passive construction. There has
also been an increase in the availability of green products on the market and South
Africans are becoming more aware of the concept of green living (Leskovarv &
Premrov 2011, p. 3410).

It is thus important that designers, first and foremost, satisfy the demands of the
building users, whilst considering the effects that this will have on the environment as
a whole (Holm 1996a, p. 1). The concept of passive building design has been around
for many years, and although there is documented evidence that supports the
concept, there are still only a few dedicated practitioners who have adopted it
(Peterkin 2009, p. 440). The correct application of passive principles has proven to
be an effective way of significantly reducing the energy consumption of a building
(Holm 1996a, p. 1), but the question remains whether or not passive design is being
applied in Gauteng for achieving optimal levels of human comfort in office buildings,
and reducing the energy consumption?

This study will seek to provide guidance to designers as to the manner in which the
application of passive design strategies in commercial buildings will enhance human
comfort in an energy-efficient manner.

6
Chapter 2: Literature Study

2.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to conduct a literature study on the information

surrounding the concept of passive design and how it may be applied to Gauteng.
The literature study will investigate the history of architecture, construction and
electricity in South Africa as well as the need for the country to reduce its energy
consumption. Human comfort and the concept of passive design will then be
explored, followed by international perspectives on passive design, the climatic
conditions of Gauteng, reasons for South Africa’s limited application of passive
design, and the design and construction of passive buildings. The chapter will
conclude with the motivating factors towards passive design.

Once the climatic conditions of Gauteng have been established, passive design
principles and strategies relevant to those climates may be identified. This
information will form a basis for the development of an evaluation framework which
will indicate the areas of application of passive strategies in the various designs of
the buildings being investigated.

2.2 A brief history of architecture and construction in Gauteng

In an attempt to shield themselves from harsh temperatures, primeval man first

clothed themselves to maintain their body heat as this could only move within a
narrow temperature range (Chalkey & Cater 1968, p. 13). They then began devising
and building structures to protect themselves against the surrounding environment
(de Villiers 2010, p. 211). The concept of environment consists of the resultant effect
of a combination of various factors that interact with a structure or building. These
factors (temperature, moisture, solar radiation and foreign matter) react with varying
components of a structure both externally as well as internally (John, Clements-
Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p. 324). The more comfortable internal conditions of
structures, created by adapting and enclosing natural formations, such as trees,
animal burrows and caves, varied significantly from the harsher external environment
(Chalkey & Cater 1968, p. 13). However, in South Africa it would be incorrect to think

7
that the builders of historic rural buildings were mere passive agents who only
reacted to their physical setting in a pragmatic and makeshift manner. It is clear to
see from the quality of the habitats that the builders were active manipulators of their
environments (Fisher, Le Roux & Maré 1998, pp. 2-39).

As nomadic groups began to settle around South Africa, traditional buildings were
established. Advancement of these buildings was through experience, practice and
the constant exposure to the elements (de Villiers 2010, p. 211). Designers were
conscious of the climatic conditions of the area, and they designed their structures
accordingly (D Conradie 2013, pers. comm. 10 October). This appropriate
development of traditional buildings according to the surrounding environment is
known as vernacular architecture (de Villiers 2010, p. 211). Amos Rapoport sees
vernacular buildings in certain instances as virtually a precise equivalent of the
surrounding climate in which they were built (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002,
p. 21). The region now known as Gauteng was predominantly home to Sotho and
Tswana-speaking farmers. The traditional hut dwellings were constructed in the form
of a cone-on-cylinder (Malan & McInerney 2001, p. 18), and often encircled by a
veranda (Fisher, Le Roux & Maré 1998, p. 3). In the early 1800s the Voortrekkers
moved away from their traditional vernacular type house and adopted the
indigenous-styled hut, commonly built by the Tswana people. Note that the term ‘hut’
is historically unclear as to whether the structure is a temporary or permanent one.
The walls of these huts were typically constructed from wattle-and-daub with a thatch
roof (Holm 1996b, p.301). Later on, stones and bricks were also utilised as walling
material. These modest huts became known as ‘rondavels’, and were popular as
both temporary and permanent dwellings, often serving as simple homes (Fisher, Le
Roux & Maré 1998, pp. 2-39). Over time, the ‘stoep’ formed an integral part of
Transvaal vernacular architecture. It originates from the Netherlands where it was
defined as any platform structure above street level. The stoep developed over time
from a simple patio in front of a house, into a covered porch. This also became
known in South Africa as a veranda, which later extended to the sides and back of a
house thus giving rise to the term veranda house (Fisher, Le Roux & Maré 1998, p.
42). Simplicity, relevance to the surroundings, comfort and attractiveness are
qualities of South African vernacular architecture that have gained the appreciation
and respect of modern architects (de Villiers 2010, p. 211) because a natural
8
harmony between climate, architecture and people was attained through minimal
effort and environmental impact (John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p.
325).

Technologies such as, deep balcony overhangs; shading devices over windows and
openings with external louvered screens; and shading through the use of terraces
have been used for the natural cooling of buildings in hot areas in countries, such as
Iran, for well over 100 years. In Kerala, India, traditional architecture controls the
effects of conduction, convection and radiation of heat towards the interior by the use
of, among others, highly effective insulation, double skin walls and large external
verandas (Dili, Naseer & Varfhese 2010, p. 661). Such technologies have since been
confirmed by researchers and coined the name ‘passive cooling’. This technology is
indicative of the fact that passive design developed as an intuitive human response
to adverse climatic conditions rather than a development based on scientific
research and analysis (Hatamipour & Abedi 2008, p. 2318). An example of this in
South Africa would be the Karoo houses which have large verandas. Traditional
architecture was commonplace in South Africa until the 1900s. The qualities
attributed to traditional architecture are summarised as: simple design requirements;
slowly refined design standards passed down through the generations; and low
environmental impact construction (Jordaan 2011, p. 272).

Naturally grown towns (as opposed to artificially planned communities) have

developed in sheltered areas because of several factors, such as topography, wind
and rainfall. This excludes towns whose location was dependant on a water source
or a strategic military position. In these old towns the weather was an important
consideration and the streets ran so as to break the force of the wind (Chalkey &
Cater 1968, p. 40). The sites of new towns are based mainly on political and social
reasons. Exposure to the elements and weather conditions are minor factors that
must be overcome in the sustainable design of the buildings to be erected in these
locations. Pretoria was defined by the surrounding mountain ranges and water
courses. Individual buildings were subservient to the general urban plan, which was
again subservient to the interpretation of the landscape. The church was the
symbolic, functional and visual centre of the town with emphasis being put on
religion and Government (Fisher, Le Roux & Maré 1998, pp. 67-71). In contrast,
9
Johannesburg, the most populated city in Gauteng, and the economic hub of South
Africa is one of few cities in the world not built along a major watercourse (Bohensky
et al. 2004, p. 96). The reason for this was that Johannesburg was delineated in
accordance with the discovery of gold and diamonds which brought about mining
camps and temporary settlements. The layout of Johannesburg was prepared by a
state-registered surveyor, and it is believed that rather than being orientated towards
the solar co-ordinates, it was orientated towards the capital, Pretoria (Fisher, Le
Roux & Maré 1998, pp. 67-71). Industrial architecture was the design approach
followed as technology became more sophisticated. This approach was followed
from the 1900s until the 1960s. The qualities attributed to industrial architecture are
summarised as: wasteful design and a constant need for energy input as a result of
cheap energy; building envelopes became unable to effectively adapt the internal
environmental conditions in a passive way; and the buildings and occupants became
removed from the natural world rather than a part of it (Jordaan 2011, p. 272).

Regionalist architecture, as discussed by Fisher, Le Roux & Maré (1998, p. 123),

started in the 1940s, and may be described as the culmination of several factors
such as, climate, materials, site, defence, economics, cultural expression and
religion that are specific to a certain area, and are translated into the architecture.
Any change in one or more of these factors would lead to a different building style.
The Third Vernacular, a term used to explain Pretoria’s regional architecture, exhibits
a specific response to nature and landscape through the economic use of natural
and industrial materials with a practical response to climate. This came about partly
because people began to realise that the popular European style buildings were not
suited to the harsh Transvaal conditions (Fisher, Le Roux & Maré 1998, pp. 123-
124).

In 1971, Thomas Maver observed that over the centuries the most noticeable trends
of architecture included the fact that engineering service systems were replacing the
functions of the building form in terms of indoor comfort and that it was unlikely that
this trend would ever be reversed because all the available evidence indicated that
there would be a demand for more control over the internal conditions in the future
(Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002, p. 4).

10
Conradie (2012, p. 193), during a recent photographic outing through Gauteng
confirmed Maver’s observation. It was suggested that local architects are conscious
that the building form and external devices play a role in providing solar shielding,
but in numerous instances they did not pay adequate attention to the design to use
the building form or external devices appropriately. It is said that architects’
obsession with over-glazing is a fundamental design blunder which has been
informed more by fashion than by logic. This could be the cause of overheating in
summer months, undercooling in winter months and a reliance on unwanted air-
conditioning for comfort. Various studies and publications on the topic of energy-
efficiency have made it clear that subject to the specific climatic region, designers
have the opportunity to utilise thermal mass, insulation, ventilation and solar
penetration much more effectively (Conradie 2012, p. 193; 2011, p. 159).

In most countries, modern designers and builders have lost touch with the local
environment and no longer regard local climatic conditions in their designs. This is
despite their awareness of the important influence of weather which affects the
design and construction process as well as the indoor climatic conditions of the
finished building (Rabah 2005, p. 939). Victor Olgyay argued that rather than using
mechanical systems as the principal controller of the indoor environment, the
building structure itself should be used to its utmost, and engineering services would
then be most effective for the final ‘fine tuning’ (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers
2002, p. 5). Ochoa and Capeluto (2007, p. 1829) agree by stating that an energy-
efficient building cannot just be the application of several smart active features, but
needs to be the culmination of a design that incorporates passive intelligence at all
stages of development while taking advantage of technological innovations to make
final adjustments to a building’s thermal performance. The trend nowadays is thus
one of post-industrial, or sustainable architecture (Ochoa and Capeluto 2007, p.
1829). This trend started during the 1960s and is becoming more widely accepted as
the responsible type of architecture. Old technologies are being refined and hybrid
systems are being developed with the aim to balance natural processes and active
systems (Jordaan 2011, p. 273-274).

11
2.3 A brief history of electricity in South Africa

During the industrial development of South Africa, a large part of the population
flocked to mining cities which led to copious amounts of thermally inefficient make-
shift dwellings being constructed from easily transportable and readily available
industrial materials such as sheet metal and plastics (Holm 1996b, p. 301). The
mines as well as their surrounding communities required electricity to operate; hence
the Electricity Supply Commission (Eskom) was established.

In 1923 Eskom was founded according to the 1922 Electricity Act. It was a relatively
autonomous entity, meaning it was not subject to any form of parliamentary
oversight, financial controls or state auditing. Eskom would produce electricity for
neither a profit nor a loss, which meant that the generation and distribution
infrastructure would have to be created at the lowest possible cost. This was done
either through constructing new power stations or the acquisition of existing stations
to facilitate the supply of electricity which would be both ‘cheap and abundant’. From
its establishment, Eskom aligned its objectives with the high energy demands of the
mining companies. It has now become clear that the decisions taken by the Utilities
Board of Directors in the pursuit of an ‘abundant supply’ of electricity has had far-
reaching economic consequences. The historical economic development of South
Africa has been based almost entirely on coal. This was a very capital and energy-
intensive development, but was nonetheless driven onward by the Minerals and
Energy Complex. Eskom, the state owned electricity supplier, has become the
cornerstone of the Complex which consists of mining, mineral processing, the energy
sector and linked industries. Its primary focus is on providing energy to the mining
industry, while its secondary focus is on the limited beneficiation of public electricity
supply, and provides some of the cheapest electricity in the world (Inglesi 2010, pp.
197-198).

South Africa is considered to be the most industrialised country on the African

continent. In 2001, the policy of Free Basic Electricity (FBE) was introduced by
Eskom. It was introduced because the Government argued that the average poor
household used about 50kWh of electricity per month, and hence that amount would
be offered free of charge. It was difficult to determine who the baseline of poor

12
households were and who would qualify for the subsidy, so the subsidy became
available to all consumers regardless of their income level. During 2007, Eskom
began to experience a lack of capacity in the generation of electricity. As a result, in
2008, blackouts became a common occurrence which led to billions of Rands being
lost from the economy. It has been argued that the lack of research on electricity and
energy usage in general in South Africa were contributing factors which led to the
predicament Eskom found itself in. Eskom has argued that the only solution to the
energy crisis is to build more power stations. Construction of two large coal power
stations, Kusile and Medupi, has since commenced (Inglesi 2010, pp. 197-198).

South Africa’s industry and mining sectors consume almost 75% of the electricity
produced in the country, while residential consumers only account for between 16-
18%. This is due to the South African economy being extremely energy intensive in
comparison to other countries, as well as the South African industrial energy-
efficiency being significantly lower than that of other countries, resulting in South
Africa’s residents consuming a much lower proportion of the final energy demand
than in other countries (Greenpeace 2012, pp. 5 & 6). South Africa was said to have
some of the cheapest electricity tariffs in the world (Holm 1996b, p. 301), but those
tariffs are separated into prices paid by industry and those paid by residential
consumers. Low income residential prices have been estimated to be as much as
350% higher than some mining company’s prices during 2008/2009 (Greenpeace
2012, pp. 5 & 6). As illustrated by graph 1 and graph 2, the cost of electricity in South
Africa has escalated rapidly since 2008 as NERSA permitted yearly rate increases of
over 20%. The price of electricity is said to continue rising by 8% per year for the
next five years, until 2017. This has been decided in order for more coal power
stations to be built (Botes, 2012).

13
Graph 1: Annual percentage rise in Eskom electricity rates, 2001-2012 (Botes, 2012).

Graph 2: Typical yearly selling price of Eskom electricity, 2001-2012 (Wits Business School
[WBS] 2013).

Previous South African Governments did not accurately estimate the future energy
requirements of the country and ignored renewable energy options (Holm 2009a, p.
64). During 2008, Government funding for research and development of renewable
power was modest. For every one Rand spent on renewable energy research, one
thousand Rand was invested in the development of nuclear power plants such as the
Pebble Bed Modular Reactor. Sebitosi & Pillay (2008a, p. 2514) argue that there is
evidence over the past 20 years which shows that Eskom has put great effort into
spreading negative attitudes to the public about renewable energy, especially the
use of wind. Eskom claims that wind is unpredictable and coal is stable and

14
predictable; thus, the idea of exclusively using coal as a reliable source of energy,
and the fact that energy is cheap has been ingrained in South Africans over the past
20 years (Sebitosi & Pillay 2008a, p. 2514). In developed and emerging economies,
renewable energy resources are recording multiple digit growth. It has become a
universally accepted norm that the successful propagation of concepts such as
energy-saving, energy-efficient (passive) design and renewable energy requires
Government support, in the form of policies (Haas et al. 2004, p. 833; Holm 2009a,
p. 65) which South Africa, up to 2008, did not have (Sebitosi & Pillay 2008b, p.
3313). The public opinion in terms of energy production as well as energy saving
may be largely attributed to the South African Government continuing to plan its
future on a discredited and outdated model (Sebitosi & Pillay 2008a, pp. 2514-2515;
Holm 2009a, p. 65).

South Africans have for many years benefitted from the cheap electricity supplied by
Eskom (Ochoa & Capeluto 2007, p. 1830). The perception of the South African
public has been that the coal reserves and the subsequent cheap electricity would
be everlasting. In addition, the country has been detached from global issues which
have contributed to the short-sighted mind-set of building as cheaply as possible and
ignoring the future consequences of such practices (Holm 1996b, p. 302). This has
led to active means of achieving thermal comfort, which have always been identified
with high-energy-consuming air-conditioning. In other countries with comparable
climates the primary way of achieving thermal comfort, according to the mainstream
in energy-conscious design, was to employ passive design techniques (Ochoa &
Capeluto 2007, p. 1830).

2.4 The need to reduce South Africa’s energy consumption

Energy is one of the most important resources used in buildings over their lifetime
and thus has become a central issue for developers. In recent years, there has been
increased interest in the amount of energy used by a building over its lifetime. This
lifetime is divided into five phases, namely: production, erection, operation,
maintenance and demolition. It has been found by numerous studies that operational
energy consumption accounts for the largest energy usage of buildings over their
lifetime (Thornmark 2001, p. 429). Offices, the largest consumer of energy under

15
retail buildings, typically account for 18% of the total energy usage in the commercial
sector (offices, retail, hotels, restaurants, schools, hospitals, leisure buildings). Of
offices’ total energy consumption, HVAC systems account for nearly 50%, lighting
22%, and appliances 14% (Lombard et al. 2008 p. 397-398). In temperate climates
such as Gauteng the operational energy of a typical building used for heating and
cooling will depend on the local temperature variations, design and occupational
patterns (Osburn 2009a, p. 161).

Buildings are built to last many years and the important decisions regarding the
sustainability of a building taken during the design phase will have a lasting effect on
energy consumption (Morrissey, Moore & Horne 2010, pp. 568-569). Buildings which
have been designed from the start to take advantage of passive solar techniques will
neither cost more, nor use more energy to construct than conventional buildings, but
they will have lower operational energy requirements (Holm & Viljoen 1996, p. 3).
Although the decisions made in the early design stage can increase design time and
cost, passive principles may potentially reduce the energy requirements of buildings
by up to 20% (Morrissey, Moore & Horne 2010, pp. 568-569).

Osburn (2011, p.100) believes that the energy-efficiency of a building should not be
described by how much energy the building uses during the year per unit area, but
instead it should be described in terms of the services it delivers per unit of energy
utilised, such as man-hours of work per unit of energy for an office building. The
‘energy crisis’ of the 1970s first brought to light the issue of building energy
demands, however, the relationship between buildings and environmental pollution
has only been recognised in recent years. This led to developed countries changing
their building regulations and standards so as to improve the thermal insulation and
plant efficiency of new buildings. Progressive improvements in the building industry
of England have resulted in buildings in the 1990s using half the energy of the
equivalent building in 1974. Through more advanced designs and materials, a further
halving of this number is possible (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002, pp. 2-3).

South Africa still uses large amounts of non-renewable fossil fuels for the purposes
of heating, cooling and ventilation of buildings, as well as supplying them with power.
This ultimately results in the release of harmful emissions due to the conversion
16
processes. During 2007, South Africa was ranked by the United States Department
of Energy as the seventh largest producer of GHGs per capita, and this is set to
increase after the completion of additional coal power stations (Sebitosi & Pillay
2008a, p. 2514; Sebitosi & Pillay 2008b, p. 3314). As illustrated by Table 1, the
Department of Agriculture and Rural Development’s (2012, p. 8) ‘Gauteng Climate
Change Response Strategy and Action Plan’ have set out minimum targets aimed at
increasing energy-efficiency and renewable energy consumption, while reducing
CO2 emissions. The Department has set dates for the achievement of said targets to
the years 2014, 2025, and 2055.

Action 2014 2025 2055

Commercial energy-efficiency (Electricity) 13% 25% -
Government energy-efficiency (Electricity) 13% 25% -
Renewable energy consumption (Electricity only) 7% 16% 47%
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions reduction (against business 13% 27% 49%
as usual scenario)
Table 1: Interim Gauteng Minimum Targets (Department of Agriculture and Rural
Development 2012, p. 8).

There is a growing need for the consideration of renewable energy to be made

paramount in creating a sustainable built environment (Sebitosi & Pillay 2008b, p.
3315). In order to increase the use of energy-efficient design, changes need to be
made in several areas, including, professional training, financing models, standard
specifications and laws (Eleri 1996, p.122). It is argued that buildings ought to
always be built in a manner which will utilise the least amount of energy. Designers
should adopt passive design principles at the design concept stage and only resort
to ‘energy-efficient’ systems when problems such as a lack of winter sun are faced
(Peterkin 2009, p. 443). It may then be argued that more time spent designing a
building which inherently requires less energy to operate is more sustainable than a
building which adopts energy saving devices to make up for poor design.

2.5 Human Comfort

The term ‘Indoor Environmental Health’ is an across-the-board term which includes

the influences of quantity of air, illumination and noise levels, and the physiological,
physical and psychological characteristics of colours, aesthetics, services, external

17
climatic conditions and relationships between occupants of a building (Parsons 2010,
p. 320). Rabah (2005, p. 937) defines comfort as ‘the sensation of complete physical
and mental well-being of a person in the built environment’, hence one of the
designer’s main tasks is to create an environment within a building that is
appropriate for all of the human activities which are likely to take place there. It is
important to note that human beings are all different and therefore experience and
tolerate sensations such as heat and cold differently due to, health, age and
metabolic rate (Chalkey & Cater 1968, p. 14). More recent research has found that
additional factors such as upbringing, conditioning, personal preference, and an
individual’s perception of their location and the seasons, will also influence a
person’s comfort level (Bothma 2010, p. 58).

2.5.1 Factors contributing to human comfort

Two elementary factors to be considered in providing for human comfort inside a
building are the external climate (heat gain or loss due to the effects of wind, rain,
solar gain, etc.) and the internal thermal environment (air temperature, moisture
content and air movement) (Chalkey & Cater 1968, p. 14). The body of a human
being is designed to be a self-regulating system which prefers to relate harmoniously
to the surrounding environment. Therefore, a person’s biological, emotional and
physical characteristics come into play and it is important to consider the response of
a person’s physiological make-up in relation to the environmental conditions they are
being exposed to (Rabah 2005, p. 938).

Chalkey & Cater (1968, p. 15) describe the sensations humans experience in terms
of their surrounding environment as follows:

‘Feeling cold’ is due to the body being unable to produce or distribute replacement
energy more rapidly than the body is giving it up to the atmosphere. The body’s
reaction to feeling cold is to: contract the blood vessels beneath the skin to retard the
flow of blood to the extremities and keep it closer to the core to reduce the rate of
heat loss; the spasmodic simulation of the muscles to increase the rate of heat
production; and erect the hairs on the skin so as to trap air and reduce heat loss
through air movement.

18
‘Feeling hot’ is the opposite of feeling cold. Heat is gained by the body from its
surroundings to a level higher than that of normal. The body reacts to this condition
by expanding the blood vessels near the skin to increase the dissipation of heat and
by the release of perspiration which through evaporation will cause the skin
temperature to drop.

‘Stuffiness’ is a condition experienced by humans which is caused by a low oxygen

content and little movement of air. This condition is not dependent on temperature as
much as on atmospheric conditions, but the condition is aggravated by an increase
in the surrounding temperature. The effect of this is lassitude, which is a slowing
down of a person’s reactions due to the low availability of oxygen.

‘Dryness’ is the feeling of irritation which is caused by low levels of moisture in the air
which increases the rate of moisture loss of the body and respiratory system.
Because of the rapid evaporation of perspiration, the skin temperature tends to rise
and often the best relief is the intake of fluids to replace the loss.

‘Dampness’ may cause discomfort in two ways. Firstly, when the surrounding air is
saturated and warm, a person’s perspiration fails to evaporate and body temperature
will increase while the skin remains wet. Secondly, when the surrounding air is cold
and damp the moisture will draw heat away from the body twenty five times faster
than dry air, thus rapidly cooling the body. This effect is dramatically increased by
the flow of air over the skin.

The external factors which influence the sensation of comfort experienced by

humans (air temperature, radiant temperature, humidity and air movement) as well
as the local climatic characteristics, and the function of the space and its location
within a building must all be considered at an early stage of design. The level of
comfort required and the quality and number of services required will depend on the
intended use of the building (Lombard et al. 2008 p. 397), for example, a church,
classroom and factory will all have differing comfort requirements and therefore will
each be designed and constructed differently to achieve the different thermal
characteristics, thus resulting in differing energy consumptions (Chalkey & Cater
19
1968, pp. 51-52; Holm & Viljoen 1996, p. 2). In practice, thermal discomfort within a
building may be caused by irregular radiant temperatures, excessively steep
temperature variations, low floor temperatures and draughts (Linden et al. 2001, p.
738). Although, work done by Michael Humphrey at the Building Research
Establishment in England verified the ‘common-sense’ perception, this perception
being that people who live in hot regions are comfortable at higher temperatures
than people in cooler areas (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002, p. 31).

2.5.2 Measuring human comfort

The quality of human life is affected by buildings more so than what we may realise
(John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p. 321). In recent years, there has
been an increased demand for higher quality office buildings which create a healthy
and stimulating work environment. Studies performed by Michael Humphrey
revealed that where occupants are able to implement measures so that they are of
the opinion that their comfort is being improved, they are willing to endure what may
objectively be regarded as poorer conditions (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002,
p. 31); for instance, occupants of a sealed room with an air-conditioner may desire
the temperature to be at approximately 23°C, whilst if occupying a naturally
ventilated building, they may tolerate temperatures of up to 27°C (Graita & De Herde
2004, p. 399). There is also evidence that suggests that levels of comfort and
satisfaction are directly linked to access to windows (Menzies & Wherrett 2005, p.
624), and features that allow for individual control over temperature and ventilation
(Paul & Taylor 2007, p. 1860; Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002, p. 32). This is
due to the fact that people in air-conditioned buildings become more demanding for
various reasons, of which one is that they are unable to influence the indoor climate,
whereas people in naturally ventilated buildings are able tolerate less favourable
conditions because they feel that they have the option to influence the indoor
temperature (Linden et al. 2001, p. 738). Similarly, if a building is orientated
northwards for the view, the placing of fixed blinds which obstruct the view will be in
direct conflict to the original goal of orientating the building northwards, whereas if
the occupants are able to adjust the blinds to better their view, they may be more
accepting of a partially obstructed view (Ochoa & Capeluto 2007, p. 1838).

20
The method of predicted mean vote (PMV) is used to assess an individual’s comfort
range within a building. On a scale of -5 to +5, where -5 is unacceptably cold, zero
being equal to the neutral PMV, and +5 being unacceptably hot. The ‘good’ general
thermal comfort range will lie between -0.5 and +0.5. A person is considered to be
dissatisfied of they give a score of -2 and below, or +2 and above to the PMV. Where
the PMV=0 (neutral), 5% of people will find it too hot or too cold, 40% will find it to be
slightly warm or cool, and only 55% of people will vote in accordance with the actual
zero PMV. This variation in votes is attributable to physiological differences between
individuals, which leads them to experience their environment in different ways
(Linden et al. 2001, p. 738).

Several studies have shown that the overall quantity of occupant complaints reduces
with an increase in the amount of fresh air ventilated through the building, and
increases with a reduction in the amount of fresh air ventilated throughout the
building (Parsons 2010, p. 321). Osburn (2009a, p. 162) agrees that the advantages
associated with having high levels of fresh air entering the building should not be
underrated, and while they are challenging to quantify, the advantages may include
increased productivity, reduced absenteeism, improved wellbeing, and employee
retention.

A study of 29 air-conditioned buildings and 32 buildings with personal temperature

control, of which 21 were naturally ventilated and 11 were mechanically ventilated,
revealed the relation between predicted mean vote (PMV) and predicted percentage
of dissatisfied (PPD) people (Linden et al. 2001, p. 742). Figure 1, below shows this
relationship. The figure indicates that people in buildings which have openable
windows and natural or mechanical non-cooled ventilation are more satisfied than
people in air-conditioned buildings. However, the people in non-air-conditioned
buildings experience the internal environment to be warmer than those in air-
conditioned buildings.

21
 Natural ventilation Natural
ventilation
Mechanical ventilation (21 buildings)
Air-conditioning

Air-
conditioning
(29 buildings)

Mechanical
PMV
ventilation
(11 buildings)

Figure 1: Relationship between PMV and PPD (Linden et al. 2001, p. 742).

2.5.3 Human comfort and productivity levels

The internal environment of a building is important if its occupants (whether they are
living or working in the building) are to experience a sense of wellbeing and peak
productivity throughout the building’s useful life (Paul & Taylor 2007, p. 1858; John,
Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p. 324). People spend a great deal of their
lifetimes within buildings. If a building is not a healthy place to be, building-sickness
and ailments associated with poor indoor air quality can result in millions of dollars of
lost productivity (Parsons 2010, p. 320). Several studies have found that the effects
of sick building syndrome such as eye, nose and throat irritations were higher in air-
conditioned buildings than in naturally ventilated buildings. It has been found that
mechanically ventilated buildings did not give rise to as many sick building syndrome
cases as air-conditioned buildings (Clements-Croome 1997, p. 62). According to
(Gratia & De Herde 2003, p. 399; Menzies & Wherrett 2005, p. 623) there is an
increasing demand from occupants and developers of office buildings for the
buildings to be of a higher quality to encourage a healthy and stimulating work
environment.

22
2.6 Active and passive strategies for reducing energy consumption

The trend in today’s society is to design and construct buildings which are
environmentally friendly, comfortable and energy-efficient (PHIUS, 2011; Ochoa and
Capeluto 2007, p. 1829). There are a number of ways to manage the energy usage
of a building. Three broad groups of strategies may be applied to buildings in order
to save electricity. Although they overlap in some ways they may be separated and
identified as Active Strategies, Demand Management Strategies and Passive Design
Strategies. The difference between active and passive design strategies is discussed
below.

‘Active’ features of a building refer to intelligent technological devices installed to

bring a building to ‘zero’ energy. Examples of active technologies will include:
improved HVAC systems; heat pumps; air or ground water heat sources; solar
heaters; solar photovoltaic panels and low-energy electrical lighting (PHIUS, 2011;
Ochoa and Capeluto 2007, p. 1829).

On the other hand, a ‘passive’ building is a comprehensive system that takes

advantage of free natural energy like sunshine during the day and the coolness of
evenings to bring a building to “zero” energy (PHIUS, 2011; Ochoa and Capeluto
2007, p. 1829). According to Holm & Viljoen (1996, p. 8), ‘Passive solar design
means achieving indoor comfort by designing with nature, using sunshine, wind and
night cooling together with the building materials. Energy flows naturally while the
building responds passively, needing a minimum of imported energy’. Rabah (2005,
p. 938) defines passive solar building design as ‘the utilization of the sun’s energy
together with the characteristics of the local climate and selected building materials
to directly maintain thermally comfortable conditions within a built-environment’.
Ochoa & Capluto (2008, p. 1829) define passive design as one in which the designer
has utilised design strategies whilst developing a building that has given due regard
for climatic requirements and aims to ensure that the building is designed in such a
manner so as to adequately respond to these requirements, whilst providing a high
level of living quality with a minimum effect on the environment (Ralegaonkar &
Gupta 2010, p. 2240). In most climates the active control requirements will be
reduced by the utilization of passive design principles. This design will make

23
provisions for thermal comfort and, assuming that there are equal occupational
requirements, provide for a net reduction in energy (Haase & Amato 2009, p. 389).

The use of appropriate orientation, which includes the passive use of solar energy,
as well as the use of materials which require the least amount of energy to
manufacture, contribute to a lessened use of energy in respect of new buildings
(Hermannsdörfer & Rüb 2005, p. 7). In South Africa, the cooling load is the greatest,
so the decrease of this load should be a primary concern when considering an
energy-efficient building (Osburn 2009a, p. 161). The use of passive principles such
as improvements to building envelope design; increased insulation; natural
ventilation; shading; and better performing windows contribute to achieving a highly
energy-efficient building. A renewed interest in the passive design of buildings as a
viable solution to the energy crisis as well as pollution has become evident in recent
years because of its environmentally friendly characteristics (Sadineni, Madala &
Boehm 2011, p. 3619).

According to Holm (1996b, p. 301) the higher altitudes of South Africa produce the
ideal climate for passive design because there are significant temperature variations
across a satisfactory comfort range. During winter the days are sunny and nights are
substantially colder. The resulting design of these conditions was to build relatively
small, north facing windows with massive interior walls, and good exterior insulation,
of which ceiling insulation in the most important. This has traditionally been the
responsive architecture of South African designers (Holm 1996b, p. 301). Designers
of passive and sustainable buildings require a superior interpretation of the natural
and built environments than designers of conventional buildings. As a result of this,
more designers are developing their knowledge on the broader environmental
impacts which affect the construction industry (van Wyk 2009, p. 17).

2.6.1 Biomimetic principles to aid passive strategies

Biomimetics is defined as the replication of the forms, systems and elements of
nature in order to solve complicated human challenges. Architects are attracted to
the concept of biomimetics because it nurtures the vision of closer integration of form
and purpose. In relation to the aforementioned, biomimetics is viewed as a form of

24
modernism. It has the likely potential to give rise to better ways in which buildings
respond to and interact with their users (John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis
2005, p. 320).

Designers have adopted the concept of biomimetics in the orientation and ventilation
of buildings. They have employed designs that exist in nature in the form of the
Australian Compass Termites’ castles. The long axes of these castles always point
north-south and the chisel shape of the structure exposes the minimum possible
area to the midday heat but takes advantage of the sun in the early mornings and
late evenings when heat is most needed. This orientation can decrease the peak
temperature within the castle by up to 7°C. Another example of designers adopting
biomimetics is the stack driven ventilation systems of termites. The termite mounds
incorporate ridges on the exterior walls with narrow gaps which supply fresh air
through a system of ducts to a central cell. Hot air created by the process of
fermentation rises through the central cell and is replaced by streams of air from the
ridges. The ridges of the exterior and interior walls of the mound are porous and act
as lungs, allowing for an outward flow of carbon dioxide whilst simultaneously
allowing oxygen to permeate inwards (John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005,
pp. 324-325).

Victor Olgyay was of the opinion that the most important lesson to be learned is that
architecture is at its finest when it is performing alongside and not in opposition to
nature (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002, p. 6). Biomimetic design will be more
subtle and more satisfying to the users of the building than mechanical systems
presently employed. George Jeronimidis, from the University of Reading, is of the
opinion that architects are drawn to the field of biomimetics at a deeper level and that
there is a biological urge rather than a romantic one to build in closer sympathy with
nature. He states that the reason for this is ‘that we are all part of the same biology’.
Edward O. Wilson, in 1984, first defined this urge to associate with other forms of life
as biophilia. Stephen R. Kellert and Edward O. Wilson have since developed the
theory in several areas including evolutionary psychology and common human
responses to perceptions of plants and animals (John, Clements-Croome &
Jeronimidis 2005, p. 320). Supporters of sustainable design have also argued that
eco-friendly design strategies enrich the occupant’s experience of a building through
25
day lighting levels and a more intimate connection with the environment (Menzies &
Wherrett 2005, p. 623).

2.7 Passive design in the international context

2.7.1 Evolution of international energy-efficiency standards

As of 2011, the World Green Building Council (WGBC) had 82 member nations
worldwide that have adopted green building initiatives to some extent (Sadineni,
Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3618). This number has increased to 97 in 2013 (World
Green Building Council [WGBC] 2013). This increase may be attributed to
Governments and communities globally recognising both the necessity for and
potential benefit that could be achieved by utilising energy-efficiency in buildings.
These Governments and communities have consequently initiated significant efforts
in this regard (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3618). In America, the Centre for
Maximum Potential Building Systems (CMPBS) was established by Pliny Fisk in
1975 with the aim to conduct research so as to educate and demonstrate
sustainable design to the public (Centre for Maximum Potential Building Systems
[CMPBS] 2013). The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is an
internationally recognised green building certification system and has similarly found
energy-efficiency to play a primary role in green buildings (Sadineni, Madala &
Boehm 2011, p. 3618).

In Australia, the main driver for increased thermal performance has been the
implementation of legislation, similar to SANS 204, relating to energy-efficiency. This
has been difficult to implement in Australia as well as in Norway and the UK. There
were controversies surrounding whether the standards have been set too high or too
low; what the economic costs and effect will be; and whether the tools and
institutional arrangements are appropriate. One study has since found that the
relative stringency in the Australian standards was low. Nonetheless, many
designers and builders view the regulations as being an added inconvenience which
raises costs (Morrissey, Moore & Horne 2010, pp. 568-569).

One approach which has become popular is that of Ken Yeang, who is a forerunner
in the realm of ‘urban ecosystems’ which is a holistic design solution that

26
incorporates pedestrian flows, plant growth and the equilibrium of energy, water and
waste. His designs are aimed at creating a sustainable ecological future. There are
two recurring themes in Yeang’s work which may be reduced to two points, namely
wind and solar orientation also known as ‘compass projects’ and ‘sun-path projects’,
respectively. The design of the ‘compass projects’ takes account of the prevalent
wind direction as well as wind-wing walls, aerodynamic surfaces and roof level ‘sky
courts’ to ensure that the ventilation is as effective as possible. The ‘sun-path’
buildings also use natural ventilation wherever possible; however, the overall design
is dictated by the sun (John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p. 325).

2.7.2 International examples of passive design strategies

In 2002, the American city of Seattle began an extensive reworking of the southwest
entrance of the Key Tower. A new entrance vestibule, which was enclosed in glass
and bathed in sunlight, was designed to be naturally ventilated. The vestibule makes
use of concrete as thermal mass to store cold during summer and heat during winter.
In summer, because the concrete is cooler than the ambient outside temperature, air
that flows through the concrete chamber under the vestibule will cool down before it
enters the vestibule. Heated air inside the vestibule will naturally rise and exit
through louver vents located near the roof. During winter the system is reversed.
The thermal mass of the concrete heats the cold incoming air, this heated air is then
trapped by the closing of the louvers; throughout the day added warmth is provided
by solar gain. This project was made successful with the help of computer modelling
which determined the required thermal mass, natural ventilation and passive solar
principles to achieve passive solar design efficiency (John, Clements-Croome &
Jeronimidis 2005, p. 325).

The Bishopsgate Towers located in London, England, were designed by Ken Yeang.
They are characterised by the amount of greenery and partly open glazed façades.
The building itself is a variegated programme meaning that it houses apartments,
sport facilities, a hotel, and bars. The orientation and building form have been
specifically chosen so as to take full advantage of passive solar energy. Sunlight is
allowed to reach deeper areas of the building through large openings. The towers

27
also take advantage of the wind by channelling it through the openings and into the
building (John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p. 325).

The world’s first Passive House office building was certified in Vienna, Austria,
during July of this year. The building, which rises to a height of 80m, houses around
900 employees. Dr Wolfgang Feist, director of the Passive House Institute, stated
that the building demonstrated once again that the Passive House Standard and
sound architecture are compatible with one another. The building has been designed
and built strictly according to the climate of the region. Passive strategies employed
in the design include the drastic improvement in energy-efficiency of the façade and
building component connections, and enhanced shading devices, which have
resulted in the building’s heating and cooling requirements being only 20% of
conventional high rise buildings. This building is a prime example of how clever
design is able to facilitate high levels of comfort and energy-efficiency necessary in
such buildings (International Passive House Association 2013, p. 1-2).

2.8 Climatic characteristics specific to Gauteng

The first thing to do when designing a passive building is to determine the

surrounding climate and exact location of the proposed development. The main
considerations of the climate will always relate to temperature and solar geometry.
From the temperature data collected, the need for heating or cooling or both may be
established. This will direct the design towards collecting or rejecting solar radiation,
as well as determining the amount of insulation and thermal mass required to control
the heat flow through the building envelope. The solar geometry data will provide the
basis for the building form, fenestration design and solar shading structures
(Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002, pp. 13-14 & 123). In order for a designer to
successfully use passive design strategies in the design of an energy-efficient
building, it is imperative that the climate wherein the building will be constructed is
understood (Conradie & Kumirai 2012, p. 2).

Different design techniques may be predicated on different climates. For instance, in

colder climates, where the days are shorter, a design which will allow for the most
amount of natural light to enter the building would be most desirable, whilst the

28
contrary will be the case in warm climates, such as Gauteng, where devices such as
shades may be used (Ochoa & Capluto 2008, p. 1830). Low-energy designs,
especially the designs for natural ventilation are extremely sensitive to climatic
fluctuations. The climate of a region, according to the World Meteorological
Organisation (WMO), is the mean effect of the prevailing weather conditions over a
period of time of 30 years (Holmes & Hacker 2007, pp. 802-803). It is affected by the
latitude, terrain, altitude and adjacent bodies of water and their currents (Conradie
2012).

Modifications to the urban climate are caused by, among other factors, buildings in
close proximity to each other. At the same time, the modified urban climate affects
the buildings and the areas surrounding them. This phenomenon is known as a heat
island. Heat islands are formed by the heat discharge from buildings, pollution (Holm
& Viljoen 1996, p. 3), reduced evaporation, increased run-off, the urban heat canopy
and pollution caused by metropolitan activities (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers
2002, p. 124; De Schiller & Evans 1994, pp. 449-451). The average difference in
temperature caused by an urban heat island can be as much as 2.5°C, but is often
lower. Increased cooling demands in summer and amended heating demands and
solar heat gains in winter are the consequences of urban heat islands. The reaction
to this urban heat island in summer is inadvertently the cause of additional thermal,
gaseous and airborne pollution. Designers must be able to recommend designs and
strategies that will reduce the unfavourable microclimatic influences at the micro
scale and lessen the environmental impacts associated with global warming at a
macro scale (De Schiller & Evans 1994, pp. 449-451). It is therefore of great
importance that designers of buildings are aware of the climatic as well as the
microclimatic conditions which the proposed building will be subjected to (Hawkes,
McDonald & Steemers 2002, p. 124).

It has been conclusively shown at the University of Queensland, by using work

previously performed at the United Kingdom Building Research Establishment, that
thermal neutrality of people in their usual environment and chosen clothing
depended on the prevailing climatic conditions as well as the seasons, and is a
simple function of the mean outdoor dry bulb temperature. Another study further
differentiated between only four climate types from the point of view of building
29
design, namely: cold, temperate, warm-humid and hot-dry conditions. The concept of
‘bioclimatic design’ was introduced by Victor Olglay who defined it as ‘comfort zone’
on a bioclimatic chart. The comfort zone has also been defined by using a
psychometric chart as the basis, and then stretching out the probable extent of
external weather conditions under which passive control techniques could ensure
indoor comfort (Rabah 2005, p. 938).

Climates in South Africa are usually classified according to temperature and

precipitation. South Africa currently possesses insufficient amounts of the weather
information necessary to support calculations of building energy consumption or to
perform a predictive thermal simulation of naturally ventilated buildings. The Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) has created an updated version of the
internationally accepted Köppen-Geiger map for South Africa by using weather data
over the past 20 years in order to calculate the existing climatic regions (Conradie
2012). The data were obtained from the Agricultural Research Council and various
weather stations. Gauteng’s updated map is illustrated by figure 2-7. Information
provided from the updated Köppen-Geiger map of South Africa it is established that
Gauteng is affected by four distinct climate categories: warm temperate, dry winter
and hot summer (Cwa); Warm temperate, dry winter and warm summer (Cwb); arid,
steppe climate, hot arid (Bsh); arid, steppe climate, cold arid (Bsk). The humidity of
Gauteng is generally low, especially in the northern regions; this however increases
during certain times of the rainy season (D Conradie 2013, pers. comm. 10 October).

Figure 2: Map of Gauteng (CSIR Köppen Figure 3: All climatic categories of Gauteng
Climate Classification). (CSIR Köppen Climate Classification).

30
Figure 4: Cwa region of Gauteng (CSIR Figure 5: Cwb region of Gauteng (CSIR
Köppen Climate Classification). Köppen Climate Classification).

Figure 6: Bsh region of Gauteng (CSIR Figure 7: Bsk region of Gauteng (CSIR
Köppen Climate Classification). Köppen Climate Classification).

It is important to note that buildings are being constructed according to the current
climatic conditions. The climate is rapidly changing, and what may now be a sensible
passive strategy may not be the case in the future. Simple things like sun shading
will stay the same because it is determined by the angle of the earth in relation to the
sun. The way in which buildings are designed will have to change according to the
climate. Urban heat islands, for example, will have to be progressively dealt with (C
Du Plessis 2013, pers. comm. 11 October).

31
Atmospheric modeller, Francois Engelbrecht, has determined that South Africa is
going to experience drastic increases in temperature and reduced rainfall, over the
next 100 years as the greenhouse effect becomes more pronounced. Human
comfort and health are also expected to be impacted upon negatively by the
constantly increasing temperatures, in particular, as a result of heat waves becoming
more common (Engelbrecht & Archer van Garderen 2012). The United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) intends to control the rise in
global surface temperature, related to pre-industrial temperatures, to remain below
2°C. Southern African temperatures will increase in the region of 4°C if the global
increase averages 2°C, while an increase of 6°C would be experienced if the global
average increased to 3°C. It seems that South Africa is destined to experience
drastic climate change within the next century. Figure 8 below indicates the predicted
temperature changes from 2013 to 2100 for the continent of Africa (Engelbrecht &
Archer van Garderen 2012).

Figure 8: Temperature changes from 2013 to 2100 for the continent of Africa (Engelbrecht &
Archer van Garderen 2012).

From the available information, Conradie expects that the climate change over the
next 100 years will be considerable, and that the current built environment as well as

32
future designs will be greatly affected. The CSIR research team under the leadership
of Conradie aims to determine the future performance of a building within a certain
region by using the updated versions of the Köppen-Geiger classification. The
assumption is that climate change may be expressed in relation to changes in the
Köppen-Geiger classification for a specific region (Conradie 2012).

General Circulation Models (GCM) are used to quantify the likely effect of future
climate changes. Five GCMs were used by the CSIR research team to simulate the
effects of climatic changes expressed as Köppen-Geiger classes for South Africa
over the next 100 years (Conradie 2012).

As seen in table 2 below, Conradie is of the opinion that two or more passive
strategies such as: passive solar heating; thermal mass; exposed mass and night
purge ventilation; natural ventilation; direct evaporative cooling; and indirect
evaporative cooling may be applied to buildings in Gauteng now, and in the future.
The study showed that there is a strong connection between the anticipated building
performance and the Köppen-Geiger location. From this relationship, suitable
passive design strategies may be utilized (Conradie 2012). The designs for specific
locations may be altered for the future as the climatic patterns change (Mishra &
Ramgopal 2013, p. 95).

Table 2: Recommended passive design strategies for South Africa (Conradie 2012).

33
2.9 Reasons for South Africa’s limited application of passive design
strategies

A study conducted in 1996 revealed that around 72% of builders had never come
across an energy conscious design because there had been no building regulations
in place and builders were not interested in the end users’ energy costs (Holm
1996b, p. 302). The initial construction cost of a development, rather than the
environmental issues and lifetime operational cost of the building, has dominated the
construction industry for many years. This has resulted in many buildings in South
Africa being energy inefficient (Buildaid 2011, p. 70). The industry is now finding it
difficult to promote incentives that increase energy-efficiency because feedback from
disappointing performances of designs and structural components are soon forgotten
by contractors and designers alike, and the same mistakes are often repeated
(Menzies & Wherrett 2005, p. 624).

In the past architects in South Africa were taught about passive design at university
level, but many overlooked the concept because at that stage energy was very
cheap, which led to the architects not practicing what they were being preached. The
installation of air-conditioners was the solution to most design faults. This attitude led
to the basic principles of passive design being side-lined. Buildings became works of
art rather than functional spaces, suitable for human occupation. This is evident in
that architects used vast areas of glass in their designs because it was aesthetically
pleasing, but the negative effects of high levels of solar radiation were not
considered (D Conradie 2013, pers. comm. 10 October).

Other factors that may have influenced the slow change towards energy-efficiency
and passive building would include: lack of knowledgeable designers and
contractors; lack of information regarding current successful projects; lack of
leadership from industry professionals and clients; the lack of energy-efficient
regulations (Hutchinson 2011, pp. 11-12); and the misconception that something that
has previously been a successful solution will always be a successful solution (Holm
1996a, p. 85).

34
2.10 South Africa’s move toward becoming green

A green building council has been established in South Africa since 2007, with a
green building rating tool being released in 2008 (Van Wyk 2010, p. 1). The aim of
the Council is to ensure that buildings are designed, built and operated in an
environmentally sustainable way. This is to be achieved through education in the
form of courses; supporting government legislation, such as SANS 204; and
establishing a standard for green building in South Africa (Green Star SA).

The World Green Building Council (WorldGBC) Congress, hosted in Cape Town
during October 2013, was aimed at educating and influencing key decision-makers
in the local built environment. Local speakers as well as experts from the US,
Australia, England, Belgium and Africa delivered speeches and formulated
conversations around themes such as sustainable cities and measuring the success
of building green (alive2green 2013b). The programme was designed to promote
peer-based knowledge sharing. One example of this was the presentation of a study
conducted in Australia over the past 10 years to assess the advantages of green
building in a more mature green market. Empirical evidence gathered over this 10
year period by the Green Building Council Australia, was seen to be an ideal basis to
forecast South Africa’s future green transformation more accurately. The results
were aimed at inspiring South Africans and triggering an accelerated acceptance of
green building practices in the local sector (alive2green 2013b).

The fact that the GBCSA has been established in South Africa does not
automatically mean that South African designers are going to undertake to achieve
the standards being promoted by the council. Neither does the fact that South Africa
is playing host to the 2013 WorldGBC Congress necessarily mean that the country is
moving towards green design, as green conferences have been hosted in South
Africa since 1998. What is however a good indication of South Africa’s commitment
to becoming a green and more sustainable society is the legislative policies which
have been put in place since 2009 (C Du Plessis 2013, pers. comm. 11 October).
The most important of which are: the SANS 204 code which specifies the design
requirements for energy-efficiency in buildings and of services in buildings with
natural environmental control and artificial ventilation or HVAC systems (South

35
African National Standard [SANS 204] 2011, p. 3), the SANS 10400-XA code which
provides deemed-to-satisfy requirements for compliance with part XA of the National
Building Regulations (South African National Standard [SANS 10400-XA] 2011, p.
3), and the City of Tshwane (CoT) Green Building Development Policy which sets
out green building development standards that are either mandatory or promoted
(City of Tshwane (CoT) Green Building Development Policy 2009, p. 2).

Conradie (2013, pers. comm. 10 October) and Architect C2 (2013, pers. comm.12
September) believe that architects are aware that they have to apply more passive
strategies to their designs, but that they do not have sufficient levels of internalised
knowledge to confidently design passive buildings. Conradie feels that this
internalised knowledge is constantly growing in the South African industry, and that
passive principles are going to be applied more and more to buildings in the future
(2013, pers. comm. 10 October).

2.10.1 Green Star Rating

The GBCSA developed a rating system which examines all of the possible green
measures that can be incorporated into a building by using a “menu”. The system
looks not only at green design, but also at land use, water, transport, innovation, etc.
(Van Wyk 2010, pp. 1-6). A tool is used to calculate and measure the design against
the GBCSA standards (Mulholland and Matshe, 2009). Points are then awarded to
the building according to the amount of strategies, as stated above, which have been
incorporated into the overall design and construction. After the points have been
weighted a final score is determined, which then determines what the rating is. In
order to achieve certification, building owners will submit their documentation to the
GBCSA to have it assessed. Certification is awarded to 4-star (best practice), 5-star
(South African excellence), and 6-Star (world leader) Green Star Ratings (Green
Building Council SA, 2012).

Heath Andersen maintains that while South Africa is relatively unfamiliar to the
concept of green building, the country is making swift progress towards that of
Australia, North America and Europe. Since 2009, 39 buildings have been awarded
with Green Star South Africa certifications, with an additional 85 registered buildings

36
aiming to accomplish a Green Star Rating. This results in South Africa being ahead
of the curve in terms of its green building cycle in comparison to other more
established countries (Alive2green 2013a).

Architect A1 & A2, during a personal communication, expressed that the Green Star
Rating System plays a role in the designing of buildings which incorporate passive
architecture and should be considered from the very start of any design (2013, 20
August). The contrary was demonstrated during a recent study conducted by the
CSIR in Pretoria, Gauteng, the goal of which was to assess the inherent value of
adopting an integrated green-based passive design (L Van Wyk 2013, pers. comm.
10 October) methodology to better the weighted average score of a green building
using the newly developed Green Star SA Office Design v1 rating tool. The study
revealed unexpected results. Two buildings within a 20km radius of one another
were compared. The first building had been designed with minimal effort towards
green design; the second building was designed to be ‘green’ and make use of
appropriate passive strategies from the start. The Green Star SA Office Design v1
rating tool was applied to both buildings. Table 3 indicates the categories of
assessment, maximum achievable points, and the weightings thereof.

Category Total points available Weighting

Management 14 9
Indoor Environment Quality 28 15
Energy 30 25
Transport 14 9
Water 15 14
Materials 22 13
Land Use and Ecology 9 7
Emissions 17 8
Innovation 5 -
Table 3: Categories, points and weighting (Van Wyk 2010, p. 2).

Each of the eight items in the category has a maximum number of achievable points
and a weighting factor applied to it. The comparative results are shown by Table 4
below.

37
Category Study: 1 (%) Study: 2 (%)
Management 64.2 71.4
Indoor Environment Quality 70.3 59.2
Energy 36.6 36.6
Transport 71.4 35.7
Water 42.8 78.5
Materials 64.7 58.8
Land Use and Ecology 14.2 80.0
Emissions 29.4 43.7
Innovation 0 0
Table 4: Comparative analyses of the buildings (Van Wyk 2010, p. 4).

The study concluded that because the rating tool only takes certain design factors
into consideration (55 out of 154 points), and has specific weightings for each item,
no significant benefits arise from the Green Star Rating when an early and
interdisciplinary method to passive green design has been followed. The conclusion
is reinforced through the rankings established by the weighting factor: the highest of
which is apportioned to Energy (25%), with only two out of the total five sub-
categories dealing with passive green building design. The study deduced that the
rating tool is directing designers’ mind-sets in terms of improving building
performance more towards building equipment and services, rather than through the
appropriate use of ‘passive’ design. In future, it may be that integrated passive green
design strategies, rather than consideration to the weighting factors become more
important in the effort to attain higher rating scores for the design of buildings. At
present however, evidence indicates that capitalizing on mechanical services plays a
greater part in the determination of the ‘greenness’ of a building than an integrated
passive green design. This is mainly owing to the comparative significance of the
weighting factors ascribed in the Green Star SA Office Design v1 rating tool, present
South African pricing and repayment periods for energy-efficiency and renewable
energy options. It is important to note, though, that due to the unexpected results of
the study, a solitary study such as this cannot be considered as undisputable, and
additional studies will have to be performed (Van Wyk 2010, pp. 1-6).

2.11 Design and construction of passive buildings

The construction of a building is often a once-off endeavour which results in a

complex product (Hutchinson 2011, p. 8). The first approach to achieve the required

38
performance from the building is to rely on specific components which are chosen at
the final stages. This approach is costly and involves active strategies to correct
defective design. The second approach is to view the building holistically from the
early design stage by designing the whole building and each part of the building with
energy-efficiency in mind (Ochoa & Capeluto 2007, pp. 1830-1831).

As the design and construction process progresses, more specialists are called in to
solve specific problems (Ochoa & Capeluto 2007, pp. 1830-1831). For this product to
be a success, the energy needs of a proposed building design must be studied
during the initial stages of the design phase (Hutchinson 2011, p. 8). Decisions made
during the design stage may have a massive influence on the performance of the
building, and solving these problems become expensive and more difficult, if not
impossible to fix as the construction process advances. It is important that the design
team understands the approach they have chosen as this will define how frequently
changes are made, as well as the importance of those changes (Ochoa & Capeluto
2007, pp. 1830-1831). It is suggested by Holm (1996a, p. 87) that the design of a
passive building should aim to create a reasonably comfortable internal environment,
and then to allow users the opportunity to make adjustments to suit their personal
preferences, for example, opening a window.

The involvement of various disciplines and trades are required for the creation of a
building from its conceptual to final stage of completion (John, Clements-Croome &
Jeronimidis 2005, p. 327). Unfortunately, this multi-disciplinary approach remains a
widely rejected concept by the construction industry (Menzies & Wherrett 2005, p.
624). Designers, owners, engineers, contractors, material suppliers and operators
should all understand the design and construction requirements of passive design for
it to be successful (Buildaid 2011, p. 70). However, in reality, this is not often the
case. Therefore it may be necessary for those involved in the building industry to
obtain assistance in pairing available technology with specific problems (John,
Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p. 327).

Figure 9 is a simple graphic representation of how specialists, who have a thorough

understanding of the functions of a proposed building, are able to achieve the
energy-efficiency targets during the early design stages through the use of: an
39
integrated design approach; computer aided modelling; and passive design
strategies (Hutchinson 2011, p. 9).

Figure 9: Potential cost savings throughout the design process (Hutchinson 2011, p. 9).

2.11.1 Building Information Modelling

While climate specific passive principles such as orientation, shading, thermal mass,
and placement of glazing can be used in any building, the ideal performance solution
requires careful quantification and integration of all passive strategies relevant to the
climate and building (Conradie 2011, p. 148). The design of buildings to conform to
passive principles and strategies has been made substantially easier by the
introduction of computer modelled designs (John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis
2005, p. 322). There are many definitions for building Information modelling (BIM’s).
One definition states that “Building Information Modelling is the development and use
of a multi-faceted computer software data model to not only document a building
design, but to simulate the construction and operation of a new capital facility or a
recapitalized facility. The resulting building information is a data-rich, object based,
intelligent and parametric digital representation of the facility” (Conradie 2009, p.
226). BIM’s were originally developed with the intention to enable collaboration
between architectural and engineering design fields and to incorporate these designs
into computer aided design (CAD) (Conradie el al. 2007, p. 16).

40
The pertinent factors affecting the performance of a building are recognised and the
design may then be analysed systematically to determine the probable performance
in view of varying requirements (John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p.
322). Tests should be conducted on all of the available products and materials, and
the results obtained should be loaded into an amalgamated database to make it
easier for computer models to accurately determine a buildings predicted
performance (Schefferlie 2010, p. 231). These programs act as a tool to assist
designers in predicting the performance of the building envelope, illumination
requirements, HVAC loads, feasibility estimates, operational energy usage, and
compare the proposed design to the required standards (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm
2011, p. 3619). Computer models for transient heat transfer through a typical
building envelope have also been developed. The programmes take into account
the thermal radiation heat exchange at the interior and exterior surfaces of the
building to allow designers to analyse and ultimately reduce the energy requirement
of a proposed design before construction commences (Holm 1996a, p. 79).

The accuracy of a model relies heavily on the correct data being inputted by the
user. This data will include the building type, shape and orientation, engineering
details, geographic location, mechanical equipment, etc. (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm
2011, p. 3619). It is important that building designers do not base their designs on
weather simulations over a period of only one year, but rather according to the
overall climatic characteristics of the geographic location that have been recorded
over a number of years (Holmes & Hacker 2007, p. 803). Although advanced BIM
software such as computational building performance (CBP) software makes it
easier to determine the effect of a certain building design, it remains almost
impossible to quantify the precise building performance due to complicated variables
such as the sun and wind. As in-situ measurements continue and theoretical
knowledge advances, the accuracy of these simulations will develop (Conradie &
Kumirai 2012a, p. 8; Conradie & Kumirai 2012b, p. 8).

2.11.2 Building envelope maintenance

The envelope of a building separates the inside and outside of the building, so it is
exposed to many environmental factors such as rain, humidity, snow, wind forces,

41
solar radiation, etc. The maintenance of a building envelope contributes 20-30% of
the overall maintenance cost of the building over its lifetime, but is very often
overlooked, leading to unforeseen expenses in the form of repairs due to premature
failure of building components (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3619). Buildings
which have been designed and constructed according to passive principles are more
sensitive to changing conditions than conventional buildings. Small variations to the
building may have unexpectedly large repercussions on the building as well as its
occupants (Holmes & Hacker 2007, pp. 802-803). For example, if dust is allowed to
build up on light shelves (Holm & Viljoen 1996, p. 15), it will not only warm the air
next to the building due to it being darker than the reflective surface, but it will also
reduce the amount of natural light reflected off the shelf and into the building
(Gibberd 2009, p. 116). The building and its separate installations should be
maintained by competent professionals to ensure they operate efficiently and as
intended (Osburn 2009a, p. 165).

Building maintenance is separated into two groups: routine and response

maintenance. Routine maintenance involves the routine inspection and replacement
or repair of certain building components. Response maintenance involves the
immediate replacement or repair of certain components. The use of professionals
who evaluate the performance of the building components on an annual basis can
be invaluable in the anticipation of premature and expensive failures (Sadineni,
Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3619).

2.12 Motivation for passive design

The main reasons why energy-efficient buildings are not being built as much as what
they could be is that: people in the industry are not really sure of how to do it; there is
a perception that energy-efficient buildings methods are a lot more expensive than
conventional methods; and that only a select few buildings are able to absorb that
cost. One of the challenges faced by architects is to prove to people that every
building can be made green or greener without pouring a lot of money into it. This is
where passive design shines, because designing a building passively does not cost
extra. It is simply good design (Architect A1 & A2 2013, pers. comm, 20 August).
Designing a building to be energy-efficient delivers quantifiable cost savings and

42
benefits. The market value of energy-efficient buildings is rising as these buildings
are becoming seen as prestigious (Holm 1996a, p. 79). Additional benefits which are
less easily quantified are comfort and productivity level of users of energy-efficient
buildings (Holm 1996a, p. 79; Parys et al. 2012, p. 95).

The needs and ambitions of humans and the resulting way in which they designed
have evolved drastically over time (Jordaan 2011, p. 272). The energy performance
of buildings has declined over time due to the fact that the design of a building
became an object in itself, only a work of art (D Conradie 2013, pers. comm. 10
October), and it lost relevance to the environment and the humans inhabiting the
buildings. The concept of green design is therefore an endeavour to restore the
basic design approaches whereby suitable comfort levels are achieved in a fairly
unforgiving environment with a minimal cost (Jordaan 2011, p. 272).

It should be noted that at the same time as the initial design is being drafted, other
influential factors unrelated to the above passive strategies must be taken into
account. These factors will include total construction costs, the programme and
marketing of the finished building. For example, it may be necessary to orientate a
building in a particular way so that it gets noticed by the public or provides excellent
views, even though the particular orientation may be ‘bad’ for energy consumption.
This would be a prime example of a situation where a passive design principle has
not been followed, and where changes to the original design prepared at early
stages of the design process could lead to the building nevertheless being highly
energy-efficient, and a lot of time and money being saved. The goal of achieving
comfort as well as saving energy must be considered throughout the design process,
not as an afterthought in the form of a secondary energy-intensive product (Ochoa &
Capeluto 2007, pp. 1830 & 1838).

43
Chapter 3: Methodology

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a clear and comprehensive explanation of

the specific steps followed during the collection and analysis of data. ‘Passive design
strategies applied to office buildings in Gauteng’ is the title of this study. The main
research question being asked by this research paper is thus: “Which passive design
strategies are commonly applied or not applied to office buildings in Gauteng, and
why?” The study will identify: which passive design strategies are relevant to office
buildings in Gauteng; which are commonly applied or not applied to office buildings
in Gauteng; and the reasons behind applying or not applying the strategies.

Primary data was derived from answers given by designers during an interview
process. Secondary data was obtained from published documents and literature
relevant to the study. Through the use of both interview results and published
literature, this study has combined both quantitative and qualitative approaches to
the research.

3.1 Methods of data collection

Qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection have been used in order to
answer the individual sub-questions, as well as the research question as a whole.
The three sub-questions and methods of data collection have been described below.

Sub-question 1: ‘Which passive design strategies are applicable to the

specific climatic conditions of Gauteng?’ This question formed the theoretical
basis of the study. A desktop study was conducted, which utilized the
information gathered through the literature review and the climatic conditions
specific to Gauteng, to determine which passive strategies were relevant to
the conditions. The information obtained from sub-question 1 formed a basis
for the development of an evaluation framework. The interview template used
to collect the data for Sub-questions 2 and 3 has been structured according to
the layout of the evaluation framework developed.

44
 Sub-question 2: ‘Which passive design strategies are commonly applied or
not applied to office buildings in Gauteng?’ The interview template developed
from the above framework was utilized in interviews. This allowed the author,
to determine the areas where passive strategies have been applied in the
various designs of the buildings being investigated.

Sub-question 3: “Why were the passive design strategies identified in sub-

question 2 applied or not applied to office buildings in Gauteng?” The same
interview template used in the answering of sub-question 2 has been used to
answer this question. The question has been asked so that the author may
gain an understanding of why designers applied certain passive strategies
and not others to their designs. The interview consisted of 53 building-related
and 12 architect-related questions.

3.2 Data-gathering Instruments

The main data-gathering instruments for this study were literature-based, desktop
studies and loosely structured interviews. Three Gauteng-based buildings designed
by three of the prominent architecture firms involved in the design of numerous
medium-rise office buildings were identified. A sample of nine certified buildings was
drawn from the population of buildings on the GBCSA website. The architects of
such buildings were then approached to partake in the study. These architects were
contacted via telephone and email through the company for whom they work. Of the
sample of nine buildings, one architect declined the request to partake in the study,
resulting in a total of eight buildings being investigated. One architect designed two
of the buildings, A1 and A2, in the study.

The interviews were divided into building-specific questions and architect-specific

questions. The building-specific questions were asked to determine which passive
strategies had been applied or not applied to which areas of the design, and the
reasons behind the decisions, while the architect-specific questions have been
asked in an attempt to gain an understanding of what the architect’s opinion on
passive design is. Although quite loosely structured and flexible, the interview had a
specific plan of inquiry, the basis for which was a formal set of questions. The goal of

45
the interview was to generate a discussion surrounding the main research question.
These formal interview questions were prepared in advance; the author altered them
if it seemed appropriate as the interview progressed. Although the precise wording of
the building-specific and architect-specific questions varied from time to time, certain
types of questions were pro forma. The interview was performed on an individual
basis.

In order to test the validity of the interview used for the study, the researcher tested
the interview questions on two respondents. These respondents as well as their
answers are not part of the actual study process and were only used for testing
purposes. After the questions were answered, the researcher queried the
respondents for suggestions and if they felt that any corrections were necessary to
ensure further relevancy and validity of the instrument. The researcher then revised
the interview questions based on these suggestions.

3.3 Data Processing and Analysis

After gathering data from the completed interviews, the responses were tabulated
and analysed to determine whether or not there are trends and patterns. These
trends and patterns were then compiled in a graph format with a narrative explaining
the graph and reasons for the decisions.

3.4 Ethical Considerations

As this study required the involvement of human respondents, specifically design

professionals, certain ethical issues needed to be addressed. The consideration of
these ethical issues was essential for the purpose of safeguarding the confidentiality
as well as the security of the respondents (the architects). The significant ethical
issues that needed to be considered in the research process included permission by
the respondent to use information provided by them, and confidentiality of
information not relevant to the study. In order to secure the permission of the
selected respondents, the researcher relayed all of the important particulars relating
to the study, including its aim and purpose before the start of each interview. Each of
the respondents was then given an informed consent form such as the one shown in
annexure 1 to read and sign. The author’s and a witness’s signature were also

46
required. Two copies of the form were signed, one for the respondent and one for
the author.

By explaining these important details, the respondents understood the significance of

their role in the achievement of the research. The respondents were also advised
that they may withdraw from the study at any time during the interview process.
Respondents were not forced to participate in the research. Confidentiality of the
respondents and their designs has been ensured by way of not divulging the
buildings’ names or the respondents’ personal information in the research. Only
pertinent details that assisted in answering the research questions have been
included.

3.5 Delimitations

Gauteng has been selected because it is the business and finance hub of South
Africa (Gauteng Online 2007, p. 9 & 16), and many modern commercial office
buildings may be found in the region. Only medium-rise, modern office buildings
have been considered in the research. This included buildings between four and
eleven storeys high, built since 2009. The research does not include buildings which
have not been designed according to passive principles. Only buildings with Green
Star Ratings have been considered in the research. This limited the author to
perform the study on the most relevant office buildings that have passive design
strategies incorporated in the design and was done in an attempt to enhance the
possibility of comparative analysis between the buildings. The architects of such
buildings were the only respondents interviewed in relation to a particular building.

3.6 Conclusion to methodology

After having analysed the climatic maps relevant to Gauteng, and read the local and
international literature related to passive design principles and strategies, buildings
to be used in the study were selected. The buildings were selected from the Green
Building Council of South Africa’s website. Designers of these buildings were then
interviewed and the buildings evaluated according to a framework. The reasons
behind applying or not applying certain passive strategies were also determined

47
through the interviews. The interview template as well as the complete interviews
may be found in the annexures 3 - 11

48
Chapter 4: Which passive design strategies are
relevant to office buildings in Gauteng?

The purpose of this chapter is to perform a desktop study in order to answer sub-
question 1, namely to identify which passive design strategies are relevant to the
specific climatic conditions of Gauteng, as discussed in Chapter 2. Passive design
principles relevant to Gauteng such as orientation, building layout, fenestration,
insulation, thermal mass, ventilation, materials, and evaporative cooling are
examined in this chapter. The various passive strategies applicable to Gauteng are
discussed under the passive principles.

This information will form a basis for the development of an evaluation framework
which will indicate the areas of application of passive strategies in the various
designs of the buildings being investigated.

4.1 Orientation

The orientation and spacing of a building on the site will have an impact on the
availability of sunlight and shade, and may be a highly effective way in which to
reduce the operational heating and cooling energy requirements (Conradie 2011, p.
152; Morrissey, Moore & Horne 2010, pp. 569-570). If planned for during the early
design stages, orientation may be a simple and inexpensive way of accomplishing
an energy-efficient building. In theory, solar glazing should face the winter sun to
achieve maximum efficiency, but in reality, the orientation of a building will be the
determining factor for direct solar gain systems (Morrissey, Moore & Horne 2010, pp.
569-570). The orientation should be determined according to the unique climatic
conditions to which the building will be exposed (Conradie 2011, p. 152). South
Africa is located in the southern hemisphere, so the north, east and west facades of
buildings will receive the most natural light. Due to the low angles (Hawkes,
McDonald & Steemers 2002, p. 133), light from the east and west is sometimes
problematic because of unwanted heat gain and glare (Holm 1996, p. 7). A north
orientated building will be effected in the early mornings and late afternoons on days
surrounding the summer solstice by sun angles from south-east and south-west,
respectively. This is often not taken into consideration by designers, but it may have

49
significant implications on the cooling requirements of the building (D Conradie 2013,
pers. comm. 10 October).

A solar chart, as presented by figure 10 below, is utilized to determine the local

course of the sun and the resulting effects of heating and lighting on a building. The
position of the earth in relation to the sun is defined by two angles: the azimuth and
the angle of elevation. This chart indicates the plan projection of the azimuth, the
vertical arc of sky from the zenith to the horizon. The numerals marked degrees
which appear around the circumference signify compass bearings and are an
indication to the observer of the horizontal deviation of the position of the sun. In
other words, where the sun rises and sets as viewed by the observer who is standing
in the centre of the figure. The angle of elevation of the sun is denoted as a function
of the time of year and time of day for the appropriate angle of latitude and reference
meridian. In other words, it is the angle of the sun in relation to the earth as viewed
by the observer (Buildaid 2011, p. 71).

South Africa’s latitude is 26°, and the declination (the angle between magnetic and
true north) is 17°. The area around the figure represents a flat plane, while the
circumference indicates the horizon. The upper curve represents the path of the sun
on the date of the winter solstice, the middle represents the equinox, and the lower
represents the summer solstice. The broken lines running between the curves and
orange dots on the curves indicate the position of the sun on an hourly basis.
Magnetic north is not an accurate approximation of true north and should not be
used when orientating a building. South Africa’s perfect orientation is true north (0°),
but may be protracted to between 15° west and 20° east of true north (Buildaid 2011,
pp. 71-72).

50
Figure 10: Sun path diagram (Buildaid 2011, p. 71).

In high density urban settings the ideal orientation may not be a possibility, which
means that designers will have to be more conscious in their designs than if the
building was orientated correctly (Buildaid 2011, p. 70). In the southern hemisphere,
buildings which do not have a north orientation will be impacted on in the following
ways: reduced availability of daily sunlight; reduced heating from solar gains during
winter; and, higher cooling loads during summer months from solar gains. Buildings
with these characteristics require more energy for heating and cooling than
comparable buildings which make use of orientation as one of the passive design
principles (Morrissey, Moore & Horne 2010, pp. 569-570).

51
4.2 Building layout

Building layout has a significant influence on the internal environment of a building.

The internal environment of a building may be defined as a culmination of influences
such as: the amount of internal lighting; colour schemes; ambient temperatures; air
quality and noise that affect internal characteristics of a building (Clements-Croome
1997, p. 61). Increased occupancy levels (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002, p.
138) and the intensive usage of electrical devices in contemporary office buildings is
a large contributor to elevated internal heat gains (Kummert, Andre & Nicolas 2000,
p. 103). Gratia, Bruyère & De Herde (2004, p. 1157) agree with this and go on to
state that large glazing areas, poor shading, additional heat gains caused by an
increase in the amount of lights due to deep floor plans, equipment (Flynn & Segil
1970, p. 206), and the wider usage of false ceilings have all contributed to internal
heat gains. Alvarado, Terrell & Johnson (2009, p. 1869) add that convection and
infiltration are also sources of internal heat gain. As a result of this elevated level of
heat the occupants of a building can experience serious discomfort (Kummert, Andre
& Nicolas 2000, p. 103).

Skylights can provide much needed natural light to deep or isolated internal areas
(Flynn & Segil 1970, p. 114-115). Natural light is desired over artificial light because
it gives better colour definition and is thought to have physiological benefits, whereas
artificial light is associated with a dull and monotonous setting (Holm & Viljoen 1996,
p. 14). The main disadvantage of skylights is that the solar heat loads will act directly
on the skylights which will result in the interior of the building warming up. This effect
may be mitigated by the use of low emissivity coatings on the skylights, light wells
and shielding devices (Flynn & Segil 1970, p. 114-115). Requirements relating to the
use of the building will need to be established in order to determine the design
strategy. This is particularly important in mixed-use buildings, for example; a building
with communal spaces, design workspaces and computer rooms will require varying
amounts of light and ventilation (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002, p. 137;
Buildaid 2011, p. 82). The acceptable noise and thermal criteria will also need to be
known in order for the designers to make informed decisions (Hawkes, McDonald &
Steemers 2002, p. 137).

52
4.3 Fenestration

Openings in a building envelope are referred to as fenestration. These openings are

mostly in the form of windows and doors. Fenestration plays a significant role in a
building. It is responsible for connecting the inside of a building to the external
environment (Hatamipour & Abedi 2008, p. 2318), as well as providing thermal
comfort and optimum levels of illumination within the building (Osburn 2010, p. 297;
Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3621), and information about the weather
outside (Menzies & Wherrett 2005, pp. 623 & 624). Insufficient knowledge and the
improper use of fenestration products and materials will result in an inefficient design
(Schefferlie 2010, p. 231).

4.3.1 Window design

The above fenestration responsibilities are generally better performed by windows
than by doors. They are also vital in that they add aesthetics to the building from an
architectural standpoint (Menzies & Wherrett 2005, p. 624; Sadineni, Madala &
Boehm 2011, p. 3621). As well as providing for aesthetic satisfaction, windows that
are able to open through the control of the occupant, thus allowing for natural
ventilation are valued by most people (Gratia, Bruyère & De Herde 2004, p. 1157).
However windows are also accountable for excessively high levels of undesirable
heat gains and losses between a building and its surrounding environment (Menzies
& Wherrett 2005, p. 623). It has been found that window units are ultimately
responsible for the consumption of more energy than any other building element
(Schefferlie 2010, p. 234). Several advances in glazing technologies, such as solar
controlled glasses, insulated glass units, low emissivity coatings, vacuum glazing,
aerogels and gas cavity fills, along with improvements in frame design and spacing
have been accomplished in recent years.

For passive solar heating installations, windows with a low U-value and high total
energy transmittance are preferred. However, it is important to note that there is a
trade-off between the U-value and solar transmission, which means that measures
taken in an attempt to lower the U-value will most likely also lower the solar
transmission (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3621). The result of designing
buildings with excessively large areas of glazing is; substantial heat gains during the

53
day and heat losses at night (Holm & Viljoen 1996, p. 12); as well as incurring
excessively high electrical demands (Menzies & Wherrett 2005, p. 623; Ralegaonkar
& Gupta 2010, p. 2238). These effects may be lessened by better design of the
window. It has been proven that the use of insulated windows, insulated frames,
coloured, tinted and reflective glass, and choosing the best orientation of the widows
are all methods to reduce the cooling load of a building (Hatamipour & Abedi 2008,
p. 2318).

Solar heat gain is a significant element in the determination of a building’s thermal

performance; therefore the control of such solar gain is of significant importance in
the design and selection of windows (Menzies & Wherrett 2005, p. 623). A
description will be provided hereunder of innovative glazing materials and
technologies that are aimed at providing any one of the following solutions, or a
combination thereof: high-performance insulation (HPI); solar gain control (SC); or
day lighting (DL).

4.3.2 Low-emissivity (low-e) coatings

For applications where a building will be used predominantly during the day and
natural day lighting is desired, spectrally selective low-e coatings will permit the
visible light of the solar spectrum whilst blocking wavelengths that are generally
accountable for solar heat gains (Menzies & Wherrett 2005, p. 624). Two types of
low-e coatings (hard and soft) may be used which are placed either on the inside
surface of the external pane or on the outside surface of the internal pane, resulting
in most of the absorbed solar energy dissipating into the ambient air or the cavity.
The soft coating is a thin layer of silver surrounded by dielectric layers and has a
lower solar transmittance and a higher reflectance compared to the hard coating
which is a tin oxide-based coating. Anti-reflection treatment on a low-e tin oxide-
based glazing via the use of silicon dioxide will increase the visible transmittance
through the window (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3621).

4.3.3 Aerogel glazing

Aerogels are relatively new to the contemporary glazing market, having entered it in
the year 2006. The product is essentially a granular aerogel encapsulated between

54
polycarbonate construction panels. This glazing process allows for a panel that
weighs less than 20% of its equivalent in glass and has 200 times more impact
strength. Light transmission and U-value of aerogel panels depend on the thickness
of the panel. This glazing material is appropriate for usage in applications such as
roof-lights because of its high performance, low density and exceptional light
diffusing properties (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3621).

4.3.4 Double and Triple pane glazing

Standard residential building windows are responsible for an energy loss of up to
40%. This figure will be lower through office building windows. Double glazing has
the ability to further decrease and control the amount of thermal gain from outside
and thermal loss from inside (Buildaid 2011, p. 103). The concept of vacuum glazing
can be applied to double and triple glazed windows (Menzies & Wherrett 2005, p.
624; Aydin 2000, p. 303) through the creation of a vacuum between the separate
panes to eliminate the conductive and convective heat transfer between the panes.
Dehydrated air is often placed in the space between the panes to stop condensation
forming (Double Glazing Info 2008). In other tests, the space between the panes has
been filled with argon, krypton or xenon gas (Hammond 2001, p. 4) in an attempt to
eliminate heat transfer between the panes. Argon gas is the most commonly used
option because of its performance benefits (having a thermal conductivity 34% lower
than air) and the cost of argon gas being merely 5% more than that of air-filled units.
The units are designed to last the lifetime of the building, and should not lose more
than 5% gas over a lifetime of 25 years. Krypton and xenon are superior to argon in
terms of energy-efficiency, but because they are much more expensive they are not
often used (Double Glazing Info 2008).

Low-e coatings are often applied to one or multiple panes to decrease the amount of
re-radiation into the building. Vacuum glazing of two panes of glass (double vacuum
glazing) reduces the centre-of-glass U-value to as low as 1W/m²K, whereas the use
of three panes (triple vacuum glazing), which is a prospective technology, suggests
that a centre-of-glazing U-value of less than 0.2W/m²K is achievable (Sadineni,
Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3621). Vacuum glazing as a method of energy-efficient
glazing is still widely used even though the technology faces challenges in

55
maintaining a vacuum for extended periods of time. The long term cost savings
associated with the use of double glazing are not easily calculated because
numerous factors such as; type and size of heating and cooling system; climatic
conditions; frame type; quality of the unit; and the type of seals used need to be
considered (Buildaid 2011, p. 103).

4.3.5 Switchable reflective glazing

This technology essentially varies the tint of glazed surfaces. It is best suited for
buildings with large amounts of solar gain and high cooling loads. Some types of
switchable glazing alter as a function of the solar radiation to which they are
exposed, either by applying a low direct current (DC) (electrochromics (EC)), or by
the use of hydrogen gas (gasochromics) to change from a bleached to a coloured
state. Although this technology has been proven to have substantially higher energy
reducing characteristics over standard windows, the cost, warranty, glare, switching
time, and colour rendering snags have impeded the marketability of the technology
(Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3621).

4.3.6 Holographic optical elements

Holographic optical elements (HOE) consist of a holographic film which is
sandwiched between glass panes to redirect incoming solar radiation at a
predetermined angle through diffraction at the holographic film layer onto the ceiling
of a building. Unfortunately it suffers many drawbacks including glare, light
dispersion, milky clearness, but may still have the potential be be used in day lighting
applications. This technology has not yet reached the market (Sadineni, Madala &
Boehm 2011, p. 3622).

4.3.7 Window Frames

Generally speaking, frames are the weak point in the design of windows, normally
having a higher U-value than the glazing components (Menzies & Wherrett 2005, p.
624). Aluminium frames are widely used in South Africa because they are light,
sturdy, durable and can be shaped into many forms. The disadvantage of aluminium
frames is that aluminium is a good conductor of heat, meaning that the overall
insulating properties of the glazing units may be decreased by 20-30%. Wooden

56
frames are much better insulators, but they require more maintenance and the larger
tolerances in openings may result in air infiltration. Un-plasticised polyvinyl chloride
(uPVC) frames have been used in America and Europe for many years, but they
were very expensive and many of the products degrade as a result of not being
designed for the harsh African conditions. Steel frames have in the past been the
most frequently used frame material; however steel is by nature a very conductive
material. In addition, steel frames are known to be ill fitting which causes excessive
air infiltration, and they are not usually manufactured to house double pane windows
(Buildaid 2011, p. 102). Components such as frames and spacers that support
advanced fenestrations should reduce the effect of thermal bridging and infiltration
losses to an absolute minimum. The effects of varying combinations of frames,
spacers and framing materials on smaller sized windows have a more pronounced
effect on the U-value than the same combinations on larger windows (Menzies &
Wherrett 2005, p. 624; Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3622).

4.4 Insulation

Thermal insulation plays an important role in the reduction of solar heat gains
through the building envelope (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002, p. 138).
Insulation works by reducing (Holm & Viljoen 1996, p. 11) the rate of thermal heat
flow by conduction, convection and radiation through the proper application of a
material or a combination of materials (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3625).
The utilization of insulated materials provides interior comfort throughout the year
(Ralegaonkar & Gupta 2010, p. 2239). The thermal resistance of insulation is what
retards the flow of heat into or out of a building. An uncomplicated and successful
way of developing the energy-efficiency of a building at its design stage is by
improving the thermal insulation properties of the building envelope. The proper
installation and use of insulation in a building will not only reduce the energy usage,
but it will also reduce, and may even eliminate the need for HVAC systems. In a
climatic region such as that of Gauteng, the space cooling load is much higher than
the heating load for most of the year, so the insulation should be placed closer to the
outer surface rather than the inner surface of the building (Holm 1996a, 85). The
reason behind this is that insulation performs at its best when it is placed on the
surface that is subject to the highest temperatures. Insulation thickness will vary

57
according to the standards in the particular area (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011,
p. 3625).

It is important to select the appropriate type of insulation for a particular purpose.

Thermal insulation may be categorised into four classes and further subcategorised
according to the material type as shown in figure 11. The selection of insulation will
be dependent on two important factors, namely: thermal conductivity and thermal
inertia. A decline in the performance of insulation is as a direct result of an increase
in the thermal conductivity of the insulation, caused by an increase in the
temperature and moisture content of the insulation. Slag-rock wool fibres and
fibreglass are most affected by moisture. Issues of health and the environment must
also be taken into account in the selection of insulation. Insulating foam contains
isocyanates which are an extreme irritant to the eyes and skin. Glass fibre insulation
has been proven to lead to respiratory problems to people handling it. Other foam
types of insulation such as extruded polystyrene (EPS) and Polyisocyanurate (PIR)
emit chlorofluorocarbons (CHCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs) throughout their
lifetime, which have been proven to be detrimental to the environment (Mathews,
Kleingeld & Grobler 1994, p. 197; Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, pp. 3625 &
3626). Flammability of a material and cost are other important factors to consider in
the selection of insulation.

Figure 11: Insulation categories (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3626).

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4.4.1 Insulation of the roof
Large roof areas such as those of low rise office buildings commonly built in Gauteng
are highly susceptible to solar radiation and other environmental changes. They
account for large amounts of heat gain/loss, thereby influencing the internal comfort
conditions experienced by the occupants of the building. It is said that as much as
60% of thermal leakage occurs through the roof. This number will vary according to
the type, height, location, etc. of the building. The insulation of a roof will save on
both cooling and heating loads, of which cooling is more important in Gauteng. The
term ‘radiant-transmittive’ barrier is used to describe thermal insulation (transmittive
barrier) which is accompanied by a reflective surface (infrared barrier) (Sadineni,
Madala & Boehm 2011, pp. 3622 & 3624). Figure 12 indicates the placement of
roofing materials and insulation to achieve superior insulation properties. Laboratory
experiments revealed that with a combination of flat aluminium 1100 reflector and
polyurethane insulator type roof (Alvarado, Terrell & Johnson 2009, p. 1875), a
reduction of up to 88% of heat flux through the roof is achievable. The profile of the
reflector has a minimal effect, unless forced ventilation is used (Sadineni, Madala &
Boehm 2011, pp. 3624). Reflective insulation on roofs is highly susceptible to dust
collection which will diminish the reflectivity of the material (Holm & Viljoen 1996, p.
15).

Figure 12: Radiant-transmittive roof section (Alvarado, Terrell & Johnson 2009, p. 1870).

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4.4.2 Insulation of walls
Although not extensively used, double-skin facades are becoming increasingly
important in building practice. Essentially double-skin facades entail the placing of a
second skin in front of the inner building façade. The use thereof is growing in
Europe; however, there is still limited experience of the walls performance in
operation. In moderate climates, double-skin facades have proven to be
advantageous insofar as sound insulation is concerned, as well as in providing
greater thermal comfort to the user (Gratia & De Herde 2004, p. 399).

4.5 Thermal mass

4.5.1 Thermal mass in the building form

The term ‘thermal mass’ denotes materials that have a high heat capacity meaning
they possess the ability to absorb and store heat during the day and release the heat
at night to even out the day and night temperature variations (Buildaid 2011, p. 146;
Holm & Viljoen 1996, p. 11). Thermal mass is not an alternative to insulation.
Thermal mass is effective because it has the ability to retain and release heat.
Insulation on the other hand is meant to retard the flow of heat. In general, a material
with superior thermal mass properties will not be a suitable thermal insulator
(Buildaid 2011, p. 146).

Materials which have both a high density and specific heat capacity will be ideal to
be used as thermal mass as they will delay the flow of heat and decrease the day-to-
day temperature variations (Holm & Viljoen 1996, p. 11). Interior temperatures are
thus controlled by the absorption and discharge of heat through both interior and
exterior means. There are many components of a building that can store heat such
as; roofs (Holmes & Hacker 2007, p. 812), walls, floors, ceilings, partitions, and
furniture (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011 p. 3626). The extent to which thermal
mass is to be used should be proportional to the diurnal (sunrise to sunset) range of
a particular region. This means that inland areas with a high diurnal range will need
more mass than coastal areas which have lower diurnal ranges. For this reaction to
take place effectively the diurnal ambient temperature difference should be a
minimum of 10-12°C (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3626; Breesch, Bossaer
& Janssens 2004, p. 683). During summer the thermal mass should be cooled down

60
by means of night time ventilation. The cool thermal mass should then be protected
from solar heat gain by using shading and insulation. During winter months the
thermal mass should be able to absorb heat from the sun during the day and release
it at night (Buildaid 2011, p. 146).

The effectiveness of the thermal mass of a building is dependent on the thermo-

physical properties of the building material, ventilation, building orientation,
occupancy patterns and insulation (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3626).
Thermal mass is effective in hot climates with large daytime and night-time
temperature variations, but should not be used in cold climates. The possible
benefits of thermal mass are only achievable if the buildings’ services are designed
for it. Thus the effects of thermal mass will only benefit fully air-conditioned buildings
marginally because most of the energy will be used for fan power. On the other
hand, integrated passive design systems will benefit greatly because the peak
cooling load will be delayed by the thermal mass (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers
2002, p. 139).

4.5.2 Thermal batteries

The use of a thermal battery is another method of achieving greater thermal mass. A
thermal battery should be a very well insulated room with a large quantity of thermal
mass and a significant surface area. This may be achieved by storing rocks in a steel
mesh column. Cool night time ventilation over this warm thermal mass will cool it
down. During the following day, warm outside air is cooled as it is drawn over the
thermal battery and then ventilated throughout the building (Osburn 2009a, p. 164).
Buildings such as offices that are unoccupied at night are ideal for thermal mass to
be used at its most effective because the mass is cooled with night-time ventilation.

Thermal mass is desirable for inland areas of South Africa such as Gauteng where
the daily temperature variation exceeds 13°C as it is effective for around half of the
winter period where heating is required and the whole of summer time where
overheating is problematic (Holm 1996a, pp. 65 & 70). The cooling effects that
thermal mass provides to a building are more straightforward to attain than

61
alternative passive strategies such as air movement or evaporative cooling (Holm
2009b, p. 84).

4.6 Shading

In order for sunlight to be effectively utilised as natural light while minimising the
negative effects of solar heat gain and glare (Holm 1996a, p. 6), shading devices will
need to be used. Shading is an important consideration in the design of an energy-
efficient and thermally comfortable (Bothma 2010, p. 64) building because in relative
terms, direct solar radiation is responsible for being one of the largest thermal
influences on the building envelope (Flynn & Segil 1970, pp. 109 & 190). Heat
generated by direct solar radiation in South Africa can be as much as 1000 w/m 2, as
much as a mobile gas heater (Conradie 2011, p. 155). North facing buildings in
South Africa will receive the highest amount of sunlight, while the east and west
sides will receive less, and the southern side may receive very little or no direct
sunlight (Flynn & Segil 1970, pp. 109 & 190).

The human eye sees best in natural light, however even though natural light is
preferred over artificial light, it must be noted that too much light will cause glare and
discomfort. Suitably high levels of natural light will allow for accurate colour definition
whilst some directional light will add recognisable shape and texture to objects. One
way to mitigate glare is to diffuse the direct light entering a building, but because this
eliminates shadows, the shape and texture of objects will become less recognisable
(Holm 1996a, p. 6). Light shelves are another effective method of ensuring that
areas situated deeper in a building receive natural light without excessively high
levels of glare. This is achieved through the reflection and effective distribution of
available sunlight (Gibberd 2009, p. 116).

4.6.1 Façade Shading

In densely populated cities, buildings are subject to the effects of urban heat islands
as well as a reduction in free air movement which causes the heating and cooling
loads within the building to increase. Proper shading has the potential to avoid
excessively high solar heat gains while simultaneously contributing to energy
savings. Shading devices can be categorised as either interior (curtains or blinds), or

62
exterior (Ralegaonkar & Gupta 2010, p. 2240). Curtains and blinds are generally
effective in shading the occupants of a room from direct sunlight and glare, but they
permit heat to enter the building envelope before it is stopped. The result of this will
be an increased internal temperature (Flynn & Segil 1970, p.191).

The exterior static sunshade is the most effective method of radiation control
because it intercepts the sun’s rays before they reach the window. The profile of
these shades should be designed according to the seasonal sun path (Holm &
Viljoen 1996, p. 13) to accomplish both summer shading, which assists in the cooling
of the interior, as well as winter heat gain, which assists in the heating of the interior
(Flynn & Segil 1970, p. 193; Ralegaonkar & Gupta 2010, p. 2240; Holm 1996a, pp.
66 & 71). Flynn & Segil (1970, p. 193) also state that architectural elements which
are part of the building form such as balconies, overhangs and plan setbacks are
effective shading devices. Gibberd (2009, p. 115) adds that for north facing
buildings, like those of South Africa, horizontal shades should be used on the north
façade and vertical shades should be used on the east and west façades. The use
of external shading devices should enhance the appearance and architectural
expression of the building to make it attractive and interesting from the outside
(Bothma 2010, p. 64). Shading devices with reflective surfaces may be attached to
light shelves to assist in the distribution of natural light throughout the interior space
as well as to reduce the amount of glare near the windows, though heat gains may
become problematic (Osburn 2009b, 147) and reduced reflectance will occur due to
dust build-up (Holm & Viljoen 1996, p. 15).

Should a building be orientated in a particular way for the sake of the view, the
placing of fixed blinds should not block that view (Ochoa & Capeluto 2007, p. 1838).
It has been suggested by Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers (2002, p. 143) that
adjustable shading devices should be used because it gives users greater influence
over their surroundings, thus improving their perception of comfort and their
tolerance of broader temperature ranges.

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4.6.2 Roof Shading
Up to 70% of the heat energy that enters a building does so through the roof. It is
therefore logical that shading the roof will reduce the need for active strategies of
achieving thermal comfort (Architect A3 2013, pers. comm, 22 August). Shading has
the potential to be an economical way of reducing the impact of solar radiation on a
roof (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3622). An effective system of shading and
ventilating a roof comprises two slabs which form a duct through which air flows.
The consequence of air flow through this gap diminishes the heat transfer through
the roof and into the building. Take note that the air flowing through the duct does
not enter the building. This air flow can either be laminar or turbulent, depending on
the size of the duct. Passive ventilated roofs operate through the effect of a stack
driving the air flow and are ideal for hot climatic conditions for use in moderately high
and wide roof areas (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3623). A detailed analysis
performed in Italy concluded that a ventilated roof resulted in energy savings of 30%
during the summer when compared to non-ventilated roofs. These air ducts should
be closed during cold winters and suitable dampers should be used to maintain a
very small amount of ventilation to drain off build-up of condensation in the duct
(Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3623).

Effective shading usually contributes to a 6°C reduction in the indoor temperature

(Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3622). During the 1800’s verandas were often
used on houses in the Gauteng area. It was seen as an applicable supplement to
European architecture because it addressed the differences between the climates of
northern Europe and the southern Africa (Fisher, Le Roux & Maré 1998, pp. 135-
136).

4.6 Ventilation

Natural ventilation is common in many vernacular buildings as a customary and low-

cost method of passively cooling and ventilating the building (Zhai, Johnson & Krarti
2011, p. 2251), as well as improving the quality of the interior atmosphere and
comfort (Dili, Naseer & Varfhese 2010, p. 653). A key challenge in the use of natural
ventilation is that external noise and pollution may enter the building through
openings. Noise levels will need to be monitored during the design stages so that
64
solutions may be found either through the modification of the building form or design
of the openings. It is then of paramount importance that the designers of natural
ventilation systems have an extensive knowledge and understanding of the
processes that transpire when a building interacts with the external environment than
the designers of mechanical plant (Hawkes, McDonald & Steemers 2002, pp. 34 &
128). The provision for optimal indoor conditions through ventilation is influenced not
only by the amount of air that is entering the building, but also its effective
distribution throughout the internal space.

4.7.1 Passive stack ventilation through the roof

Designing for natural ventilation will preferably incorporate the use of passive
ventilation to provide the building with fresh air even while the windows are not open.
Passive stack ventilation will work through; the stack effect which is based on the
movement of air inside a building as a result of the difference between the indoor
and outdoor temperatures; and the effect created by the movement of air (wind) over
the roof of the building (Buildaid 2011, p. 141). The stack effect may be briefly
explained as: warm air generated inside a building will rise naturally, resulting in
substantial pressure variations between the outside and inside air, which will then
lead to the chimney effect. This will cause air to be drawn in from the lower levels of
the building to replace the air which has risen and exited through the roof (Flynn &
Segil 1970, p. 204). The heating of chimney stacks will greatly enhance the
effectiveness of a stack ventilation system. This is because when the chimney is hot
it will heat up the air inside it, causing it to rise. This increases the temperature
differential between inside and outside the building, which results in fresh air being
drawn in from the lower levels of the building (D Conradie 2013, pers. comm. 10
October).

The design attributes applied to passively ventilated buildings will be specific to

those buildings, but the factors to be considered in all instances will remain the same
(Omer 2008, p. 1577). The entire shape of the building will influence the proficiency
of natural ventilation throughout the building. This will relate predominantly to: the
building’s dimensions and key profile features; stack geometry; thermo-physical
considerations and overall thickness of the building envelope; location and

65
dimensions of ventilated openings; interior temperature; and the orientation of the
building (Balocco & Grazzini 2008, pp. 313 & 317). It has been found that atriums
and internal stairwells are ideal design components to aid in passive stack
ventilation. Low energy fans are sometimes used to assist with the flow of air
(Buildaid 2011, p. 141).

Passive stack ventilation in commercial buildings is basically cross ventilation in that

air enters from one side and exits through the other side. Air may flow from the
perimeter of the building to the centre where it is extracted via a central stack, atrium
or chimney as shown in figure 13. Alternatively the air may enter through openings
on one side, flow across the whole width of the building and exit through a stack or
chimney on the opposite side as shown in figure 14 (Buildaid 2011, p. 142). This
may be improved by drawing the incoming air into the building from the southern
side, where natural shading results in cooler air temperatures (D Conradie 2013,
pers. comm. 10 October).

Figure 13: Passive ventilation through a central stack (Buildaid 2011, p. 141).

Figure 14: Passive ventilation through a chimney (Buildaid 2011, p. 142).

66
Where passive natural ventilation is not sufficient, ‘mixed mode’ systems are often
used. This system makes use of mechanical means to assist the natural ventilation
(Buildaid 2011, p. 142). Airflow models should be resolved in combination with
thermal models due to the interdependency between stack-driven ventilation and
temperature (Zhai, Johnson & Krarti 2011, p. 2252).

4.7.2 Ventilation through walls

Ventilated walls are double skin walls called ‘Trombe Walls’ (Holm 2009b, p. 85),
where the gap between the two skins is utilised to ventilate the building (Gratia & De
Herde 2004, p. 399). South Africa possesses an ideal climate for the effective use of
Trombe walls (D Conradie 2013, pers. comm. 10 October). During summer the
Trombe walls will extract hot air that builds up in the wall while cool air will be drawn
in through a stack effect. In winter the walls will circulate hot air in a closed loop
system (Holm 2009b, p. 85). There are two basic types of ventilated walls, one
where air is pushed or blown through the cavity by mechanical means (this being an
active strategy), and the other where natural ventilation is used via the stack effect,
which would be regarded as a passive strategy (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011 p.
3619). A louver type chimney which may extend out of a building with its opening
directed towards the prevailing wind direction is another passive method of capturing
air and forcing it indoors to ventilate a building (Hatamipour & Abedi 2008, p. 2320).

The movement of air through the use of mechanical services is often associated with
unwanted noise, while natural ventilation in a quiet building is silent (Gratia, Bruyère
& De Herde 2004, p. 1157). Carefully designed ventilated walls have achieved
energy savings of up to 40% for summer cooling; however, sub-standard
construction of these walls can lead to thermal bridging problems. The thermal
resistance of the outer wall as well as the relative irregularity of the interior surfaces
of the skins are important additional factors to consider insofar as air flow through
the wall is concerned (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3619).

4.7.3 Ventilation through the façade

The wind speed at ground level is much lower than at height because of the many
obstacles on the ground which create friction. For this reason the control of natural

67
ventilation at height is an inherently more difficult problem than at lower or ground
levels. The opening of narrow gaps like windows for ventilation carries the additional
risk that such gaps may vibrate like an organ pipe and cause unwanted noise and
whistling (Chalkey & Cater 1968, p. 43). In a study where 139 commercial and
institutional buildings were analysed, it was found that taller buildings were more air
tight than shorter buildings. One answer to why this is so could be that more care is
put into the design and construction of tall buildings than short ones, with reduced
infiltration being an unplanned benefit (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3627).

Buildings should be designed with the option for unobstructed air movement and with
consideration for the prevailing wind direction. The effects of exterior protrusions on
the flow of air through a building are illustrated in figure 15, below (Rabah 2005, p.
953).

Figure 15: Exterior protrusions affecting air flow (Rabah 2005, p. 953).

4.7.4 Night time ventilation

Night time ventilation is an effective method of cooling a building (Breesch &
Janssens 2010, p. 1454) in Gauteng (Holm 1996a, pp.66 & 71). Office buildings are
generally occupied during the day, which, along with solar gains causes an increase
in temperature. At night when the building is unoccupied, external air can be flushed
through the building so that it is cooler in the morning (Osburn 2009a, p. 164). Air
from outside the building acts as a heat sink as it flows over the exposed surfaces to
cool down the interior (Breesch & Janssens 2010, p. 1454). Warm and humid areas
as well as areas where natural night time ventilation influences (for example,
temperature and wind) are insufficient are deemed to be unsuitable for natural
ventilation (Zhai, Johnson & Krarti 2011, p. 2251). Gratia, Bruyère & De Herde
(2004, p. 1157) explain that natural night ventilation is the most effective in the early

68
morning just before sunrise, because the temperature difference between the
outside and inside air is at its maximum. According to Breesch, Bossaer & Janssens
(2004, p. 683) and Dili, Naseer & Varfhese (2010, p. 653) climatic factors, especially
outdoor temperatures, are important in the design and performance of natural night
time ventilation. The concept of night time flushing should not be confused with the
requirement for fresh air (Holm 2009b, p. 85). If night time ventilation is used to cool
a building, the opening of windows during the day with the idea of admitting fresh air
may be detrimental to the overall effects of the night time ventilation. This is because
the outside air may be warmer or cooler than the inside air.

4.7.5 Infiltration
Infiltration is the unintended and uncontrollable (Buildaid 2011, p. 134) transfer of air
from outside to inside a building through cracks, leaks, or other breaches in the
building envelope. The opposite of this is called exfiltration (Sadineni, Madala &
Boehm 2011, p. 3627). In most South African buildings air leakage accounts for 15-
25% of the total heat loss during the winter months (Buildaid 2011, p. 134).
Infiltration is the result of a pressure differential between the inside and outside of the
building envelope (stack effect), wind movement, and the use of mechanical
ventilation equipment. Climatic factors, building age, surroundings of the building,
and the quality of construction will be influences when determining the rate of
infiltration. During periods of heating, air will infiltrate the building through seepages
low down and exfiltrate through seepages higher up. The direction of this airflow will
be reversed when the interior is cooled (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3627).
Infiltration of air is neither a consistent nor is it an energy-efficient alternative to a
ventilation system that has been properly designed (Buildaid 2011, p. 134).

Odours from industrial processes, smoking and human bodily functions are among
the sources of odours within a building. Certain materials will absorb these odours
unless the internal environment is regularly flushed with clean air from the outside.
The amount of air needed will be dependent on the activities taking place within the
building. There are several types of airborne particles that are known to cause
irritation to the skin, eyes, lungs, and other critical organs. They include; dust,
smoke, fumes and pollen. Even modest amounts of these particles have been known

69
to cause discomfort (Flynn & Segil 1970, p. 88). Although particle filters are effective
in preventing pollutants from entering a building, particles and gasses may enter a
building through air infiltration. High concentrations of these particles are detrimental
to the occupants’ health. The concentration of particles within the building space is
dependent on the degree of infiltration through the building envelope (Sadineni,
Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3627).

In conclusion, the reasoning behind almost every office building using air-
conditioning systems is that during the design stage designers need to guarantee
that acceptable thermal comfort levels within the building will be achieved when the
building is occupied (Clements-Croome 1997, p. 117). Designers are unable to
guarantee the performance of passive cooling to the same degree that they can for
active cooling (Parys et al. 2012, p. 95). The thermal comfort of individuals in
naturally ventilated buildings will vary depending on the outside temperature and
environment (Holm 2009b, p. 79). This means that air-conditioning will be specified
in the possible event of the building overheating on occasion. It is now suggested
that a detailed assessment should be performed during the design stage to
determine whether or not the acceptable thermal comfort levels will be achieved with
the use of natural ventilation (Clements-Croome 1997, p. 117).

Ventilating commercial buildings by applying passive design principles is being

studied more now than in the last few decades. It is known that both inefficient air-
conditioning systems and improperly designed passive ventilation systems will lead
to CO² emissions. In contrast, not enough fresh air can have negative effects on the
indoor air quality, while excessively large amounts of air can lead to uncomfortable
draughts. Unbiased evaluations of these systems must be performed to ensure the
desired result is achieved (Omer 2008, p. 1577).

4.8 Materials

In the context of walls and roofs Alvarado, Terrell & Johnson (2009, p. 1869) provide
that passive cooling systems entail both the design as well as the selection of
construction materials which will have the resultant effect of reduced heat absorption
and conduction through the roof and walls. The goal of this system is therefore one

70
of minimizing or eliminating, where possible, the utilisation of mechanical air-
conditioning systems in order to reduce energy consumption. The careful selection of
appropriate material for construction will assist in achieving the desired energy-
efficiency. In selecting the appropriate material for construction, one should consider
several factors including overall costs, thermal performance, weight and durability
(Holmes & Hacker 2007, p. 802).

The materials used in the construction of a building must serve their purpose for an
acceptable length of time and not only when newly installed. This acceptable length
of time may last for the life of the building or for a specified number of years before
renewal; an example in this regard would be paints. The period of usefulness and
the effective performance of a material are impacted by the environmental factors
which surround it, meaning that the usefulness and effective performance must
always be viewed in relation to the environment to which it is subjected (John,
Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p. 321 & 324). Suppliers of building materials
seem to be unenthusiastic to divulge information about the materials they supply
unless there is a clear demand for it. This inhibits the designer in that they are
unsure of how the material will perform, how sustainable it is and how it will react
with materials and the environment that surrounds it (Menzies & Wherrett 2005, p.
625). The performance of materials can often be measured separately and
compared to basic standards, but their interaction with one another and their
surrounding environment is the determining factor of their overall performance. The
material will respond to the surrounding air temperature as well as its varying
temperature inside the material, which would be caused by thermal lag and radiant
heat loss or gain (John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p. 321 & 324).

Users of building materials often do not have an adequate understanding of the

implications that the chemical and physical state of the building materials they are
using may have. Building materials are, by their very nature, complex and therefore
necessitate an understanding of the chemical nature of the material which would
otherwise be meaningless to the user (John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005,
p. 321).

71
Due to the fact that building materials have a complex chemical nature, it is
important that the user completely understands the properties of the building
materials and the reactive effect that other building materials and the environment
can have on them. The designer needs to have a basic understanding of chemistry
to appreciate different types of materials, for example volatile organic compounds
(VOC’s) which are released by certain materials will affect the indoor air quality. This
reaction may be caused by the action of solar radiation. However, this is not the
case with metals or cementituous materials (John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis
2005, p. 321). The practice of selecting low-toxicity finishes and furnishings will
contribute to an improved indoor air quality. Materials that have been recycled may
also encourage a more tranquil setting for occupants (Paul & Taylor 2007, p. 1858).

It has been well documented that high thermal mass materials, such as concrete and
other cement-based materials, which are subject to high ambient temperatures, such
as in tropical climates, can absorb thermal energy over a long period of time. It has
also been documented that the thermal energy retained in these cement-based
buildings exceeds the normal diurnal cycle, thus they are unable to dissipate their
absorbed thermal energy rapidly enough overnight at which time backward radiation
is significant (Alvarado, Terrell & Johnson 2009, p.1869). The climates of Gauteng
on the other hand, are regarded as being: warm temperate, with dry winter and hot
summer; warm temperate, with dry winter and warm summer; hot arid; and cold arid
(Conradie 2012, p. 5), with large diurnal variations of around 13°C (Holm 1996a, pp.
65 & 70). This climate is therefore ideal for the use of high thermal mass materials
(Holm & Viljoen 1996, p. 11).

Solar reflective roofs, otherwise known as cool roofs have been treated with a
coating that has a high solar reflectance and infrared emittance which ensures a
lower roof surface temperature and retards the conduction of heat into the building.
The factors that affect the performance of these coverings are the solar reflectance
(SR) and the infrared emittance (emissivity). Orthodox roofing materials have a SR
of 0.05-0.25, while reflective roof coatings can improve the SR to upwards of 0.6.
Most conventional roofing materials have an emissivity value of 0.85. Roof coatings
such as white elastomeric or aluminium coatings can improve the SR and emissivity

72
of roof by as much as 0.5 as indicated in table 5 (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011,
p. 3623).
Solar reflectance and infrared emittance properties of typical roof types along with temperature rise
Roof surface type Solar reflectance Infrared transmittance Roof surface temperature °C
Ethylene propylene diene monomer 0.06 0.86 46.1
Thermoplastic polyolefin (TPO) 0.69 0.87 13.9
Bitumen- smooth surface 0.06 0.86 46.1
Bitumen- white granules 0.26 0.92 35
Built-up-roof- dark gravel 0.12 0.90 42.2
Built-up-roof- light gravel 0.34 0.90 31.7
Asphalt shingles- generic black 0.05 0.91 45.6
Asphalt shingles- generic white 0.25 0.91 35.6
Shingles- white elastomeric 0.71 0.91 12.2
Shingles- aluminium coating 0.54 0.42 28.3
Steel- new, bare, galvanized 0.61 0.04 30.6
Aluminium 0.61 0.25 26.7
Siliconized polyester- white 0.59 0.85 20.6
Table 5: Solar reflectance and infrared emittance characteristics of conventional roof
varieties together with temperature increase (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3624).

The temperature of a concrete roof that has been painted white may be reduced by
4°C during a summer’s day and 2°C at night. In order to determine which roof
coating to use, both daytime and night time factors should be taken into
consideration (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, p. 3622).

Phase change material (PCM) is a term used to describe a material which retains
and discharges heat energy to lower the cooling and heating loads of a building.
Essentially they operate in the same way as thermal mass by liquefying as they
absorb heat, thus stopping the heat from reaching the interior space, and
discharging the heat (usually at night) when the outside temperature drops.
Lightweight gypsum or concrete materials which contain phase change materials are
capable of enhancing the thermal storage capacity of a buildings envelope. The
PCM impregnation properties in plaster board materials are better in comparison to
those contained in pumice concrete blocks because the plaster board material is
porous. The capacity for thermal heat storage in PCM-based materials will depend
on the weight percentage of PCM which has been impregnated in the material. In a
study conducted involving gypsum board wall linings, where PCM-based walls and
non-PCM-based walls were compared, it was concluded that the PCM-based wall
lining reduced the peak room temperature by 4°C which lead to a reduction of the
night time heating demand. In another study, an organic-based PCM (bioPCM)

73
showed a maximum energy saving and cost saving of 30% over conventional
materials (Sadineni, Madala & Boehm 2011, pp. 3621 & 3626).

Having cognisance of the prior performance of traditional materials over many years
enables one to predict the performance of those same materials in comparable
circumstances. Results of such prior performances have resolved the question as to
‘how’, but not necessarily ‘why’ materials react the way they do. Without clarifying
the fundamental factors of ‘why’ previously used materials reacted the way they did,
difficulties will arise in predicting how materials that have never before been used will
react in a similar situation. In the same vein, one would not be in a position to predict
how traditional materials would react in a different situation. Experience and analysis
are fundamental factors in execution of design judgement. These aspects must be
employed in the development of new materials or the improvement of a material’s
performance. To accurately predict this performance there must be a complete
understanding of the properties of a material, the interaction of the material with its
environment, as well as the environmental factors to which the material is exposed
(John, Clements-Croome & Jeronimidis 2005, p. 322).

4.9 Evaporative Cooling

Evaporative cooling is a technique whereby water vapour is used to cool an air

stream. The roof, being the part of the building significantly exposed to the natural
elements, may serve as a helpful tool for heat dissipation of the building. Some have
suggested that roof ponds could be used as an evaporative cooling system in terms
of which heat is dissipated by means of evaporation, radiation and conduction. One
study revealed that an open roof pond of between 0.05m and 0.15m deep can
reduce the roof temperature by approximately 23-26°C (Spanaki, Tsoutos &
Kolokotsa 2011, pp. 3524-3532). Furthermore, Kaushik & Chandra (1982, p. 274)
state that when there is controlled ventilation in a building with an open pond,
passive solar air-conditioning may be more effectively attained because of such
ventilation. Roof ponds function well in climates that encourage evaporative and
radiative cooling and will contribute considerably to the energy demand reduction in
the building sector. The system of the ‘energy roof’ as shown in figure 16 was
patented by Pittinger and White in America.

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Figure 16: Energy roof pond (Spanaki, Tsoutos & Kolokotsa 2011, pp. 3526).

In this system, water is kept in a parapet whilst thermal insulation floats on the
surface of the water under a thin waterproof film (Spanaki, Tsoutos & Kolokotsa
2011, p. 3528). At night, water is circulated through the system between the thin film
and the cover of insulation via an electric pump. The shallow water level allows for
heat that has built up during the day to be discharged into the cooler evening air by
long wave radiation. The system of an energy roof can thus be used for summer
cooling (Spanaki, Tsoutos & Kolokotsa 2011, pp. 3524-3532). This would be the
ideal system to use for office buildings in Gauteng as there is very little need to
replace water in the system and Gauteng does not generally have very high levels of
humidity. Although the energy roof is the best roof pond solution for multi-storey
buildings, it features an electric pump which circulates water throughout the system
to aid in the cooling process. This makes it an active technology but if solar panels
are used to power the pump, minimal additional costs are incurred.

An evaluation framework of the passive design principles and their various strategies
relevant to the climatic conditions of Gauteng has been generated from the data
gathered in this chapter. The framework, located in the following chapter, indicates
the areas of application of passive strategies in the various designs of the buildings
being investigated. An interview template has been structured according to the
layout of the evaluation framework to answer the questions of which strategies are
commonly applied, and why. This template may be viewed in annexure 3. The
evaluation framework and interview template covers the following passive principles
and strategies.

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 Location
 Location of the site
 Position of building on site
 Effects of heat island
 Measures to reduce heat island

 Orientation
 Orientation on site
 Orientation limitations

 Building layout
 Floor plate characteristics
 Electrical device considerations

 Fenestration
 Window design
 Low-emissivity coatings
 Aerogel glazing
 Single, double and triple pane glazing
 Double glazing cavity options
 Switchable reflective glazing
 Holographic optical elements
 Window frames
 Skylights

 Insulation
 Insulation of the roof
 Insulation of walls
 Insulation of floors

 Thermal mass
 Thermal mass materials
 Thermal batteries

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 Shading
 Surrounding shade considerations
 Façade shading
 Internal shading
 View considerations
 Roof shading

 Ventilation
 Passive stack ventilation
 Ventilation through walls
 Ventilation through the façade
 Night time ventilation
 Infiltration

 Materials
 Environmental aspects
 Phase change materials
 Experimental materials
 Traditional materials

 Evaporative cooling
 Roof ponds

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Chapter 5: Interview data analysis

Seven willing architects from three prominent Gauteng architecture firms have been
interviewed according to the interview template, during which 53 building-specific
questions and 12 architect-specific questions were asked. The building-specific
questions were asked to determine which passive strategies had been applied or not
applied to which areas of the design, and the reasons behind the decisions. It is
important to note that the architect did not make all of the decisions in terms of the
building design. In many instances professional consultants were involved in the
decision making process. For this reason the data analysis discussion refers to
‘Respondents’ rather than to ‘Architects’. The architect-specific questions have been
asked in an attempt to gain an understanding of what the architect’s opinion on
passive design is. The purpose of this chapter is to report back on the data revealed
through the interviews. Data gained from the interviews is tabulated and analysed
with the aim to identify trends and patterns in the responses.

5.1 Which passive design strategies are commonly applied or not

applied to office buildings in Gauteng?

This section of Chapter Five attempts to answer sub-question 2 ‘Which passive

design strategies are commonly applied or not applied to office buildings in
Gauteng?’ For reference purposes the table below has been inserted. It is intended
to provide a brief description of the orientation, size, height, shape, year of
completion, and Green Star rating achieved by the buildings which were
investigated.
Building Orientation Size Height Shape Year Green
name in m2 in Star
(GFA) storeys
A1 North East 16 000 5 Doughnut* 2013 5-Star
A2 North East 12 000 5 Doughnut* 2012 4-Star
A3 North 30 600 4 Finger shaped* 2014 6-Star
B1 North East 36 000 8 Square, N & S* rec blocks* 2012 4-Star
B2 North 21 000 8 Doughnut* 2013 4-Star
B3 North West 4 500 5 Rectangular* 2012 4-Star
C1 North 74 000 11 Rectangular 2013 5-Star
C2 North 45 500 7 Double H* 2009 4-Star
*: buildings with a central atrium; N: North; S: South; rec: Rectangular.

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5.1.1 Data analyses of evaluation framework

The table below indicates which of the buildings investigated had passive design principles and strategies applied and not applied
to them. The data shown in the table has been gathered through interviews conducted with the various building designers.
Designers either answered yes ‘Y’, or no ‘N’; however, the answer given is not always an indication of whether the application or
exclusion of a strategy was beneficial to the performance of the building. For example, if a thermal battery has not been used, it
may have been because there was enough thermal mass in the structure. Where a strategy is not applicable to a building, a “-” will
be indicated. The reasons for making the decisions are dealt with in the next section (5.2) of this chapter.

Passive How it is applied to the building A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2

Principle
Location Was the surrounding climate considered during the design phase? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Will the building be subject to a heat island? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Have measures been taken to reduce the heat generated by the building on Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
the surrounding environment?

Orientation Is the building orientated according to the prevailing wind direction? N N N N N - N N

Is the building orientated according to sunlight? Y Y Y Y N N Y N
Is the building orientated according to the views required? N N N N N Y N N
Is the orientation of the building limited in any way? Y Y N Y Y Y N Y

Layout Does the building have a shallow floor plan? N N Y N Y Y Y N

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 Is energy-efficiency a consideration in the selection of electrical devices? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

Fenestration Are openable windows used? N N Y N N Y N N

Do the windows seal completely when closed? - - Y - - Y Y -
Are the windows positioned according to the orientation of the building? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Are low-emissivity coatings used on the windows? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Is aerogel glazing used on the windows? N N N N N N N N
Are exterior single pane windows used? Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Are exterior double pane windows used? Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y
Are exterior triple pane windows used? N N N N N N Y N
Are the windows vacuum glazed? N N N Y Y - N Y
Is Argon gas used between the glazing panels? N N Y N N - N N
Is Krypton gas used between the glazing panels? N N N N N - Y N
Is dehydrated air used between the glazing panels? Y Y N Y N - N N
Are switchable reflective glazing (electrochromics) used? N N N N N N N N
Are switchable reflective glazing (gasochromics) used? N N N N N N N N
Are holographic optical elements used? N N N N N N N N
Are the window frames insulated? N N Y N N N Y N
Is the level of air infiltration through the facade: low medium or high? M M L M M L M L
Are skylights used? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

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Insulation Is insulation used on the roof? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Is the building envelope Insulated? Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y
Is the ground floor slab insulated? N N Y Y N N N N

Thermal Are materials chosen for their thermal mass properties? Y Y Y Y N N Y N

mass
Is a thermal battery used? N N N N N N N N

Shading Is the building in the shade of other structures? Y Y N Y Y N N Y

Are external shading devices used? Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Are the external shading devices designed according to the sun path? N Y Y N N Y - -
Are internal shading devices used? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Do the shading devices block the view? N Y N N N N Y N
Are there shading devices on the roof? N N Y N N N N N

Ventilation Is passive natural ventilation used? (stack driven) N N Y N N N N N

Is active natural ventilation used? (mechanical) Y Y N Y Y N Y Y
Are exterior protrusions used to aid in flow of air into building? - - N - - - - -
Is night time ventilation used? Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y
Is there passive ventilation through the roof? N N Y N N N N N
Is there passive ventilation through the walls? N N N N N N N N

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 Is there passive ventilation through the windows? N N Y N N N N N
Are particle filters used on incoming air? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

Materials Are the construction materials selected because they are environmentally Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
friendly/ sustainable?

Are solar reflective coatings used on the roofs? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N

Are phase change materials (PCM) used? Y Y N N N N N N
Are organic-based phase change materials (BioPCM) used? N N N N N N N N
Have substantial amounts of experimental materials been used? Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y
Have substantial amounts of traditional materials been used? Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y

Evaporative Has a roof pond been used? N N N Y N N N N

cooling

Sub-question 2 is, ‘Which passive design strategies are commonly applied or not applied to office buildings in Gauteng?’ Analysis
of the data in the above table has provided the answer to this question. Passive strategies most commonly applied to buildings in
Gauteng may therefore be summarised as: consideration of the climatic conditions of the development, orientation according to
sunlight, shallow floor plans, performance single and double glazing, low-emissivity window coatings, skylights, insulation of the
roof and building envelope, thermal mass, external and internal shading, night time ventilation, and solar reflective roof coatings.
Appropriate passive strategies which are not commonly applied include: the use of openable windows, insulation of window frames,
insulation of the ground floor slab, thermal batteries, shading devices on the roof, passive natural ventilation, and roof ponds.

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5.2 Why are the passive design strategies identified in sub-question
2 applied or not applied to office buildings in Gauteng?

5.2.1 Data interpretation guidelines

The reasoning behind designers’ decisions are dealt with in this section. The findings
of the “Why” part of the interviews are displayed by graphical means with a narrative
explaining the graph. A standardised graph has been used for purposes of
uniformity. In the top row of the graph the question number and question are set out.
Architects being interviewed were able to choose between two possible answers,
“Yes” or “No”. The answer, predominant or main reason, and other reasons are set
out one below the other on the left hand side of the graph, while the number of
answers, main reasons, and other reasons to the corresponding question are
indicated by coloured bars on the right hand side of the graph. The graph has a
minimum of 0 responses and a maximum of 8.

Below is an example of the graph used. In this hypothetical scenario, five

respondents provided the answer “Yes”. Of those five, three provided the same
reason for their response, while the remaining two provided a reason which differed
from the main reason. This is indicated on the graph by the “Yes” answer row being
coloured in from 1-5, the main reason row coloured in from 1-3, and the other reason
row being coloured in from 1-2. The same would apply to a “No” response. Where
three respondents have answered “No”, two provided the same reason for their
response, while the remaining one provided a reason which differed from the main
reason.

Question N: Example question.

Answer Yes
Main reason Main reason.
Other reasons Other reasons.

Answer No
Main reason Main reason.
Other reasons Other reasons.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Note that in some instances the answer may be “Yes” and “No”. For example a
building may have both movable and fixed shading devices. This will be addressed
where this situation occurs.

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5.2.2 Data Analysis of interview responses: Building-specific questions

Question: 1 Was the surrounding climate considered during the design phase?
Answer Yes
Main reason To assist in the design.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason -
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 3: Consideration of local climate
All eight of the respondents considered the surrounding climate in some way during
the design of their buildings, however, the extent to which the climate was
considered and specific reasons for taking the climate into consideration varied. The
main reason for taking the climate into consideration was to assist in the selection of
design strategies. The specific reasons for taking the climate into consideration
included: inputting climatic data into energy models to assist in the design;
determining mechanical HVAC and glazing requirements through knowledge of the
surrounding climate; and determining the effects that the surrounding structures and
climate would have on the proposed building once the building has been completed
as well as in the future.

None of the respondents answered “No”.

Question: 2 Will the building be subject to a heat island?

Answer Yes
Main reason Building is located in city.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason -
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 4: Building subject to urban heat island
All eight of the respondents agreed that the buildings would be subject to urban heat
islands because of their location within the cities, proximity to various heat sources,
and the abundance of heat absorbing hardscapes. One respondent chose to use
thermal mass as a strategy to mitigate the effects of the heat island on the building.

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None of the respondents answered “No”.

Question: 3 Have measures been taken to reduce the heat generated by the building
on the surrounding environment?
Answer Yes
Main reason To reduce building’s effect on island.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Never a consideration.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 5: Measures to reduce heat generation
Six of the respondents took measures to reduce the effects that the building would
have on the existing urban heat island. Of the six respondents who answered “Yes”;
five used soft landscaping or roof gardens; two used specific roof coatings to reflect
heat off the building; and two stated that they purposefully moved the parking areas
underground to reduce the amount of heat generated by the building on the
surrounding environment. Two of the buildings were registered according to LEED
Neighbourhood Development because Green Star does not provide a tool to
measure the effect of the building on the thermal heat island. One of the buildings
made use of the photovoltaic (PV) cells as a form of shading device to shade the
roof. This is the 6-star rated building.

Two respondents did not consider the fact that the building would be subject to an
urban heat island or what the effects of the building would be on the existing heat
island.

Question: 4 Is the building orientated according to the prevailing wind direction?

Answer Yes
Main reason -
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Wind is not a factor in Gauteng.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 6: Orientated according to wind
None of the respondents answered “Yes”.

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Seven of the respondents did not orientate the building according the prevailing wind
direction. The main reason for this is that Gauteng is generally not a very windy area,
rather sunlight and site boundaries are the more important considerations in the
orientation of a building. Of the seven respondents, one designed the form of the
building to shelter the openings and balconies from the prevailing wind. The southern
side of the building is vertically dropped and has no openings.

One respondent was unable to answer this question as the building was a renovation
job and the reasons behind the original orientation is unknown, but it is believed to
have been orientated for views required from the street as it used to be a car
dealership.

Question: 5 Is the building orientated according to sunlight?

Answer Yes
Main reason To take advantage of the natural light.
Other reasons To reduce the heating loads.

Answer No
Main reason Site boundaries dictated orientation.
Other reasons Dictated by the original orientation.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 7: Orientated according to sunlight
Of the eight buildings, five were orientated according to the sun to take advantage of
the natural sunlight. The distinction between taking advantage of the natural sunlight
in terms of lighting and reduction of solar heat gain was made by all of the
respondents.

Three of the buildings were not orientated according to sunlight. The reason for two
of them was that the site boundaries and bulk requirements limited the orientation of
the buildings. It was fortunate, however, that the orientation was northwards. The
reason for the third was that the orientation was dictated by the existing building’s
orientation. This orientation was north-west, the worst orientation for the Gauteng
climate. The negative effects of this orientation have been mitigated by the use of
shading and an HVAC system. One respondent stated that the heat loads resulting
from the solar radiation have a direct effect on the size and type of HVAC system
installed.

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Question: 6 Is the building orientated according to the views required?
Answer Yes
Main reason Views were required from the street.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Orientated to sun or site boundaries.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 8: Orientated according to views
One of the buildings has been orientated north-west, the worst direction for a
building in Johannesburg to be orientated. The architect is unable to change the
orientation as it is a refurbishment job. It is believed that because the building was
previously a car dealership it was orientated so as to take advantage of the views
from the street.

The other seven buildings have not been orientated according to views because
other factors such as the sun and site boundaries were more important. All of these
buildings have some form of central atrium to create more views from the inside.
Several of the respondents indicated that the Green Star system was a helpful tool in
determining the views required by occupants of the buildings to ensure sufficiently
high levels of comfort. One of the respondents stated that the orientation of the
building had two advantages, one being that it took advantage of the sun, and the
other being that it was right in front of one of the Gautrain stations.

Question: 7 Is the orientation of the building limited in any way?

Answer Yes
Main reason Limited by site boundaries.
Other reasons Dictated by the original orientation.

Answer No
Main reason Site allowed for ideal orientation.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 9: Orientation limitations
Of the five buildings that have had their ideal orientation limited in certain ways, four
were limited by the sites boundaries. Of those four, two of the buildings have been
orientated at 18 degrees off north and two are north-facing, which means that while
the orientation has been limited, it has not been to such an extent that the buildings

87
are unable to take advantage of the sun. The fifth building’s orientation is north-west
which had been dictated by the original orientation of the building. The designs were
adjusted to reduce the negative effects of an imperfect orientation.

The orientation of three of the buildings was not limited in any way because they are
situated on fairly open sites and are orientated correctly. This has proven to be
invaluable to the designers of these three buildings because they are able to
orientate and design the building in such a way as to take full advantage of the
effects of the South African and specifically the Gauteng sun.

Question: 8 Does the building have a shallow floor plan?

Answer Yes
Main reason Building is small or has a large atrium.
Other reasons Designed to let in light.

Answer No
Main reason Atriums have been used for lighting.
Other reasons It is a large building.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 10: Floor plan
The Green Star system requires a certain percentage of occupants to have a direct
view of either the outside or into an atrium. Four of the buildings have a shallow floor
plate. The reason for two of the buildings having a shallow floor plate is that the
atrium used is very big. The other, third building, is relatively small and rectangular.
Therefore, a shallow floor plate is to be expected, while the fourth building has been
designed to have a shallow floor plate specifically to let light enter the building.

Four of the buildings have a deep floor plan. The reason behind all four buildings
having a deep floor plan is that they all make use of atriums to increase the amount
of light entering the building. The use of atriums also adds to comfort levels as
occupants are able to look outside or into the atriums. In addition, the reason for two
of the four buildings having a deep floor plate is because they are simply large
buildings. One building has a very deep floor plate on the ground floor because the
types of businesses situated there do not require high levels of lighting or views.

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Question: 9 Is energy-efficiency a consideration in the selection of electrical devices?
Answer Yes
Main reason To reduce energy consumption.
Other reasons Specified by the client.

Answer No
Main reason -
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 11: Selection of electrical devices
All eight of the respondents answered that energy-efficiency was an important
consideration in the selection of all of the electrical devices used in the building from
highly efficient motion activated HVAC installations to low-energy, intelligent lighting
systems. Five of the clients specifically stated that they wanted highly efficient
electrical systems to be used in their buildings. One of the respondents stated that
calculations were performed to determine the amount and layout of lights. Most of
the respondent’s mentioned that the Green Star Rating had influenced their selection
of energy-efficient electrical systems.

None of the respondents answered “No”.

Question: 10 Are openable windows used?

Answer Yes
Main reason Smoke ventilation.
Other reasons Ventilation and night time flushing.

Answer No
Main reason Will make HVAC system less effective.
Other reasons Aesthetic considerations.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 12: Openable windows
Two of the buildings made use of openable windows. Both buildings use the
openable windows for smoke extraction, but only one of them, the 6-star rated
building, had the windows installed for ventilation purposes as well as night time
flushing. The windows are manually openable in certain areas and mechanically
actuated in other areas.

Six of the buildings have not made use of openable windows. The most prevalent
reason for this is that the buildings are pressurised systems and an open window

89
would cause the HVAC system to be inefficient. Two of the six respondents also
stated that the openable windows would not suit the aesthetic requirements of the
designs.

Question: 11 Do the windows seal completely when closed?

Answer Yes
Main reason To stop the infiltration of air.
Other reasons -

Answer No/ NA
Main reason The windows do not open.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 13: Window sealing characteristics
The openable windows used in the above two buildings do seal completely when
closed. The windows in the third building are not openable during the normal
operation of the building, but they are able to open for maintenance and cleaning
purposes. All of the windows seal completely when closed to stop the infiltration of
air through the windows.

Five of the buildings do not use openable windows, thus this question is not
applicable to them.

Question: 12 Are the windows positioned according to the orientation of the building?
Answer Yes
Main reason Provide light & reduce heat gain/ glare.
Other reasons Provide views.

Answer No
Main reason -
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 14: Position of windows
All eight of the respondents have placed the windows according to the orientation of
the building. In most cases this meant that more windows were placed on the north
and south façades, and less on the east and west façades. One building made use
of scallops to catch the sun from the north and south as a source of light. One
respondent stated that the windows had been specifically placed on the north-west
and south-east façades to provide for views.

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None of the respondents answered “No”.

Question: 13 Are low-emissivity coatings used on the windows?

Answer Yes
Main reason To reduce heat gain and glare
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason -
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 15: Low-emissivity coatings
All eight of the buildings made use of low-emissivity coatings in different forms. Hard
coatings were most commonly used. The coatings were used on both single and
double glazing to reduce solar heat gain and glare through the windows. The glass
being used on all of the buildings is performance glass. Differently rated glass was
installed in different parts of the buildings, depending on what the heat loads and
thermal requirements were. Several of the clients insisted on clear glass, as opposed
to reflective glass, because they wanted the public to view the buildings, and
organisations working within the buildings as being transparent.

None of the respondents answered “No”.

Question: 14 Is aerogel glazing used on the windows?

Answer Yes
Main reason -
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason There was no need for the product.
Other reasons Architect was unaware of the product.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 16: Aerogel glazing on windows
None of the respondents answered “Yes”.

None of the eight respondents were of the opinion that aerogel glazing was
necessary in their designs. Four of the eight respondents were unaware of what the
product was. This appeared to be one of the products that the respondents were
least knowledgeable about.

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Question: 15 Are exterior single pane windows used?
Answer Yes
Main reason Building did not require anything better.
Other reasons Cost constraints.

Answer No
Main reason Insulation qualities not high enough.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 17: Exterior single pane windows
Note: Some of the buildings have made use of combinations of single, double, and
even triple glazing.

Of the seven buildings that made use of single glazing, six used it because the
energy model indicated that single glazing would be sufficient to achieve the required
performance from the building. Four respondents stated that the cost involved in
double glazing was part of the reason they opted to use single glazing. Other
reasons for using single glazing include the fact that double glazing cannot be
formed into a curve; laminated single glazing was more practical and safer; and
laminated single glazing was thought to be a sufficient sound insulator.

The one building that did not use single glazing did so because the required
performance of the building was so high that single glazing was simply not an option
because it did not boast the required level of insulation. This was the 6-star rated
building.

Question: 16 Are exterior double pane windows used?

Answer Yes
Main reason Thermal insulation characteristics.
Other reasons Acoustic insulation characteristics.

Answer No
Main reason Cost consideration.
Other reasons Not required.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 18: Exterior double pane windows
Seven of the buildings used double glazing for its thermal insulation properties. Two
of the buildings chose only to use double glazing in certain areas, where the energy
model indicated it was required, as it is very costly. One of the buildings has used

92
double glazing as part of a triple glazing system. Three of the buildings used double
glazing for the acoustic insulation characteristics.

One of the buildings does not make use of double glazing because of the cost
associated with the type of window, the unsubstantial decrease in sound insulation,
and the fact that the energy model indicated that double glazing was not a
requirement for the building.

Question: 17 Are exterior triple pane windows used?

Answer Yes
Main reason For the thermal insulation properties.
Other reasons External shading devices are not used.

Answer No
Main reason Cost constraints.
Other reasons Not necessary.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 19: Exterior triple pane windows
One of the respondents chose to use a triple glazed façade system because a fully
glazed flush external façade was required by the client, which meant that no shading
devices were allowed to protrude from the building. The shading device had to be
integrated into the triple glazed system. The reason for using the triple glazed
system was to reduce the heat gain through the fully glazed façade because external
shading devices had not been used.

Seven of the eight buildings did not use triple glazing. Cost implication was the
reason for six of the buildings not using triple glazing; it not being necessary was the
additional reason for two of the six buildings not using triple glazing.

Question: 18 Are the windows vacuum glazed?

Answer Yes
Main reason Thermal insulation properties.
Other reasons No moisture build-up if vacuumed.

Answer No
Main reason Argon or Krypton gas is used.
Other reasons Dehydrated air is used.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 20: Vacuum glazed windows

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Three of the buildings have utilized vacuum glazed windows because of the thermal
insulation characteristics associated with having a void space between the two
panes of glass. One of the three respondents stated that vacuum glazed windows
were selected because merely using air inside the cavity often leads to moisture
build-up.

Five of the respondents chose to not use vacuum glazing. The reason behind the
first two buildings not using a vacuum is that Argon or Krypton gas was used in the
cavity. The reason for the second two buildings not using a vacuum is that energy
models suggested that only having dehydrated air inside the cavity was sufficient
insulation. The reason for the last respondent not using a vacuum was that the
building did not have double glazed windows.

Question: 19 Is Argon gas used between the glazing panels?

Answer Yes
Main reason Selected for insulation properties.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Other methods used.
Other reasons Single glazing used.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 21: Argon gas between glazing panels
Only one building used Argon gas in the cavity of the window. This gas was selected
because of its insulation properties.

Seven of the buildings did not use Argon gas. The reasons for this were: Krypton
gas; single glazing; vacuum glazing; and dehydrated air were used.

Question: 20 Is Krypton gas used between the glazing panels?

Answer Yes
Main reason Selected for insulation properties.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Other methods used.
Other reasons Single glazing used.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 22: Krypton gas between glazing panels

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Only one building used Krypton gas in the cavity of the window. This gas was
selected because of its insulation properties.

Seven of the buildings did not use Krypton gas. The reasons for this were: Argon
gas; single glazing; vacuum glazing; and dehydrated air were used.

Question: 21 Is dehydrated air used between the glazing panels?

Answer Yes
Main reason Did not require anything more than air.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Other methods used.
Other reasons Single glazing used.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 23: Dehydrated air between glazing panels
Two buildings used dehydrated air in the cavity of the window. Dehydrated air was
selected because the energy model indicated that it would be a sufficient thermal
insulator for the desired performance level of the building.

Six of the buildings did not use air as the insulator. The reasons for this were: Argon
and Krypton gas; single glazing; and vacuum glazing were used.

Question: 22 Are switchable reflective glazing (electrochromics) used?

Answer Yes
Main reason -
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason The product was not necessary.
Other reasons Cost considerations.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 24: Electrochromics
None of the respondents answered “Yes”.

None of the eight respondents used electrochromics, because the building did not
require opaque windows. In most cases the client specifically stated that clear glass
was necessary because they wanted the building and organisation to be portrayed
as being transparent in the eyes of the public. Two of the respondents noted that the

95
cost of the technology and the fact that it was not reliable made it unsuitable for use
in the buildings.

Question: 23 Are switchable reflective glazing (gasochromics) used?

Answer Yes
Main reason -
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason The product was not necessary.
Other reasons Cost considerations.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 25: Gasochromics
None of the respondents answered “Yes”.

None of the eight respondents used gasochromics, because the building did not
require opaque windows. In most cases the client specifically stated that clear glass
was necessary because they wanted the building and organisation to be portrayed
as being transparent in the eyes of the public. Two of the respondents noted that the
cost of the technology and the fact that it was not reliable made it unsuitable for use
in the buildings.

Question: 24 Are holographic optical elements used?

Answer Yes
Main reason -
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason No need for the product.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 26: Holographic optical elements
None of the respondents answered “Yes”.

None of the eight respondents used holographic optical elements, because the
building did not require additional sunlight to be directed inward. In most cases the
client specifically stated that clear glass was necessary because they wanted the
building and organisation to be portrayed as being transparent in the eyes of the

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public. Floor to ceiling windows and atriums with skylights were installed to provide
the buildings with ample levels of natural light.

Question: 25 Are the window frames insulated?

Answer Yes
Main reason Thermal insulation.
Other reasons Acoustic insulation.

Answer No
Main reason The product is not readily available.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 27: Insulated window frames
Two buildings had thermally insulated frames to reduce the amount of heat gain
through the frames, while one respondent stated that the need for acoustic insulation
was also a reason for insulating the frames. One of these buildings was the 6-star
rated, and the other was a 5-star building.

Six of the buildings did not have insulated frames. The most prevalent reason was
that the system was, and is still not readily available in South Africa as South African
glazing contractors have been slow to adopt the concept of insulated frames and
change their frame profiles. This means that if designers want specific insulated
frames, they would have to import the frames.

Question: 26 Is the level of air infiltration through the facade: low, medium or high?
Answer Low
Main reason Building designed to be air tight.
Other reasons -

Answer Medium
Main reason Inefficient methods of installation.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 28: Level of air infiltration through the facade
The responses to this question varied somewhat. It is impossible for the buildings to
be pressure tested because the technology does not exist in SA. Three of the
respondents replied that the infiltration of air into or out of the building was low
because the building had been designed to be air tight. The trend that has been
noticed up to this point is that the higher the Green Star Rating of the building, the
better the overall build quality and performance. Of the three respondents that were
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of the opinion that air infiltration into the building was low, only one of them
possessed a high (6-star) Green Star Rating.

Of the five respondents who answered that the infiltration was medium, two buildings
had a high (5-star) Green Star Rating. The respondents of these buildings believed
that even though the building had been designed to be air tight and the glazing
components used were air tight, the method of construction in SA is not to the
required standard for the glazing elements to perform at their optimum. The
remaining three respondents agree that infiltration is considered to be medium
because SA is not yet geared towards high performance construction methods.

Question: 27 Are skylights used?

Answer Yes
Main reason To provide natural light.
Other reasons To provide views.

Answer No
Main reason -
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 29: Skylights
All eight of the buildings used skylights in some form. They varied from large atriums
to double volumes. The most prevalent reasons for using the skylights were to allow
natural light into the buildings and to reduce the amount of energy consuming
artificial light sources. One of the respondents specifically noted that the atriums had
also been used to provide views to the outside. One of the skylight systems has
mechanically openable windows to assist in night time flushing.

None of the respondents answered “No”.

Question: 28 Is insulation used on the roof?

Answer Yes
Main reason Reduce heat gain through the roof.
Other reasons Reduce heat loss through the roof.

Answer No
Main reason -
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 30: Insulation on the roof

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All eight of the buildings had roof insulation in one form or another. The main reason
for this was to reduce solar heat gain through the roof. Three respondents stated that
they had used energy models to determine the type and placement of insulation.
Two of the respondents also stated that the insulation had been used to reduce the
amount of heat loss through the roof. The location of the insulation on the roof varied
from either being on top of or below the slab, but the reasons for the location varied
considerably among the buildings.

None of the respondents answered “No”.

Question: 29 Is the building envelope insulated?

Answer Yes
Main reason Reduce heat flow through envelope.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Insulation not required.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 31: Insulation of the building envelope
The envelopes of seven of the buildings were insulated in some way. Three buildings
used insulation material on the interior walls. The remaining four buildings have
some form of cavity wall. It was shown by energy models that on two of these
buildings insulation would have had a negative effect if it were to be placed on the
inside of the cavity walls, because it would have worked against the thermal mass
properties of the concrete. It was then decided that the insulation which was
supposed to be installed in the cavity walls would be left out and that the inherent
thermal mass characteristics of concrete would be taken advantage of. The only
reason for all seven of the respondents making use of some form insulation, whether
it was insulating material or insulation through the building form, on the building
envelope was to reduce the flow of heat through the envelope.

One building did not make use of any insulation in the building envelope because
energy models suggested that it was not necessary, and that the thermal mass
characteristics of a 220mm brick wall would be sufficient.

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Question: 30 Is the ground floor slab insulated?
Answer Yes
Main reason Reduce heat movement through slab.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Thermal mass properties.
Other reasons Not beneficial.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 32: Insulation of ground floor slab
Two of the respondents chose to insulate the ground floor slab to reduce the flow of
heat through the slab.

Six of the buildings have not insulated the ground floor slabs. The reason for three of
these buildings not insulating the floor slab is that the thermal mass characteristic of
the flooring material was desired. Two buildings did not have an insulated floor
because there were no benefits associated with it. One building did not have an
insulated floor because the basement levels were sealed and they were essentially
part of the building.

Question: 31 Are materials chosen for their thermal mass properties?

Answer Yes
Main reason Assist in reducing the HVAC load.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Not a requirement.
Other reasons Never a consideration.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 33: Materials chosen for the thermal mass properties
Concrete is the material that was chosen by five of the respondents for its thermal
mass properties. The respondents viewed the decision to take advantage of the
thermal mass characteristics of concrete because it is the logical thing to do in the
process of conserving energy. In three cases, insulation was not used in conjunction
with concrete because it was argued that the two systems would work against each
other. In one case, that of the 6-star rated building, insulation was used on the
internal 220mm brick walls because it was seen as beneficial during the energy
modelling.

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Three of the respondents did not select the building materials because of their
thermal mass properties. The reasons for this vary significantly. One reason was that
there was no point in selecting materials for a 4-star building that will have the results
of a 6-star building. Another reason was that thermal mass was never a
consideration in the design of the building because a high performance HVAC
system was used. The third reason for not designing specifically to have thermal
mass was because the architect had to follow the theme of the surrounding existing
buildings.

Question: 32 Is a thermal battery used?

Answer Yes
Main reason -
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason HVAC system was selected at start.
Other reasons Too expensive and space consuming.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 34: Thermal battery
None of the respondents answered “Yes”.

None of the eight buildings have installed a thermal battery because it was decided
at the commencement of all of the projects that HVAC systems would be used.
Three of the respondents included the fact that a thermal battery is too bulky and too
expensive to be considered as a viable option. Two respondents mentioned that the
materials used in the building had a high density and thermal mass and that the
whole building actually acted like a thermal battery. One respondent commented that
the building was too large for a thermal battery to be used, but it may have been an
option on a smaller building.

Question: 33 Is the building in the shade of other structures?

Answer Yes
Main reason Shaded by nearby building.
Other reasons Shaded by taller building.

Answer No
Main reason Situated on open sites.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 35: Building shaded by other structures

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Five of the buildings are shaded by other structures. However, none of these
buildings are constantly in the shade of those structures. The buildings are in the
shade of surrounding structures during certain periods of the day. These periods are
mostly in the early morning and late afternoon, which is advantageous because the
low angles of light are less of an issue. Three of the buildings are shaded by low rise
buildings nearby, while one of the buildings is shaded by a taller building on one
side. One of the buildings is both in the shade of taller buildings and nearby
buildings.

The reason that the remaining three buildings are not shaded by other structures is
that they are situated on open sites, and they are generally higher than the
structures surrounding them.

Question: 34 Are external shading devices used?

Answer Yes
Main reason Reduce heat gain through windows.
Other reasons Reduce glare through windows.

Answer No
Main reason Aesthetic requirements.
Other reasons Higher than surrounding structures.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 36: External shading devices
Note that some of the buildings used both fixed and automated blinds. For a more
comprehensive description of the shading strategies applied to the buildings, please
refer to the complete interviews located in annexures 5-12.

External shading devices have been used on six of the buildings. The type of device
and reasons for its use vary significantly between the six buildings. All six buildings
used shading in order to reduce the solar heat gain and glare through the windows.
The structural building form was used by all of these buildings as a method of
shading. Three of the buildings used curtain walls which extended outside from the
interior; one building used automated external blinds; one building used automated
louvers; while four used fixed louvers. Of the four buildings that used fixed louvers,
two had calculated the size, shape and position according to the sun path, while the
other two had fixed the louvers in a logical position. One building printed patterns
onto the double glazing units to shade the inside of the building. These prints were
102
designed to assist in shading the interior whilst allowing for satisfactory views of the
outside.

Two buildings did not use external shading devices. The reason for this was purely
aesthetics. One building had to conform to the aesthetic theme of the existing
buildings on the site, while the client of the other building stipulated a building with a
flush glass façade.

Question: 35 Are the external shading device designed according to the sun path?
Answer Yes
Main reason Calculated position of fixed louvers.
Other reasons Automatic blinds.

Answer No
Main reason Logical position.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 37: Shading devices designed according to the sun path
The two buildings which did not use external shading devices are not included in this
graph.

Of the four buildings that used external shading devices which have been designed
according to the suns path; three of the buildings used calculations to determine the
position of the fixed louvers; one used fixed (calculated) louvers as well as automatic
external blinds; while one used automatic louvers and fixed louvers (logically
positioned).

Both of the buildings that used external shading devices which were not calculated to
the sun path had placed the external louvers in a logical position.

Question: 36 Are internal shading devices used?

Answer Yes
Main reason To reduce glare.
Other reasons To reduce solar heat gain.

Answer No
Main reason -
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 38: Internal shading devices

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All of the eight respondents chose to use internal shading devices. The main reason
for this was to reduce the amount of glare caused by the sun entering the building.
Seven of the buildings had internal shading devices installed to assist in the
reduction of solar heat gain through the windows of the building. One building, the 6-
star building, did not require the internal shades as a thermal barrier because the
windows and external shades were, through the use of computer modelling,
designed in such a way that they would achieve their required performance without
any additional internal shading. The internal blinds on this building were only
installed to block out the glare of the sun. Two of the buildings had 850mm high walls
against the inside of the floor to ceiling windows in certain areas to reduce the
amount of solar heat gain. Five of the buildings use only manually operated blinds,
while three use manual and automatic blinds.

None of the respondents answered “No”.

Question: 37 Do the shading devices block the view?

Answer Yes
Main reason The devices are solid & not adjustable.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Internal devices are adjustable.
Other reasons External devices designed for views.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 39: Shading devices and the view
The author has defined “blocking the view” as: a system that completely blocks the
view desired by an occupant, where the occupant is unable to implement measures
to change this.

Views to the outside are an important consideration for buildings that wish to achieve
a Green Star certification. The two buildings that have either automatic internal
blinds or automatic external louvers will block the view. This will only occur during
certain times of the day when the blinds are adjusting themselves to effectively block
out the sun when it is at low angles to the building. For most of the day the view from
inside the building will not be obstructed by the automated shading devices.

104
The view through the other six buildings’ windows is not completely blocked by the
external fixed or movable shading devices. The view will be blocked if the internal
shading devices are closed. The occupants are however able to open or close the
internal devices at will. Of the six buildings that make use of external shading
devices, one building has both automatic and fixed devices. The fixed devices on
this building and the remaining five buildings have been designed to allow for views
of the outside whilst still reducing the solar heat gains and glare.

Question: 38 Are there shading devices on the roof?

Answer Yes
Main reason Reduce temperature of roof.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Aesthetic and client considerations
Other reasons Not considered to be beneficial.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 40: Shading devices on the roof
One building, the 6-star building, made use of solar shading devices on the roof. This
was done to cool the surface of the roof down and thus reduce the amount of heat
entering the building through the roof. The shading device is in the form of PV
panels.

Seven buildings have not made use of shading devices on the roof. The reason for
four of the buildings not using roof shading was aesthetic, in that the client or
architect did not want objects protruding from the roof. The reason for the remaining
three buildings not making use of shading on the roof was that it was simply not a
consideration during the design stage.

Question: 39 Is passive natural ventilation used? (stack driven)

Answer Yes
Main reason To ventilate the building economically.
Other reasons To improve user comfort.

Answer No
Main reason HVAC specified & sealed building.
Other reasons Too many heat sources in the building.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 41: Passive natural ventilation

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All eight of the buildings have been specified with HVAC systems from the initial
design stage. One respondent, the designer of the 6-star building, chose to use
passive natural ventilation with an advanced HVAC system. The mixed mode system
was chosen so that the building could be ventilated in an economical manner and so
the users of the building had more control over their surroundings. All of the
openable windows have sensors on them which alert the building management
system (BMS) as to what is happening in the building, and what the best route to
take in terms of heating, ventilation and cooling will be.

All of the other seven respondents chose to not use passive natural ventilation
because the HVAC system had already been specified and a passive system would
make the pressurised HVAC system less effective. Three of the respondents
included the fact that there would be too many sources of heat generated within the
building for a passive system to deal with effectively, so mechanical means had to be
used. One respondent stated that it has become the norm to specify all office
buildings with HVAC systems.

Question: 40 Is active natural ventilation used? (mechanical)

Answer Yes
Main reason To replace stale air.
Other reasons To save energy during off-peak times.

Answer No
Main reason To maintain control of internal temp.
Other reasons It is not required, night flushing is used.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 42: Active natural ventilation
Six of the buildings have made use of active mechanical ventilation. The reasons for
this are to replace the stale air in the building with fresh air and to save energy
during off peak times. Occupant comfort levels are improved by constantly replacing
the stale air inside the building with fresh air from outside. Energy and money are
saved through the HVAC systems going into an economy mode during the evening
because there are fewer sources of heat acting on the building and electricity is
cheaper during off-peak periods. Respondents also stated that the mechanical
flushing of unconditioned air through the building at night helped lower the internal
temperature and cool all of the thermal mass elements. This meant that the HVAC

106
system would not have to work as hard the following day to achieve and maintain
comfortable temperatures.

Of the two buildings that did not use mechanical means to naturally ventilate the
buildings; the first one did so to maintain constant control of the internal
temperatures of the building; while the second building, the 6-star building, did not
need to use mechanical methods of natural ventilation because passive night time
ventilation was used. Mechanical actuators opened all of the windows in the building
to cool and ventilate the building in the same way as the above six buildings. Both
buildings only use mechanical means of ventilation for the extraction of smoke
through the roof.

Question: 41 Are exterior protrusions used to aid in flow of air into building?
Answer Yes
Main reason -
Other reasons -

Answer No/ NA
Main reason Passive natural ventilation is not used.
Other reasons Protrusions are more for shading.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 43: Exterior protrusions to aid in the flow of wind
None of the respondents answered “Yes”.

This question was not applicable to seven of the eight buildings because the
buildings are sealed and passive natural ventilation is not used. The eighth building,
which makes use of passive ventilation, did not have exterior protrusions to assist in
the flow of air into the building because shading was a more important consideration
than wind flow.

Question: 42 Is night time ventilation used?

Answer Yes
Main reason To replace stale air.
Other reasons To save energy.

Answer No
Main reason The client did not want it.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 44: Night time ventilation

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Only one building, the 6-star building, is designed to ventilate and cool the building
through the passive strategy of night time flushing. During the day, hot air rises
through perforated ceiling boards and is absorbed into the concrete soffit of the floor
above or the roof. At night, mechanical actuators open all of the windows in the
building to allow the hot stale air to be passively extracted and replaced by cool fresh
air. This strategy also lowers the internal temperature and cools all of the thermal
mass elements. This then means that the HVAC system does not have to work as
hard the following day to achieve and maintain comfortable temperatures. Six of the
buildings have made use of night time ventilation through mechanical means to cool
and ventilate the buildings. These six buildings do not make provision for air to be
extracted via passive means like the first building does. Two respondents wanted to
make use of night time mechanical flushing, but the client was against it.

One building had no form of night time ventilation because the client was against it.
Consequently, the HVAC system ran constantly.

Question: 43 Is there passive ventilation through the roof?

Answer Yes
Main reason A passive ventilation system is used.
Other reasons Night time flushing is used.

Answer No
Main reason All air enters through the HVAC.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 45: Passive ventilation through the roof
The 6-star building made use of passive ventilation through the roof because a
passive ventilation system and night time flushing is used to maintain comfort levels
in the building. The atrium windows are mechanically opened to aid in the passive
extraction of hot air through the roof. A passive system was selected to reduce the
energy consumption of the building.

Seven of the buildings did not use passive ventilation through the roof because all of
the air that enters the building does so through the HVAC system.

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Question: 44 Is there passive ventilation through the walls?
Answer Yes
Main reason -
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason All air enters through the HVAC.
Other reasons No need for ventilation through walls.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 46: Passive ventilation through the walls
None of the respondents answered “Yes”.

None of the eight buildings used ventilation through the walls. The reason for seven
of the buildings was because all of the air entering the building did so through the
HVAC system. One building, the 6-star building, did not use ventilation through the
walls because it was not necessary as there was already ventilation through the roof
and the windows.

Question: 45 Is there passive ventilation through the windows?

Answer Yes
Main reason A passive ventilation system is used.
Other reasons Night time flushing is used.

Answer No
Main reason All air enters through the HVAC.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 47: Passive ventilation through the windows
The 6-star building made use of passive ventilation through the windows because a
passive ventilation system and night time flushing is used to maintain comfort levels
in the building. Openable windows have been installed every five running meters to
allow individuals to adjust their environment as desired. The windows are monitored
to ensure that they are not opened during times when it will be detrimental to the
internal environment of the building. A passive system was selected in order to
increase user comfort and reduce the energy consumption of the building.

Seven of the buildings did not use passive ventilation through the windows because
the windows are supposed to remain closed or are unable to open, and all of the air
that enters the building will do so through the HVAC system.

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Question: 46 Are particle filters used on incoming air?
Answer Yes
Main reason To filter dust and pollution particles.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Because openable windows are used.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 48: Particle filters
All eight of the buildings have HVAC systems. Particle filters are fitted to all of these
systems to filter out dust, spores and pollution particles. This will result in a healthier,
more comfortable and more productive working environment for the occupants of the
buildings.

Two of the buildings have both HVAC systems and openable windows. The mere
fact that the windows are openable means that they will be opened, consequently
allowing dust, as well as spores and pollution to enter the building because the
windows are not fitted with particle filters. One of the buildings is fitted with sensors
which detect the levels of particles in the air, and close the windows if the level of
pollutants is found to be too high.

Question: 47 Are the construction materials selected because they are environmentally
friendly/ sustainable?
Answer Yes
Main reason Green Star required it.
Other reasons Aesthetics and comfort reasons.

Answer No
Main reason Aesthetic reasons.
Other reasons Performance reasons.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 49: Environmentally friendly construction materials
Environmentally friendly and sustainable materials were used by seven of the
buildings because the Green Star Rating, which they were aiming to achieve,
required it. Four of the respondents stated that the aesthetic and occupant comfort
considerations also affected the selection of materials because raw and natural
materials were found to have a positive impact on the occupants of the buildings. A
brief list of the environmentally friendly materials may be viewed in annexures 5-12.

110
One of the respondents did not base their material selection decision on the
environmentally friendly and sustainable aspects of a material, but rather on the
aesthetic and performance characteristics desired from the materials. This is not to
say that environmentally friendly and sustainable materials were not used. This
building has a 5-star rating.

Question: 48 Are solar reflective coatings used on the roofs?

Answer Yes
Main reason Reduce the heat gain through the roof.
Other reasons Reduce urban heat island.

Answer No
Main reason The roof is tiled.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 50: Solar reflective coatings on roofs
Seven of the respondents specified solar reflective coatings to be applied to the
roofs of the buildings. Six of the seven respondents’ reasons were to reduce the
amount of solar heat gain through the roof. The seventh respondent applied the
coating only to protect the waterproofing underneath it. Two of the respondents
added that a specific coating had been selected to assist in the reduction of the
urban heat island effect caused by the building.

No coatings were applied to one of the buildings because a tiled roof was used.
Insulation has been placed on the underside of the tiles to reduce the amount of heat
gain through the tiles.

Question: 49 Are phase change materials (PCM) used?

Answer Yes
Main reason To assist in the passive design.
Other reasons To save money.

Answer No
Main reason Architect was unaware of this material.
Other reasons Cost considerations.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 51: Phase change materials
Two buildings made use of PCMs in the HVAC systems to assist the passive
strategies of the building by managing the exact temperature requirements during
peak times. The PCM, which is located in all of the four basement levels, is frozen at
111
night, to reduce the energy demand of the HVAC system during peak periods. This
reduces the pressure on the national grid and is less costly in terms of rates and
taxes because these rates are calculated on the peak demand usage, which is
during the day.

Six of the buildings did not use PCMs. Three of the respondents were unaware of
what the material was, while two respondents, one of which was initially unaware of
the existence of the material, argued that the cost associated with the material was
too high. The other two respondents did not use the material because it had never
been a consideration during the design stages. One of these respondents argued
that the use of PCMs was not considered because an efficient HVAC system had
already been specified.

Question: 50 Are organic-based Phase change materials (BioPCM) used?

Answer Yes
Main reason -
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Architect not aware of this material.
Other reasons Cost considerations.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 52: Organic-based phase change materials
None of the respondents answered “Yes”.

None of the buildings used BioPCM’s. Five of the respondents were unaware of what
the material was, while two respondents, one of which was initially unaware of the
existence of the material, argued that the cost associated with the material was too
high. The other two respondents did not use the materials because it had never been
a consideration during the design stages. One of these respondents argued that the
use of PCMs was not considered because an efficient HVAC system had already
been specified.

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Question: 51 Have substantial amounts of experimental materials been used?
Answer Yes
Main reason Industry is developing.
Other reasons To become more sustainable.

Answer No
Main reason It was not necessary to experiment.
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 53: Experimental materials
Seven of the respondents used experimental materials in the design of their
buildings. All of the materials and methods used have been used overseas for some
time, but they are new to SA. Four of the respondents used experimental materials
and methods because they argued that the construction industry is constantly
changing and improving and they want to be on the forefront of the change. These
experimental materials include lightweight concrete and high performance glass.
Two respondents used experimental materials like bamboo rather than traditional
wood because it is a more sustainable material. One of the respondents used a lot of
low VOC materials, which at that stage of green construction was rare, to improve
the interior air quality levels of the building. All of the above respondents had used
some form of experimental construction method. Examples of these construction
methods and materials are located from annexure 5-12.

One of the respondents chose to not experiment with new materials because there
was no need to experiment.

Question: 52 Have substantial amounts of traditional materials been used?

Answer Yes
Main reason Material is available or inexpensive.
Other reasons Material is specified to be green.

Answer No
Main reason -
Other reasons -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 54: Traditional materials
All eight of the respondents used substantial amounts of traditional materials. Four
respondents stated that the traditional materials are relatively inexpensive, while
three chose to use the traditional materials because the Green Star system now

113
requires suppliers to produce more environmentally friendly and sustainable
products and materials. Other reasons for using traditional materials include; the fact
that traditional processes are quick and clean and traditional materials, like concrete,
have a high resistance to fire; there is a vast knowledge surrounding traditional
materials and construction methods; and most traditional materials are easy to work
with.

None of the respondents answered “No”.

Question: 53 Has a roof pond been used?

Answer Yes
Main reason To cool areas around entrances.
Other reasons -

Answer No
Main reason Client did not want to use system.
Other reasons It would increase the load on the roof.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Graph 55: Roof ponds
One respondent made use of ponds, but they are not located on the roof. They are
located around the perimeter as well as the entrances and exits of the building to
cool the air in those areas so that there is not such a large difference in temperature
when people move from inside to outside.

Seven of the respondents did not use ponds in any form. The client not wanting the
pond system is the reason that five of the buildings did not use it. In one case, the
respondent rejected the idea because a roof pond would add unnecessary load to
the structure which would lead to it having to be reinforced. One of the respondents
had not used a roof pond because it had never been a consideration from the start of
the project. The 6-star building is the only building to have made use of a three
phase evaporative cooling system. The system takes advantage of rainwater, which
is stored in dams on site, to cool the building.

114
5.2.3 Data Analysis of interview responses: Architect-specific questions
Answers of the architect-specific questions differ significantly. The answers have
been interpreted and arranged in as simple and logical a manner as possible in an
attempt to identify trends and patterns. Due to the fact that responses vary and are
in-depth, only a summary of the most relevant responses is provided in this graph
analysis. Complete answers to the architect-specific questions are located in
annexures 5-12.

Question: 1 What do you see as being passive design?

Main answer Designing a building according to the
surrounding climate.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 56: What is passive design
All of the respondents conveyed a very similar opinion of what passive design is. The
answers revolved mostly around designing according to the climate at hand and
designing a building which uses very little energy because it has been designed
according to the basics. The respondents viewed the basics of passive design as
factors such as orientation, insulation, thermal mass, natural ventilation, and material
selection.

All other answers provided by the respondents related very closely so the main
answer.

Question: 2 Why do you consider the above to be passive design?

Main answer A passive building is passive because it
responds to the environment automatically and
no additional active and energy consuming
devices need to be applied to the building to
make it perform correctly and be comfortable.

Other Passive design is passive because it is

answers considered in the context of its surroundings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 57: Why passive design is considered to be passive design

115
It was determined that five respondents considered passive design to be passive
because the building responds to the environment automatically and no additional
active and energy consuming devices need to be applied to the building to make it
perform correctly and be comfortable.

One respondent stated that passive design was passive because it is considered in
the context of the surroundings. One respondent replied that passive elements are
inert, but always present and that it is up to the architect to choose to use them or
not.

Question: 3 What do you consider active design to be?

Main answer Electrical devices aimed at enhancing the
performance and comfort of a building.

Other Not sure. Operational and procedural

answers measures to affect energy usage.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 58: What is active design
Six of the respondents were of the opinion that active design involves the usage of
mechanical and electrical devices to maintain the desired levels of comfort within a
building.

One respondent was unsure of what active strategies were. He defined active design
as operational and procedural measures to affect energy usage. For example: the
manner in which a building and its systems are maintained, used or operated and to
what effect operational changes can influence the energy consumed.

116
Question: 4 Do you think active and passive designs are mutually exclusive or do they
overlap in certain instances?
Main answer Yes. There is not one system that can solve
everything, especially in commercial buildings.
Active and passive strategies overlap in that
they complement one another.

Other It is very important to find a balance between

answers active and passive strategies.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 59: Active and passive design mutually exclusive
All of the respondents believed that active and passive strategies do overlap in that
they complement one another.

Four of the respondents noted that everything in a building is interlinked and to

change one thing may result in several other things being affected. It is important to
strike a balance between which active and passive strategies should be followed.

Question: 5 In your opinion, what are the passive strategies most relevant to Gauteng?
Main answer Orientation and the way in which the Gauteng
sun is dealt with.

Other Well positioned thermal mass for winter comfort

answers and shading for summer cooling.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 60: Passive strategies most relevant to Gauteng
Five respondents felt that orientation and the way in which the Gauteng sun is dealt
with. The respondents generally indicated that orientation was one of the easiest and
most cost effective ways to make the building more comfortable without having to
spend more money.

One respondent stated that thermal mass was the most important consideration for
winter comfort, while shading would be most ideal for summer comfort. One
respondent had no comment on the issue.

117
Question: 6 Are there passive design strategies relevant to Gauteng which you choose
not to apply to your designs? If so, why?
Main answer Yes. Reasons for this vary significantly.

Other No. Basic passive design principles are always

answers applied to the buildings.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 61: Passive strategies not applied to Gauteng
Five respondents recognised that at some point in time they did not apply certain
passive principles to their designs. The reasons for this varied significantly. Relevant
responses are summarised as: the client’s requirements did not allow for passive
design; the company for whom the architect works does not generally design
passively; the design is so unique that passive strategies will not work effectively;
and passive principles are not applied for aesthetic reasons. One respondent had no
comment on the issue.

One respondent always applies passive principles and strategies to his designs
because they are the basics of architecture.

Question: 7 Do you use computer models to assist in the design of a passive building?
Main answer Yes. The models assist in predicting the
performance of the design over a range of
conditions.

Other They are used after completion to determine

answers how accurate the predictions were.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 62: Computer aided modelling
All seven of the respondents use computer aided modelling to assist in the designs
and the decision making process. The models enable the designers to determine
whether a proposed design will be energy-efficient or not before construction begins.
This has the potential to save the client a lot of money.

118
Two respondents included that computer models are helpful after completion to
determine how accurate the predictions of the original model were, and recalibrate
the standard model to be more accurate.

Question: 8 Are you familiar with the term “biomimetics”? Have you used the concept in
your designs?
Main answer Yes.

Other No.
answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 63: Biomimetics
Five respondents were familiar with the concept of biomimetics. Of those five, two
had not used it because there is no leeway in the scope of commercial design for
those types of design. One respondent has not used it because she felt that it is a
design that would be more suited to a rural environment than an urban one. One
respondent has not used it because he has not researched the concept thoroughly
enough. One respondent was aware of, and felt that he has used the concept of
biomimetics in the past simply because to is the logical thing to do.

Two of the respondents were unfamiliar with the term.

Question: 9 Is interior health a significant factor in the design of your buildings?

Main answer Yes. These things are considered during the
initial design stages.

Other Green Star assists greatly in the interior design

answers and selection of materials for a healthy internal
environment.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 64: Interior health and design
All seven of the respondents felt strongly about interior health and that the buildings
which they design are designed for humans therefore need to be comfortable and
healthy for the occupants.

119
Two respondents stated that the Green Star Rating system is very nice to use in that
it assists in, amongst others, design of interior space and specification of materials.

Question: 10 What do you think the South African perception is in terms of passive
building?
Main answer The South African public is not very aware of
passive design concepts.

Other Public perceptions are changing as the need

answers for energy-efficient buildings is increasing.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 65: South Africa’s perception of passive building
All of the respondents were of the opinion that the general public in South Africa are
mostly unaware of the concepts of passive building. There are several reasons for
this which includes the fact that building regulations were not very stringent in the
past, electricity was cheap, and for many years there was a perception that green
design is expensive.

Four of the respondents included that the public is becoming more aware of the
concepts of passive and especially green building because of the new legislations
and increases in electricity prices.

Question: 11 Do you feel that there has been a change in the design of your company’s
buildings since the implementation of the Green Star Rating?
Main answer Yes.

Other No.
answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 66: Change in the company’s design
Four of the respondents felt that there had been a change in the designs of the
company, but the reasons were not all directly attributed to the Green Star Rating

Three respondents felt that the Green Star Rating system had not changed their
design philosophy of sustainable architecture.

120
Question: 12 If you were not limited by the budget, specifications, materials, etc., would
you have applied additional passive strategies to the building?
Main answer Yes.

Other No.
answers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Graph 67: Additional passive strategies
Six of the respondents would have liked to design their buildings with more passive
and energy-efficient active strategies. These strategies included, among others,
more thermal mass, natural ventilation, PV cells to provide electricity, and more
external shading devices.

One respondent, the designer of the 6-star rated building felt that there were no
additional strategies relevant to the climatic conditions of Gauteng which could be
applied to the building that would benefit it.

121
Chapter 6: Conclusions

This study focused on the passive design strategies applied to office buildings in
Gauteng. A comprehensive study of the literature surrounding passive design
strategies in the South African and specifically Gauteng context has been performed.
This information formed the basis for the selection of strategies relevant to the
climatic conditions of Gauteng. A total of eight medium-rise office buildings designed
by three of the prominent Gauteng-based architecture firms have been investigated.
The architects of these buildings were identified and approached to partake in the
study. Architects were interviewed in person on the topic of passive strategies in
their designs.

The data generated through the interviews has been tabulated and analysed in order
to formulate conclusions to the research questions being asked.

6.1 Statement of the main research question

This study aimed to answer the question of “which passive design strategies are
commonly applied or not applied to office buildings in Gauteng, and why?” In order
for the main research question to be answered, the study was broken down into
three sub-questions. By answering each of the sub-questions, the main question as
a whole was answered. Simply put, the study investigated which passive design
strategies are relevant to the specific climatic conditions of Gauteng. After which, the
aim of the study was to determine the extent to which passive design strategies are
applied or not applied to office buildings in Gauteng, and the reasons therefore.

6.2 Summary of the findings

6.2.1 Sub-question 1
Which passive design strategies are applicable to the specific climatic conditions of
Gauteng?

The climatic conditions of Gauteng were the primary influence in determining which
passive design strategies were relevant to Gauteng-based office buildings. The
results from the desktop study indicated that passive principles and certain strategies
122
are relevant to the climate of Gauteng. The passive design strategies which may be
most successfully applied to office buildings are summarised as: orientating the
building northward; designing a shallow floor plan; using skylights to provide natural
light; providing openable windows; using high performance insulated windows and
frames; insulating the roof, floor and building envelope; using thermal mass in
conjunction with insulation; providing shading to the façade, roof and interior;
employing passive means of ventilation in conjunction with high performance HVAC
systems; using night time ventilation; reducing air infiltration; using climate
appropriate materials; and using roof ponds to insulate and cool a building.

6.2.2 Sub-question 2
Which passive design strategies are commonly applied or not applied to office
buildings in Gauteng?

The evaluation framework revealed that the most commonly applied passive
strategies are: orientation; skylights; high performance insulated windows; insulating
the roof and building envelope; thermal mass; shading the façade and interior; night
time ventilation; reducing air infiltration; and using climate appropriate materials.

The least commonly applied passive strategies are: openable windows; insulated
window frames and floor slabs; thermal batteries; roof shading; passive means of
ventilation in conjunction with high performance HVAC systems; and roof ponds.

Half of the buildings made use of shallow floor plans, while the other half did not.

6.2.3 Sub-question 3
Why are the passive design strategies identified in sub-question 2 applied or not
applied to office buildings in Gauteng?

Interviews with the architects of the buildings revealed that the most prevalent
reasons for them applying passive strategies to the designs were: to achieve the
desired Green Star Rating; to reduce operational energy consumption; to improve
the comfort levels of occupants within the building; and because it was specified by
the client.

123
The prevalent reasons for not applying passive strategies to the designs were
because: the Green Star Rating being targeted did not require additional strategies;
it was felt that the strategy was not necessary or beneficial; it was never a
consideration during the design; it was not specified by the client; the architect was
unaware of the product; cost constraints did not allow for high performance products;
particular products are not available in South Africa; and for aesthetic reasons.

6.3 Final conclusion

The outcome of this study sought to assist Gauteng designers, in particular, to

determine whether passive strategies are viable design strategies for achieving
human comfort whilst reducing energy consumption.

Designers are currently relying heavily on energy-efficient active strategies rather

than adopting more passive strategies to achieve a reduction in operational energy
consumption. This may be attributable to several factors including, but not limited to:
the architects and design consultants not being aware of the advantages of certain
passive strategies; architects not being confident enough in their knowledge to
design strictly according to passive principles; and the architect simply not wanting to
apply the strategies for aesthetic or other reasons. It is therefore necessary for the
design consultants and clients to demand that the architect designs according to
passive principles and strategies to achieve energy-efficiency.

If, on the other hand, it is the client or design consultants who are specifying that
unnecessary active systems be applied, it is up to the architect and the rest of the
design team to insist that there are other, more energy-efficient approaches to
building design, like passive design, that should be followed in South Africa in this
day and age. It is therefore imperative that an inter-disciplinary approach is followed
during the design and construction of buildings, and that all parties involved have
sufficient knowledge about design and energy-efficiency to make the most
appropriate choices in terms of designing according to the climatic conditions.

124
South African designers have, in recent years, become more aware of the issues
surrounding energy-efficiency and sustainability in the construction industry, and
changes have clearly been made in terms of green architecture, but there is a long
way to go if the country as a whole is to become an icon of sustainable living.
Implementation of the Green Star Rating system is making people more aware of
green building, and has improved the overall greenness of buildings wishing to be
certified. It must however be noted that the Rating is not specific to the actual
energy-efficiency of the design, as the Green Star Rating system takes into
consideration green strategies not related to the design, such as water usage and
material transport distances. The SANS 204 code concentrates specifically on the
energy-efficiency of buildings, which will directly relate to the design strategies
followed.

It has become apparent from this study that buildings are being designed to achieve
the Green Star Rating which is being aimed for. So in terms of design, if a 4-star
rating is the aim, the building may be designed in a more inefficient way. The
inefficiency may then be corrected by a highly efficient active system, rather than the
building being designed so that it does not require such active system to begin with,
or that it requires a much smaller one. Alternatively, the low score achieved due to
the inefficient design may be mitigated by higher scores in different sections of the
Rating tool, for example, if the materials chosen are procured from sources nearby
the material section will receive a higher score. It also appears that because HVAC
systems are being specified at the start, meaning that the buildings are being
designed for HVAC systems rather than being designed to not need HVAC systems,
the design of buildings is less energy-efficient than it could be. This study has shown
that the actual design of a 6-star building will be far superior to that of a 5 and 4-star
rated building.

Overall the implementation of the SANS 204 code is more of a move towards
energy-efficient buildings than the Green Star Rating because it is obligatory and it is
specific to energy-efficiency of buildings. It is forcing architects, clients, engineers,
tenants and the general public to reconsider the way in which buildings have been
designed and constructed over the last few decades. This has sparked a review of
age old passive strategies for achieving human comfort in buildings.
125
6.4 Recommendations for future research

This research has created many questions in the area of passive design and modern
architecture. It is recommended that further research be undertaken in the following
areas:

1) Investigations into why architects are designing buildings in such a way as to

only obtain the Green Star Rating that they seek instead of designing a
building to use as little energy as possible whilst maintaining comfortable
internal conditions for the occupants.

2) Have the varying levels of Green Star Rating had the negative impact that
architects/clients are content with obtaining a green star rating even though it
may not be the top one?

3) Investigate whether South Africa’s move toward becoming a sustainable

society has been affected by the fact that energy-efficient active strategies
have now become more available, in that passive design is seen to be not as
important because, energy-efficient active strategies are able to adapt the
internal environment by using less energy than conventional methods?

126
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Paul, WL & Taylor, PA 2007, ‘A comparison of occupant comfort and satisfaction
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Peterkin, N 2009, ‘Rewards for passive solar design in the Building Code of
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137
Annexures
Annexure 1: Informed consent form

Informed consent form

Title of research project:

Passive design strategies applied to office buildings in Gauteng.

I ……………………………………………………………. hereby voluntarily grant my

permission for participation in the project as explained to me by Scott Sydney
Quarmby, Student number 28044569.

The nature, objective, possible safety and health implications have been explained to
me and I understand them.

I understand my right to choose whether to participate in the project and that the
information furnished will be handled confidentially. I am aware that the results of the
investigation may be used for the purposes of publication.

Upon signature of this form, you will be provided with a copy.

Signed: _________________________ Date: _______________

Witness: _________________________ Date: _______________

Researcher: _________________________ Date: _______________

138
Annexure 2: Framework for the evaluation of buildings

Company: Building: Architect:

Passive How it is applied to the building Yes/No
Principle
Location Was the surrounding climate considered during the
design phase?
Will the building be subject to a heat island?
Have measures been taken to reduce the heat
generated by the building on the surrounding
environment?

Orientation Is the building orientated according to the prevailing

wind direction?
Is the building orientated according to sunlight?
Is the building orientated according to the views
required?
Is the orientation of the building limited in any way?

Layout Does the building have a shallow floor plan?

Is energy-efficiency a consideration in the selection of
electrical devices? (Lights, HVAC, etc.)

Fenestration Are openable windows used?

Do the windows seal completely when closed?
Are the windows positioned according to the orientation
of the building?
Are low-emissivity coatings used on the windows?

Is aerogel glazing used on the windows?

Are exterior single-pane windows used?
Are exterior double-pane windows used?
Are exterior triple-pane windows used?

139
 Are the windows vacuum glazed?
Is Argon gas used between the glazing panels?
Is Krypton gas used between the glazing panels?
Is dehydrated air used between the glazing panels?
Are switchable reflective glazing (electrochromics)
used?
Are switchable reflective glazing (gasochromics) used?
Are holographic optical elements used?
Are the window frames insulated?
Is the level of air infiltration through the facade: low
medium or high?
Are skylights used?

Insulation Is insulation used on the roof?

Is the building envelope Insulated?
Is the ground floor slab insulated?

Thermal Are materials chosen for their thermal mass

mass properties?
Is a thermal battery used?

Shading Is the building in the shade of other structures?

Are external shading devices used?
Are the external shading devices designed according
to the sun path?
Are internal shading devices used?
Do the shading devices block the view?
Are there shading devices on the roof?

Ventilation Is passive natural ventilation used? (stack driven)

Is active natural ventilation used? (mechanical)
Are exterior protrusions used to aid in flow of air into
the building?

140
 Is night time ventilation used?
Is there passive ventilation through the roof?
Is there passive ventilation through the walls?
Is there passive ventilation through the windows?
Are particle filters used on incoming air?

Materials Are the construction materials selected because they

are environmentally friendly/ sustainable?
Are solar reflective coatings used on the roofs?
Are phase change materials (PCM) used?
Are organic-based Phase change materials (BioPCM)
used?
Have substantial amounts of experimental materials
been used?
Have substantial amounts of traditional materials been
used?

Evaporative Has a roof pond been used?

cooling

141
Annexure 3: Framework for interview (Building-specific questions)

Company: Building: Architect:

Passive How it is applied to the building Yes/No Why/ Why not?
Principle
Location Was the surrounding climate
considered during the design phase?
Will the building be subject to a heat
island?
Have measures been taken to reduce
the heat generated by the building on
the surrounding environment?

Orientation Is the building orientated according to

the prevailing wind direction?
Is the building orientated according to
sunlight?
Is the building orientated according to
the views required?
Is the orientation of the building limited
in any way?

Layout Does the building have a shallow floor

plan?
Is energy-efficiency a consideration in
the selection of electrical devices?
(Lights, HVAC, etc.)

Fenestration Are openable windows used?

Do the windows seal completely when
closed?
Are the windows positioned according

142
 to the orientation of the building?
Are low-emissivity coatings used on
the windows?
Is aerogel glazing used on the
windows?
Are exterior single pane windows
used?
Are exterior double pane windows
used?
Are exterior triple pane windows used?
Are the windows vacuum glazed?
Is Argon gas used between the glazing
panels?
Is Krypton gas used between the
glazing panels?
Is dehydrated air used between the
glazing panels?
Are switchable reflective glazing
(electrochromics) used?
Are switchable reflective glazing
(gasochromics) used?
Are holographic optical elements
used?
Are the window frames insulated?
Is the level of air infiltration through the
facade: low medium or high?
Are skylights used?

Insulation Is insulation used on the roof?

Is the building envelope Insulated?
Is the ground floor slab insulated?

Thermal Are materials chosen for their thermal

143
mass mass properties?
Is a thermal battery used?

Shading Is the building in the shade of other

structures?
Are external shading devices used?
Are the external shading devices
designed according to the sun path?
Are internal shading devices used?
Do the shading devices block the
view?
Are there shading devices on the roof?

Ventilation Is passive natural ventilation used?

(stack driven)
Is active natural ventilation used?
(mechanical)
Are exterior protrusions used to aid in
flow of air into the building?
Is night time ventilation used?
Is there passive ventilation through the
roof?
Is there passive ventilation through the
walls?
Is there passive ventilation through the
windows?
Are particle filters used on incoming
air?

Materials Are the construction materials selected

because they are environmentally
friendly/ sustainable?
Are solar reflective coatings used on

144
 the roofs?
Are phase change materials (PCM)
used?
Are organic-based Phase change
materials (BioPCM) used?
Have substantial amounts of
experimental materials been used?
Have substantial amounts of traditional
materials been used?

Evaporative Has a roof pond been used?

cooling

145
Annexure 4: Framework for interview (Architect-specific questions)

Architect:
What do you see as being
passive design?
Why do you consider the
above to be passive design?
What do you consider active
design to be?
Do you think active and
passive designs are mutually
exclusive or do they overlap in
certain instances?
In your opinion, what are the
passive strategies most
relevant to Gauteng?
Are there passive design
strategies relevant to Gauteng
which you choose not to apply
to your designs? If so, why?
Do you use computer models
to assist in the design of a
passive building?
Are you familiar with the term
“biomimetics”? Have you used
the concept in your designs?
Is interior health a significant
factor in the design of your
buildings? Do you consider
productivity levels, air quality
and comfort levels during the
design stage?
What do you think the South

146
African perception is in terms
of passive building?
Do you feel that there has
been a change in the design of
your company’s buildings since
the implementation of the
Green Star Rating? What is
this change?
If you were not limited by the
budget, specifications,
materials, etc., would you have
applied additional passive
strategies to the building?

147
Annexure 5: Building A1

Company: A Building: 1 Architect: A1

Passive How it is applied to Yes/No Why/ Why not?
Principle the building
Location Was the surrounding Yes The surrounding climate was
climate considered considered to a limited extent to
during the design allow the architect to design the
phase? building appropriately. Wind was
not considered as a factor, but the
sun was a determining factor in the
design of the building.
Will the building be Yes The building is located in the
subject to a heat eastern parts of the city of Pretoria
island? and is thus subject to an urban heat
island because of the surrounding
hardscapes.
Have measures Yes The Green Star Rating system does
been taken to not have a tool to measure the
reduce the heat neighbourhood development, so
generated by the this building has been registered as
building on the part of the LEED neighbourhood.
surrounding One of the requirements of LEED is
environment? to reduce the effects of the urban
heat island. Roof coatings with a
high SRI were used to reflect the
heat off the building’s roof. A roof
garden is also used to reduce the
heat absorbed by the building.

Orientation Is the building No Pretoria is not subjected to constant

orientated according or very high levels of wind.
to the prevailing

148
 wind direction?
Is the building Yes
orientated according
to sunlight?
Is the building No
orientated according
to the views
required?
Is the orientation of Yes
the building limited
in any way?
Layout Does the building No
have a shallow floor
plan?
Is energy-efficiency Yes
a consideration in
the selection of
The building form was orientated as
much as possible to take advantage
of natural sunlight, while reducing
the amount of solar heat gain. This
was limited by the site boundaries
as maximum bulk had to be
achieved.
The building has not specifically
been orientated according to the
views required from the inside.
However, an atrium and floor to
ceiling windows have been used to
enhance the view for occupants of
the building. The views were
important to the designers of the
building because the comfort of the
building’s occupants has an
influence on their performance and
mental wellbeing.
Ideal orientation was limited by the
site boundaries as maximum bulk
had to be achieved.
The building has a floor plate depth
of around 17m. This size of the floor
plate is fairly large, but because of
the doughnut shape of the building,
natural light from the atrium assists
with the lighting and internal views.
The client required that the building
energy systems reduce the impact
on the environment and to build as
149
 electrical devices?
(Lights, HVAC, etc.)
far as possible a sustainable
development. The client also
required low energy systems to
reduce the operational energy
costs.

Fenestration Are openable No Openable windows were

windows used? considered, but because a highly
efficient HVAC system was being
used, it was felt that the two
systems would work against each
other.
Do the windows seal NA Openable windows are not used.
completely when The windows are sealed in order to
closed? maintain a pressurised system.
Are the windows Yes The external windows and atrium
positioned according sky light were positioned to allow for
to the orientation of the optimum amount of natural
the building? lighting, whilst reducing the amount
of direct solar gain.
Are low-emissivity Yes All external windows were treated
coatings used on the with a hard low emissivity coating to
windows? reduce the amount of solar gain.
Is aerogel glazing No It was not necessary.
used on the
windows?
Are exterior single Yes Single glazing was used in
pane windows conjunction with external shading
used? devices. Single glazing was used
on the eastern and western sides
because shadows cast by adjacent
buildings in the morning and
afternoon assisted in the reduction

150
 of direct solar gains.
Are exterior double Yes Double-glazing was used where
pane windows there were no external shading
used? devices used. Due to budget
constraints, double-glazing was
only used in areas where the
energy model indicated it was
needed.
Are exterior triple No The budget did not allow for the use
pane windows of triple glazing.
used?
Are the windows No It was not a requirement to make
vacuum glazed? use of vacuum glazing.
Is Argon gas used No Performance models indicated that
between the glazing dehydrated air inside the double
panels? glazing was sufficient.
Is Krypton gas used No Performance models indicated that
between the glazing dehydrated air inside the double
panels? glazing was sufficient.
Is dehydrated air Yes Performance models indicated that
used between the dehydrated air inside the double
glazing panels? glazing was sufficient to attain the
desired performance.
Are switchable No There was no requirement to use
reflective glazing this technology.
(electrochromics)
used?
Are switchable No There was no requirement to use
reflective glazing this technology.
(gasochromics)
used?
Are holographic No The glazed areas and atrium
optical elements allowed sufficient levels of light into

151
 used? the building.
Are the window No The design of the building was
frames insulated? completed before the new SABS
0400 standard came into effect (this
standard requires that window
frames be insulated). South African
glazing contractors have been slow
to adopt the concept of insulated
frames and change their frame
profiles. This means that if
designers want to specify insulated
frames, they would have to import
the frames.
Is the level of air Medium The commercially available frames
infiltration through are not generally designed for air
the facade: low tightness.
medium or high?
Are skylights used? Yes Skylights were used in the atrium.
To provide natural light to internal
office space. Fins were used to
remove as much direct solar
ingress to offices directly adjacent
to the atrium.

Insulation Is insulation used on Yes A roof garden was used above the
the roof? entrance foyer. Lambda board was
used to insulate the roof and reduce
solar heat gains.
Is the building Yes The energy model suggested that
envelope Insulated? the insulation material in the cavity
walls should be removed to reduce
the overall amount of energy
consumed by the building. The

152
 walls then acted like a thermal
battery.
Is the ground floor No The energy model suggested that
slab insulated? the insulation in the ground floor
slab should be removed to reduce
the overall amount of energy
consumed by the building. The slab
then acted like a thermal battery.

Thermal Are materials Yes Even though the materials used for
mass chosen for their construction were not selected for
thermal mass their thermal mass properties, the
properties? energy model suggested that the
insulation be removed from the
cavity of exterior walls to increase
the energy-efficiency of the building.
Is a thermal battery No No thermal battery was used
used? because the thermal properties of
the building envelope acted in a
similar way to a thermal battery.

Shading Is the building in the Yes The building is situated in a city

shade of other scape environment, so it is shaded
structures? by buildings on the east and west
side in the early mornings and late
afternoons.
Are external shading Yes Balconies are used as shading
devices used? devices but are part of the building
form. The upper balcony shades the
lower balcony. The curtain walls
were extended to the exterior of the
building to increase the external
shading. External shading devices

153
 are also used.
Are the external No The shading devices are fixed in
shading devices position. This position is the most
designed according logical position to both reduce the
to the sun path? amount of direct sunlight, and allow
for views.
Are internal shading Yes Passageways next to the atrium
devices used? served as shading devices to
reduce the amount of direct solar
ingress into the adjacent offices.
850mm high walls were built
internally on the northern side to
reduce the amount of direct solar
ingress. Internal blinds were used to
reduce the direct solar gain.
Do the shading No The external devices allow for good
devices block the views outside, thus improving the
view? comfort levels of the building
occupants.
Are there shading No The client did not want any
devices on the roof? additional height to be added to the
roof. Instead, reflective coatings
were used.

Ventilation Is passive natural No Due to the fact that the building was
ventilation used? sealed, passive natural ventilation
(stack driven) was not an option.
Is active natural Yes The air that circulates through the
ventilation used? building is conditioned, but 150%
(mechanical) more fresh air circulates through the
building than is required by building
code. This is to ensure the internal
environment is ideal for the

154
 accommodation of human beings.
Are exterior N/A Protrusions are not used because
protrusions used to the air that enters the building does
aid in flow of air into so through mechanical means.
the building?
Is night time Yes The designers wanted to make use
ventilation used? of night time mechanical flushing,
but the client was against the idea.
The HVAC system still pumps fresh
air into the building at night.
Is there passive No The designers chose not to
ventilation through ventilate through the roof because
the roof? the building makes use of air
conditioning.
Is there passive No The designers chose not to
ventilation through ventilate through the walls because
the walls? the building makes use of air
conditioning.
Is there passive No The windows are not openable
ventilation through because the building makes use of
the windows? air conditioning.
Are particle filters Yes Particle filters were used to reduce
used on incoming the amount of pollution and spores
air? entering the building.

Materials Are the construction Yes Traditional materials were used, but
materials selected they were specified by Green Star
because they are to be more environmentally friendly.
environmentally Bricks that were produced nearby
friendly/ and had been fired in a gas kiln
sustainable? were selected, so their embodied
energy was low; steel with a high
level of recycled content was used;

155
 cement with a high amount of fly
ash was used; sustainable wood
(bamboo) was used.
Are solar reflective Yes Reflective coatings were used on
coatings used on the the roof to reduce the SRI index.
roofs? The coatings were also intended to
reduce the additional effect that the
building had on the urban heat
island.
Are phase change Yes The PCM is used to assist the
materials (PCM) passive designs of the building by
used? managing the exact temperature
requirements. It is located in the
four basement levels. The PCM is
frozen at night, to reduce the
energy demand of the HVAC
system during peak periods. This
reduces the pressure on the
national grid and is less costly in
terms of rates and taxes because
these rates are calculated on the
peak demand usage.
Are organic-based No The architect was unaware of
Phase change whether or not BioPCM’s are
materials (BioPCM) available in South Africa
used?
Have substantial Yes The architects decided not to use
amounts of timber, but rather to use bamboo for
experimental cladding and flooring as an
materials been alternative to timber.
used?
Have substantial Yes Traditional materials were used, but
amounts of they were specified to be more

156
 traditional materials
been used?
Evaporative Has a roof pond
cooling been used?
Architect-Specific Questions
Architect: A1
What do you see as being
passive design?
Why do you consider the
above to be passive design?
What do you consider active
design to be?
Do you think active and
passive designs are mutually
exclusive or do they overlap in
certain instances?
sustainable.
No The client was against the use of a
roof pond.
Passive design is designing a building according to
the surrounding macro and micro climates.
Orientation, natural ventilation, insulation, thermal
mass, exposure to the sun, and adjacent buildings.
The building must be seen in the bigger context and
not in relation to just the adjacent buildings. It is
always important to view a building in the macro
scale environment. Factors such as: is the building
going to be located on a ridge; is it going to accept
more wind than a traditional building; etc. have to
be considered. After that the micro climate must
also be considered.
The architect was not exactly sure what active
design is. He defined active design as operational
and procedural measures to affect energy usage.
For example: the manner in which a building and its
systems are maintained, used or operated and to
what extent operational changes can influence the
energy consumed.
Active and passive design strategies are interlinked
in that a building must be seen as a whole and how
a single element will affect the entire building. The
aim is to develop an integrated system that tempers
the environment as far as possible in a natural way
rather than to use mechanical means. Everything is
157

In your opinion, what are the
passive strategies most
relevant to Gauteng?
Are there passive design
strategies relevant to Gauteng
which you choose not to apply
to your designs? If so, why?
Do you use computer models
to assist in the design of a
passive building?
Are you familiar with the term
“biomimetics”? Have you used
the concept in your designs?
Is interior health a significant
factor in the design of your
buildings? Do you consider
productivity levels, air quality
and comfort levels during the
design stage?
What do you think the South
African perception is in terms
of passive building?
interlinked and interrelated and a designer has to
design accordingly.
Orientation and solar control would be the most
applicable and easiest to achieve in a commercial
environment. Natural ventilation in commercial
buildings is possible, but a lot of factors, such as
smoke extraction, need to be taken into
consideration.
In general, commercial architects in Gauteng do not
design according to the wind. They design more
upon the grounds of solar orientation and natural
ground.
Yes. Energy models are often used and are very
helpful in the decision process.
Yes. The architect has not used it because there is
no leeway in the scope of the commercial design
environment for those types of design. The
architect argues that you can design for certain
outcomes, but in reality they may end up being
ineffective.
Yes, that is what a building is for. It is for humans.
That is why materials have to be specified so that
they do not have adverse effects on the health or
productivity of humans. That is why the building is
designed to have external views and the amount of
fresh air is increased. Everything is related to the
end use.
The architect is of the opinion that the general
South African public does not think too much about
passive design. This is because houses are often
orientated due west and often nothing is done to
control the environment or the amount of solar
158

Do you feel that there has
been a change in the design of
your company’s buildings since the implementation of the Green Star Rating
the implementation of the
Green Star Rating? What is
this change?
If you were not limited by the
budget, specifications,
materials, etc., would you have
applied additional passive
strategies to the building?
ingress. He says that because of the new
legislation, people are forced to consider certain
factors of passive design. This is what the Green
Star Rating system is all about - educating the user.
The architect does not believe that there has been
a significant change in the design of buildings since
system. This is because passive design is like
architecture 101, you have to get the design basics
right as far as possible, then to get the other
systems in place is relatively easy.
Yes. The architect would have liked to use the
building structure (thermal mass) to temper the
internal environment through the use of in-slab
ventilation, exposed slab soffits and floors coupled
with ‘chilled beams’.
159
Annexure 6: Building A2

Company: A Building: 2 Architect: A2

Passive How it is applied to Yes/No Why/ Why not?
Principle the building
Location Was the surrounding Yes The surrounding climate was
climate considered considered to a limited extent to
during the design allow the architect to design the
phase? building appropriately. Wind was
not considered as a factor, but the
sun was a determining factor in the
design of the building.
Will the building be Yes The building is located in the
subject to a heat eastern parts of the city of Pretoria
island? and is thus subject to an urban heat
island because of the surrounding
hardscapes.
Have measures Yes The Green Star Rating system
been taken to does not have a tool to measure
reduce the heat the neighbourhood development,
generated by the so this building has been registered
building on the as part of the LEED
surrounding neighbourhood. One of the
environment? requirements of LEED is to reduce
the effects of the urban heat island.
Roof coatings with a high SRI were
used to reflect the heat off the
building’s roof. A roof garden is also
used to reduce the heat absorbed
by the building.

Orientation Is the building No Pretoria is not subjected to constant

orientated according or very high levels of wind, so there

160
 to the prevailing wind was no point in orientating the
direction? building according to wind.
Is the building Yes The building form was orientated as
orientated according much as possible to take
to sunlight? advantage of natural sunlight, but
this was limited by the site
boundaries. The western façade is
mostly solid to reduce the amount
of solar ingress. While the northern
and southern facades have large
areas of glazing.
Is the building No The building has not specifically
orientated according been orientated according to the
to the views views required form the inside.
required? However, an atrium and floor to
ceiling windows have been used to
enhance the view for occupants of
the building. The views were
important to the designers of the
building because the comfort of the
building’s occupants has an
influence on their performance and
mental wellbeing.
Is the orientation of Yes Ideal orientation was limited by the
the building limited in site boundaries as maximum bulk
any way? had to be achieved.

Layout Does the building No The building has a floor plate depth
have a shallow floor of around 25m. This size of floor
plan? plate is large, and even though the
building is a doughnut shape, the
relatively small atrium does not
provide sufficient natural light. This

161

Is energy-efficiency Yes
a consideration in
the selection of
electrical devices?
(Lights, HVAC, etc.)
Fenestration Are openable No
windows used?
Do the windows seal NA
completely when
closed?
Are the windows Yes
positioned according
to the orientation of
the building?
Are low-emissivity Yes
coatings used on the
occurred because office space was
more critical than energy-efficiency
and natural lighting.
The client required that the building
energy systems reduce the impact
on the environment and to build as
far as possible a sustainable
development. The client also
required low energy systems to
reduce the operational energy
costs, so most systems in the
building are motion or light
activated. Lighting and HVAC units
are zoned around working areas to
reduce the amount of energy
needed.
Openable windows were
considered, but because a highly
efficient HVAC system was being
used, it was felt that the two
systems would work against each
other.
Openable windows are not used.
The windows are sealed in order to
maintain a pressurised system.
The external windows and atrium
sky light were positioned to allow
for the optimum amount of natural
lighting, whilst reducing the amount
of direct solar gain.
All external windows were treated
with a hard low emissivity coating to
162
windows? reduce the amount of solar gain.
Is aerogel glazing No It was not necessary.
used on the
windows?
Are exterior single Yes Single glazing was used in
pane windows used? conjunction with external shading
devises. Single glazing was used
on the eastern and western sides
because shadows cast by adjacent
buildings in the afternoon assisted
in the reduction of direct solar
gains.
Are exterior double Yes Double glazing was used where
pane windows used? there were no external shading
devices used. Due to budget
constraints, double glazing was
only used in areas where the
energy model indicated it was
needed.
Are exterior triple No The budget did not allow for the use
pane windows used? of triple glazing.
Are the windows No It was not a requirement to make
vacuum glazed? use of vacuum glazing.
Is Argon gas used No Performance models indicated that
between the glazing dehydrated air inside the double
panels? glazing was sufficient.
Is Krypton gas used No Performance models indicated that
between the glazing air inside the double glazing was
panels? sufficient.
Is dehydrated air Yes Performance models indicated that
used between the air inside the double glazing was
glazing panels? sufficient.
Are switchable No There was no requirement to use

163
 reflective glazing this technology.
(electrochromics)
used?
Are switchable No There was no requirement to use
reflective glazing this technology.
(gasochromics)
used?
Are holographic No The glazes areas and atrium
optical elements allowed sufficient levels of light into
used? the building.
Are the window No The design of the building was
frames insulated? completed before the new SABS
0400 standard came into effect (this
standard requires that window
frames be insulated). South Africa
glazing contractors have been slow
to adopt the concept of insulated
frames and change their frame
profiles. This means that if
designers want to specify insulated
frames, they would have to import
the frames.
Is the level of air Medium The commercially available frames
infiltration through are not generally designed for air
the facade: low tightness.
medium or high?
Are skylights used? Yes Used in the atrium. To provide
natural light to internal office space.
Fins were used to remove as much
direct solar ingress to offices
directly adjacent to the atrium.

Insulation Is insulation used on Yes Urban agriculture was used over

164
 the roof? about 500m2 of the roof. Lambda
board was used to insulate the roof
and reduce solar heat gains.
Is the building Yes The energy model suggested that
envelope Insulated? the insulation material in the cavity
walls should be removed to reduce
the overall amount of energy
consumed by the building. The
walls then acted like a thermal
battery.
Is the ground floor No The energy model suggested that
slab insulated? the insulation in the ground floor
slab should be removed to reduce
the overall amount of energy
consumed by the building. The slab
then acted like a thermal battery.

Thermal Are materials chosen Yes Even though the materials used for
mass for their thermal construction were not selected for
mass properties? their thermal mass properties, the
energy model suggested that the
insulation be removed from the
cavity of exterior walls to increase
the energy-efficiency of the
building.
Is a thermal battery No No thermal battery was used
used? because the thermal properties of
the building envelope acted in a
similar way to a thermal battery.

Shading Is the building in the Yes The building is situated in a city

shade of other scape environment, so it is shaded
structures? by buildings on the western side in

165
 the late afternoons.
Are external shading Yes Balconies are used as shading
devices used? devices but are part of the building
form. The upper balcony shades
the lower balcony. The curtain walls
were extended to the exterior of the
building to increase the external
shading. External shading devices
are also used.
Are the external Yes The eastern and western façade
shading devices have automated external shading
designed according devices that follow the path of the
to the sun path? sun. The northern façade has fixed
blinds which are positioned in a
logical manner to both reduce the
amount of direct sunlight, and allow
for views.
Are internal shading Yes Passageways next to the atrium
devices used? served as shading devices to
reduce the amount of direct solar
ingress into the adjacent offices.
850mm high walls were built
internally on the northern side to
reduce the amount of direct solar
ingress. Internal blinds were used
to reduce the direct solar gain.
Do the shading Yes The external devices allow for good
devices block the views to the north and south thus
view? improving the comfort levels of the
building occupants while limiting
solar gain through the building
envelope. Limited views to the east
and west will occur during certain

166

Are there shading No
devices on the roof?
times of the day when the
automatic shading device blocks
out the low angled sun.
The client did not want any
additional height to be added to the
roof. Instead, reflective coatings
were used. In some areas there are
canvas shades that provide the
occupants with shade while they
are outside, but these shades are
too small to have a significant effect
on the heat gain through the roof.

Ventilation Is passive natural No Due to the fact that the building was
ventilation used? sealed, passive natural ventilation
(stack driven) was not an option.
Is active natural Yes The air that circulates through the
ventilation used? building is conditioned, but 150%
(mechanical) more fresh air circulates through
the building than is required by
building code. This is to ensure the
internal environment is ideal for the
accommodation of human beings.
Are exterior NA Protrusions are not used because
protrusions used to the air that enters the building does
aid in flow of air into so through mechanical means.
building?
Is night time Yes The designers wanted to make use
ventilation used? of night time mechanical flushing,
but the client was against the idea.
The HVAC system still pumps fresh
air into the building at night.
Is there passive No The designers chose not to

167
 ventilation through
the roof?
Is there passive No
ventilation through
the walls?
Is there passive No
ventilation through
the windows?
Are particle filters Yes
used on incoming
air?
Materials Are the construction Yes
materials selected
because they are
environmentally
friendly/ sustainable?
Are solar reflective Yes
coatings used on the
roofs?
Are phase change Yes
materials (PCM)
ventilate through the roof because
the building makes use of air
conditioning.
The designers chose not to
ventilate through the walls because
the building makes use of air
conditioning.
The windows are not openable
because the building makes use of
air conditioning.
Particle filters were used to reduce
the amount of pollution and spores
entering the building.
Traditional materials were used, but
they were specified by Green Star
to be more environmentally friendly.
Bricks that were produced nearby
and had been fired in a gas kiln
were selected, so their embodied
energy was low; steel with a high
level of recycled content was used;
cement with a high amount of fly
ash was used; sustainable wood
(bamboo) was used.
Reflective coatings were used on
the roof to reduce the SRI index.
The coatings were also intended to
reduce the additional effect that the
building had on the urban heat
island.
The PCM is used to assist the
passive designs of the building by
168
 used? managing the exact temperature
requirements. It is located in the
four basement levels. The PCM is
frozen at night, to reduce the
energy demand of the HVAC
system during peak periods. This
reduces the pressure on the
national grid and is less costly in
terms of rates and taxes because
these rates are calculated on the
peak demand usage.
Are organic-based No The architect was unaware of
Phase change whether or not BioPCM’s are
materials (BioPCM) available in South Africa
used?
Have substantial Yes The architects decided to not use
amounts of timber, but rather to use bamboo
experimental for cladding and flooring as an
materials been alternative to timber.
used?
Have substantial Yes Traditional materials were used, but
amounts of they were specified to be more
traditional materials sustainable.
been used?

Evaporative Has a roof pond No The client was against the use of a
cooling been used? roof pond.

Architect-Specific Questions
Architect: A2
What do you see as being
passive design?
Passive design is designing a building according to
the surrounding macro and micro climates.
Orientation, natural ventilation, insulation, thermal

169

Why do you consider the
above to be passive design?
What do you consider active
design to be?
Do you think active and
passive designs are mutually
exclusive or do they overlap
one another in certain
instances?
In your opinion, what are the
passive strategies most
relevant to Gauteng?
Are there passive design
strategies relevant to Gauteng
which you choose not to apply
mass, exposure to the sun, and adjacent buildings.
The building must be seen in the bigger context and
not in relation to just the adjacent buildings. It is
always important to view a building in the macro
scale environment. Factors such as; is the building
going to be located on a ridge; is it going to accept
more wind than a traditional building, etc. has to be
considered. After that the micro climate must also
be considered.
The architect was not exactly sure what active
design is. He defined active design as operational
and procedural measures to affect energy usage.
For example: the manner in which a building and its
systems are maintained, used or operated and to
what effect operational changes can influence the
energy consumed.
Active and passive design strategies are interlinked
in that a building must be seen as a whole and how
a single element will affect the entire building. The
aim is to develop an integrated system that tempers
the environment as far as possible in a natural way
rather than to use mechanical means. Everything is
interlinked and interrelated and a designer has to
design accordingly.
Orientation and solar control would be the most
applicable and easiest to achieve in a commercial
environment. Natural ventilation in commercial
buildings is possible, but a lot of factors such as
smoke extraction need to be taken into
consideration.
In general commercial architects in Gauteng do not
design according to the wind. They design more
upon the grounds of solar orientation and natural
170
to your designs? If so, why?
Do you use computer models
to assist in the design of a
passive building?
Are you familiar with the term
“biomimetics”? Have you used
the concept in your designs?
Is interior health a significant
factor in the design of your
buildings? Do you consider
productivity levels, air quality
and comfort levels during the
design stage?
What do you think the South
African perception is in terms
of passive building?
Do you feel that there has
been a change in the design of
your company’s buildings since the implementation of the Greenstar rating system.
the implementation of the
Green Star Rating? What is
this change?
ground.
Yes. Energy models are often used and are very
helpful in the decision process.
Yes. The architect has not used it because there is
no leeway in the scope of the commercial design
environment for those types of design. The
architect argues that you can design for certain
outcomes, but in reality they may end up being
ineffective.
Yes, that’s what a building is for. It’s for humans.
That’s why materials have to be specified so that
they do not have adverse effects on the health or
productivity of humans. That’s why the building is
designed to have external views and the amount of
fresh air is increased. Everything is related to the
end used.
The architect is of the opinion that the general
South African public does not think too much about
passive design. This is because housed are often
orientated due west and often nothing is done to
control the environment or the amount of solar
ingress. He says that because of the new
legislation, people are forced to consider certain
factors of passive design. This is what the Green
Star Rating system is all about; educating the user.
The architect does not believe that there has been
a significant change in the design of buildings since
This is because passive design is like architecture
101, you have to get the design basics right as far
as possible, then, to get the other systems in place
is relatively easy.
171
If you were not limited by the
budget, specifications,
materials, etc., would you have
applied additional passive
strategies to the building?
Yes. The architect would have likes to use the
building structure (thermal mass) to temper the
internal environment through the use of in-slab
ventilation, exposed slab soffits and floors coupled
with ‘chilled beams’.
172
Annexure 7: Building A3

Company: A Building: 3 Architect: A3

Passive How it is applied to Yes/No Why/ Why not?
Principle the building
Location Was the surrounding Yes The effects of the Gauteng climate
climate considered as well as the microclimate of the
during the design immediate area were taken into
phase? consideration during the design of
the building so that the appropriate
design strategies could be applied
to the building.
Will the building be Yes The building is subject to an urban
subject to a heat heat island.
island?
Have measures Yes Shading and PV panels on the roof,
been taken to as well as soft landscaping around
reduce the heat the entire building are used to
generated by the mitigate the heat island effects
building on the created by the building.
surrounding
environment?

Orientation Is the building No The solar orientation was the

orientated according overriding factor that was
to the prevailing wind considered.
direction?
Is the building Yes The sun is the biggest driver as an
orientated according environmental concern. It is the
to sunlight? biggest contributor to heat gain. In
this case the site is east-west facing
meaning that northern orientation
was possible. The north and south

173
 facades are mostly glass while the
east and west are mostly solid. This
was done to reduce the unwanted
solar heat gain in the morning and
afternoons.
Is the building No The building has not specifically
orientated according been orientated according to the
to the views views required form the inside. In
required? order for the building to achieve the
desired Green Star Rating, 60% of
the building users would have to
have a view of the outside to be
comfortable. This was an easy point
to achieve because it does not cost
more to achieve, it’s just correct
design.
Is the orientation of No The ideal northward orientation was
the building limited in achievable.
any way?

Layout Does the building Yes
have a shallow floor
plan?
Is energy-efficiency Yes
a consideration in
the selection of
electrical devices?
(Lights, HVAC, etc.)
The floor plate distance between
the atrium and the side of the
building is 12m. It was designed this
was so that natural light could be
utilised through as much of the
building as possible.
Energy consumption was a major
factor during the design. The brief
specified that the building should
use about one third of the amount of
electricity as a comparative building
which is built according to the new
regulations. Every component that

174
 uses electricity was considered and
specified according to its energy
consumption. Feature lighting is not
used. The lights close to the
windows will only come on when
there is insufficient natural light.

Fenestration Are openable Yes Openable windows have been

windows used? installed for ventilation, smoke
extraction and night time flushing.
Do the windows seal Yes Sealed windows are used to stop
completely when the leaking of air into our out of the
closed? building.
Are the windows Yes A lot of glass, with the appropriate
positioned according levels of shading has been placed
to the orientation of on the northern façade, while the
the building? southern side is also mostly glass
without shading to provide the
maximum amount of light.
Are low-emissivity Yes Clear glass that would let sufficient
coatings used on the levels of light in, while blocking the
windows? heat energy of the sun was
specified. Hard coatings are used.
Is aerogel glazing No The architect was unaware of this
used on the product and there was no need for
windows? it.
Are exterior single No Single pane windows are not used
pane windows used? because the insulation qualities are
not high enough.
Are exterior double Yes Double glazing was used for its
pane windows used? thermal and acoustic insulation
properties.
Are exterior triple No The budget did not allow for triple

175
pane windows used? glazing.
Are the windows No Argon was used.
vacuum glazed?
Is Argon gas used Yes It was used to guarantee that the
between the glazing desired window performance in
panels? terms of insulation would be
reached.
Is Krypton gas used No Argon was used.
between the glazing
panels?
Is dehydrated air No Argon was used.
used between the
glazing panels?
Are switchable No The requirement was for clear
reflective glazing glazing.
(electrochromics)
used?
Are switchable No The requirement was for clear
reflective glazing glazing.
(gasochromics)
used?
Are holographic No There was no need for it. Natural
optical elements light was sufficient.
used?
Are the window Yes The frames are protected against
frames insulated? thermal bridging to stop the flow of
heat into or out of the building
through the frame.
Is the level of air Low Low, because the building is
infiltration through designed and built to be air tight.
the facade: low
medium or high?
Are skylights used? Yes Atriums were used to increase the

176

Insulation Is insulation used on Yes
the roof?
Is the building Yes
envelope Insulated?
Is the ground floor Yes
slab insulated?
Thermal Are materials chosen Yes
mass for their thermal
mass properties?
amount of natural light and for use
in the process of night time flushing.
A high performance waterproofing
and insulation system was used on
the roof because it was light weight
and the designers were able to
choose the colour that they wanted.
Green roofs were considered and in
some areas they were used. They
were not used in other areas
because they were not seen to be
beneficial to the overall energy-
efficiency of the building, and other,
more appropriate systems could be
used. Insulation was used to reduce
the heat gain through the roof.
220mm brick walls with insulation
on the inside are used to reduce the
flow of heat through the building
envelope.
The areas under the footprint of the
building are insulated to reduce the
flow of heat through the building
envelope.
They were chose to an extent for
their thermal mass properties, but it
was not an overriding factor.
Insulation was not used on the
inside of the concrete walls because
it worked against the thermal lag of
the walls.
177
 Is a thermal battery No The requirement for the building
used? was for the incoming air to be
artificially heated and cooled.

Shading Is the building in the No The building is higher than the

shade of other surrounding structures.
structures?
Are external shading Yes External shading is in the form of
devices used? shading screens, structural
overhangs, extended structural fins,
and lintels. Additionally, patterns are
printed onto the double glazing units
to shade the inside of the building,
thus reducing the amount of heat
gain and glare. Terracotta tiles are
used in areas on the external walls
as a rain screen and shading
device. This is a breathable
lightweight system.
Are the external Yes Computer modelling software was
shading devices used to assist is the design.
designed according Shading elements were initially
to the sun path? placed in a certain position, but
moved after the energy model
showed that the position was not
optimal for the desired result.
Are internal shading Yes Designed from the start with internal
devices used? blinds not for thermal gain reasons,
but to stop glare.
Do the shading No The fixed shading devices are not in
devices block the line with occupants view, and the
view? shading devices that have been
printed onto the windows are not

178

Are there shading Yes
devices on the roof?
completely opaque because views
to the outside were an important
consideration.
The roof is completely covered by
PV panels because they assist in
reducing the heat gain through the
roof, and the roof was the most
ideal area to put the panels.

Ventilation Is passive natural Yes Stack ventilation has been selected

ventilation used? in conjunction with a highly efficient
(stack driven) HVAC system to ventilate the
building in an economical way and
to add to user comfort through
control. This is limited to times when
the atrium windows are opened
during the day and throughout the
evening while night flushing is
taking place.
Is active natural No Fans are only activated for smoke
ventilation used? extraction.
(mechanical)
Are exterior No The exterior protrusions are more
protrusions used to for shading than airflow.
aid in flow of air into
building?
Is night time Yes Perforated ceiling boards are used
ventilation used? so that hot air from inside the
building will rise to the soffit of the
ceiling slab where it is absorbed. At
night the windows are opened and
the building is flushed with cool air,
thus cooling the concrete soffits.

179

Is there passive Yes
ventilation through
the roof?
Is there passive No
ventilation through
the walls?
Is there passive Yes
ventilation through
the windows?
Are particle filters Yes
used on incoming
air?
Materials Are the construction Yes
materials selected
because they are
environmentally
friendly/ sustainable?
Are solar reflective Yes
This is done to reduce the load on
the HVAC system.
The atrium windows are used for
ventilation and night time flushing.
There was no need for ventilation to
occur through the walls because
passive ventilation takes place
through the roof and windows.
Openable windows have been
installed every five running metres
to allow individuals to adjust their
environment as desired. The
windows are monitored to ensure
that during certain times the
windows are either opened or
closed. Mechanically actuated
windows are also used as a method
of smoke extraction and for night
flushing.
They are used to filter out particle
filters and pollutants.
The materials were selected
according to the Green Star Rating
to be low maintenance, sustainable,
healthy and environmentally
friendly. Terracotta tiles were
selected because they are
environmentally friendly and
aesthetically pleasing.
Used to reduce the amount of heat
180
 coatings used on the gain through the roof.
roofs?
Are phase change No The concept was not explored
materials (PCM) during the design of the building.
used?
Are organic-based No They concept was not explored
Phase change during the design of the building.
materials (BioPCM)
used?
Have substantial Yes Materials that are not commonly
amounts of used in SA, but commonly used in
experimental Europe were used on the building.
materials been For example, the window units are a
used? recent South African development.
They have been used for their
insulation qualities.
Have substantial Yes Materials like bricks were used
amounts of because of the availability of the
traditional materials material.
been used?

Evaporative Has a roof pond No The client did not want a roof pond.
cooling been used? A three phase evaporative cooling
system is used. Storage dams have
been installed so that rainwater may
be collected and used for cooling
purposes. This results in the
building using about a third of the
water of other comparable
buildings.

181
Architect-Specific Questions
Architect: A3
What do you see as being
passive design?
Why do you consider the
above to be passive design?
What do you consider active
design to be?
Do you think active and
passive designs are mutually
exclusive or do they overlap
one another in certain
instances?
In your opinion, what are the
passive strategies most
relevant to Gauteng?
Are there passive design
strategies relevant to Gauteng
which you choose not to apply
to your designs? If so, why?
Do you use computer models
to assist in the design of a
passive building?
A passive building is a building that is not
mechanically ventilated, but stack ventilated. It uses
very little or no electricity.
Very little energy is being used to provide comfort
to the building interior.
Active design makes use of electrical devices and
air conditioning to control and monitor the indoor
conditions.
This building is a good example of where passive
and active strategies overlap. The passive night
flushing is enhanced by mechanical actuators that
can be programmed. There is not one system that
solves everything, because each green initiative
that a designer applies has its advantages and
disadvantages, so a balance must be found.
The basic design considerations are very important.
Orientation, insulation and thermal mass are the
main factors that should be considered. What works
for one building may not work for another building.
Each client, building and site has to be looked at in
isolation and then the best path to achieving the
required performance may be determined.
No, the basic strategies are always considered and
applied to the buildings.
Yes. The building was modelled in 3D, and energy
models were used to determine how the design
should be adjusted to make it more energy-efficient.
This meant that the building could be redesigned to
be extremely energy-efficient before any
182

Are you familiar with the term
“biomimetics”? Have you used
the concept in your designs?
Is interior health a significant
factor in the design of your
buildings? Do you consider
productivity levels, air quality
and comfort levels during the
design stage?
What do you think the South
African perception is in terms
of passive building?
Do you feel that there has
been a change in the design of
your company’s buildings since not required to achieve a Green Star Rating. More
the implementation of the
Green Star Rating? What is
this change?
If you were not limited by the
budget, specifications,
construction work commenced.
Yes. It is an interesting idea. I have probably used it
to a certain extent because it is a logical thing to do.
Every building should be a green building. We are
way past the point where it is optional. It’s just a
matter of how far you go on the design of the
building. More money does not necessarily need to
be thrown at the building. A very green building is
achievable just through a clever design.
These things are definitely considered during the
design stage, and the Green Star Rating tool is very
helpful in determining the degree to which interior
health should be designed for. Lighting levels,
indoor air quality and user controls were all high up
on the list of requirements from the client.
People are catching onto the green building
concept, but not so much passive building. The
reason is probably because tenants of commercial
office buildings feel that passive design are too
unpredictable. The initial cost of building green is
more than traditional building, but not as much as
people think. Savings are then realised in the long
term. In the future, clients are expected to start
demanding that their buildings are designed
according to green strategies.
No, the strategies of sustainable building have
always been followed, even on buildings that are
is probably being done now to educate clients
about green and sustainable building than was
done in the past.
There are always more things that can be put onto
a building, but the question of where to stop has to
183
materials, etc., would you have
applied additional passive
strategies to the building?
be asked. No, there is nothing that is appropriate to
the building as it currently stands that will improve
its energy consumption or overall performance.
There are enough systems in place on the building,
like green roofs and renewable energy sources,
which save energy and ensure people inside the
building are comfortable.
184
Annexure 8: Building B1

Company: B Building: 1 Architect: B1

Passive How it is applied to Yes/No Why/ Why not?
Principle the building
Location Was the surrounding Yes The surrounding climates as well as
climate considered the surrounding buildings were
during the design considered for the determination of
phase? the mechanical HVAC and glazing
specifications. Models were used to
determine what the effects would
be, so that the designs could be
altered accordingly.
Will the building be Yes The building is situated in the city
subject to a heat centre, and will be subject to an
island? urban heat island. For this reason it
was decided that mechanical
ventilation would be the best. Large
amounts of solid materials have
been used to mitigate the effects of
the urban heat on the building.
Have measures Yes The designers incorporated a lot of
been taken to soft landscaping in an attempt to
reduce the heat reduce the impact that the building
generated by the has on the surrounding
building on the environment.
surrounding
environment?

Orientation Is the building No The building has not specifically

orientated according been orientated according to the
to the prevailing wind wind, but the Southern side of the
direction? building that is exposed to wind has

185
 been vertically dropped, and there
are no balconies on that side either.
Is the building Yes Sunlight and its effects is the
orientated according predominant reason for orientating
to sunlight? the building northwards while the
location of public transport was is
an additional advantage.
Is the building No The building has not specifically
orientated according been orientated according to the
to the views views required form the inside.
required? However, several atriums and floor
to ceiling windows have been used
to enhance the view for occupants
of the building. It was required that
80% of the occupants have a view
of the outside. This was to improve
comfort levels.
Is the orientation of Yes The building is limited slightly in
the building limited in terms of achieving the ideal
any way? orientation due to bulking
requirements. The form of the
building has however been
designed accordingly.

Layout Does the building No In an attempt to not have a deep

have a shallow floor
plan?
Is energy-efficiency Yes
a consideration in
the selection of
electrical devices?
floor plan, the building has been
broken up into a north and south
block with the atrium in the middle
to provide light.
Both the client and tenant specified
energy-efficient electrical devices
so save on electricity. The building
is monitored by building

186
 (Lights, HVAC, etc.) management systems. Sensors are
used on the lights, air conditioning
and escalators so that they stop
working when they are not needed.
This will save electricity.

Fenestration Are openable No Openable windows were not part of

windows used? the rational design, and would have
looked terrible if they were used.
They would also have worked
against the highly efficient HVAC
system.
Do the windows seal NA Openable windows are not used.
completely when The windows are sealed in order to
closed? maintain a pressurised system.
Are the windows Yes Scallops on the east and west sides
positioned according of the building are designed to
to the orientation of catch the rays of the sun from the
the building? north and south as a source of light.
Several types of glass are used in
different sections of the building,
according to the conditions they will
be exposed to and the desired level
of performance required from them.
Are low-emissivity Yes Varying degrees of high
coatings used on the performance glass has been used
windows? throughout the building to reduce
the amount of glare and heat gain
through the windows.
Is aerogel glazing No It was not needed.
used on the
windows?
Are exterior single Yes Single glazing has been used

187
pane windows used? where the glazing curves because
double glazed curved windows are
not available.
Are exterior double Yes All of the windows are double
pane windows used? glazed where there is not a curve
for thermal and acoustic reasons.
Are exterior triple No The budget did not allow for triple
pane windows used? glazing.
Are the windows Yes Vacuum glazing has been used for
vacuum glazed? its insulation properties.
Is Argon gas used No It was not necessary because other
between the glazing design elements like external
panels? shading mitigated the need for this.
Is Krypton gas used No It was not necessary because other
between the glazing design elements like external
panels? shading mitigated the need for this.
Is dehydrated air Yes The vacuum in the void between
used between the the panes provides more insulation
glazing panels? than if air had been present.
Are switchable No The glazing is not designed for
reflective glazing privacy.
(electrochromics)
used?
Are switchable No The glazing is not designed for
reflective glazing privacy.
(gasochromics)
used?
Are holographic No The designer was unaware of this
optical elements technology, but also did not see a
used? need for it as sufficient levels of
lighting were as a result of the
design.
Are the window No The technology is not readily

188
 frames insulated?
Is the level of air Medium The building is quite well sealed,
infiltration through
the facade: low
medium or high?
Are skylights used? Yes
available.
but gaps due to poor construction
may be present.
Skylights are used in the atriums as
a form of natural lighting. The
skylights were made deeper so that
the light that entered them is
reflected and the internal areas are
not subject to glare.

Insulation Is insulation used on Yes The soffit of the roof is insulated to

the roof? stop the heat inside the building
from escaping through the roof.
Is the building Yes The envelope is mainly solid and
envelope Insulated? insulation has been used to stop
the flow of heat through the building
envelope.
Is the ground floor Yes On the soffit of the basement slab
slab insulated? to stop the cold coming up from the
basement.

Thermal Are materials chosen Yes Concrete has been chosen

mass for their thermal because it has good thermal mass
mass properties? properties and will reduce the load
on the HVAC system.
Is a thermal battery No It was never a consideration
used? because it is expensive.

Shading Is the building in the Yes The extent to which the building is
shade of other shaded by other structures is not
structures? very great.

189
 Are external shading Yes External fixed and automated
devices used? louvers are used to reduce heat
gain. Large structural overhangs
are also designed to shade certain
parts of the building.
Are the external No The louvers are designed to
shading devices maintain a fixed angle to the sun.
designed according The automated devices move up
to the sun path? and down on fixed rails according
to the time of day.
Are internal shading Yes Automated and manual internal
devices used? shades are used on the perimeter
facades. Internal blinds are not
needed on the internal windows of
the building because of the deep
skylights minimising the glare.
Do the shading No The view from the inside of the
devices block the building is important for occupant
view? comfort, so shading devices are
designed to maintain a satisfactory
view of the outside.
Are there shading No Shading devices were not
devices on the roof? considered in the design.

Ventilation Is passive natural No The first three floor of the basement

ventilation used? are passively ventilated, but the
(stack driven) building is sealed off from the
basement. There are too many
internal sources of heat such as
people and equipment.
Is active natural Yes Fresh air is constantly being
ventilation used? pumped into the building to improve
(mechanical) user comfort.

190
 Are exterior NA External wind is not able to flow into
protrusions used to the building.
aid in flow of air into
building?
Is night time Yes Fresh air continues to be pumped
ventilation used? into the building throughout the
night to cool the building.
Is there passive No All of the air that enters the building
ventilation through does so through the HVAC system.
the roof? Fresh air is pulled in through the
roof because it is far away from the
urban pollutants, while stale air and
smoke is extracted through the
roof.
Is there passive No The building is ventilated through
ventilation through the HVAC system only.
the walls?
Is there passive No The windows are sealed and all
ventilation through ventilation is through the HVAC
the windows? system.
Are particle filters Yes Filters are used to maintain high
used on incoming levels of indoor air quality.
air?

Materials Are the construction Yes Materials without volatile organic

materials selected
because they are
environmentally
friendly/ sustainable?
Are solar reflective Yes
coatings used on the
compounds have been specified.
Raw natural materials were
selected to make the whole building
more natural and comfortable.
Green Star specification guided the
selection of materials.
Used for reflection and insulation
properties.

191
 roofs?
Are phase change No The architect was unaware of this
materials (PCM) material.
used?
Are organic-based No The architect was unaware of this
Phase change material.
materials (BioPCM)
used?
Have substantial Yes The type and method of concreting
amounts of is new, and the titanium cladding
experimental material is being used for the first
materials been time in Africa. These new materials
used? and methods are being used
because the construction industry is
constantly changing and
developing.
Have substantial Yes Natural stone and traditional
amounts of concrete has been used in the
traditional materials construction of the building
been used? because it is relatively inexpensive.

Evaporative Has a roof pond Yes The ponds are not situated on the
cooling been used? roof. They are located around the
perimeter as well as the entrances
and exits of the building to cool the
air in those areas so that there in
not such a large difference in
temperature when people move
from inside to outside.

192
Architect-Specific Questions
Architect: B1
What do you see as being
passive design?
Why do you consider the
above to be passive design?
What do you consider active
design to be?
Do you think active and
passive designs are mutually
exclusive or do they overlap
one another in certain
instances?
In your opinion, what are the
passive strategies most
relevant to Gauteng?
Are there passive design
strategies relevant to Gauteng
which you choose not to apply
to your designs? If so, why?
Passive design is seen by the architect as being a
number of things, both in the design of the building
and in the choice of materials used in its
construction. Basically, the design considerations
that are non-negotiable, site, topography,
surroundings, orientation, access and roads, light.
They are considered to be elements that are there
whether you act on them or not. But considering
them and taking them into account from the
inception wins a lot of benefits and in it lie the first
design clues.
Active design is something less inert, something
that is directly added to address a matter, such as
adjustable motorised blinds and air-conditioning.
The architect is of the opinion that passive and
active design strategies overlap, and depending on
what you have or have not addressed in the
passive, may be taken up in the active. Passive
design is sometimes limited and active assists in its
shortfalls, thus complimenting each other.
Orientation. The sun is ruthless or useful, and
depending on the design response you can change
it into something great. Also reducing openings to
the South winds makes for a more comfortable
internal environment. Orientation also allows you to
get by without internal and external blinds,
something that can be unattractive and expensive.
Yes, we often choose not to use storm water and
grey water harvesting when we do not have a large
catchment area for water, and their water filtration
can be costly. Solar energy storage is something
193

Do you use computer models
to assist in the design of a
passive building?
Are you familiar with the term
“biomimetics”? Have you used
the concept in your designs?
Is interior health a significant
factor in the design of your
buildings? Do you consider
productivity levels, air quality
and comfort levels during the
design stage?
What do you think the South
African perception is in terms
of passive building?
Do you feel that there has
been a change in the design of
your company’s buildings since best practice. Many points we were already being
the implementation of the
Green Star Rating? What is
this change?
we have never used due to the current costs of the
battery cells. We do use solar panels for boilers
however.
Yes, we use models to do sun studies, to assist in
determining glazing specifications, skylight analysis
for optimal internal lighting, as well as to determine
where active interventions may be required. We try
to identify and minimise solar glare and solar heat
gain.
The architect is not familiar with this term.
Yes, interior health and comfort are the dominant
drivers of the designs. Green Star has been great
at giving a guideline of how to achieve it. Minimum
lux levels of light, minimum fresh air to avoid sick
buildings, guidance on external view and atrium
dimensions, guidance on materials that add and not
hinder user’s health are becoming regulation. They
also provide monitoring matrixes to get efficient use
of the building which sees tangible savings to the
users.
It is growing, but still in its infancy. There is a
perception that passive design is expensive but it is
becoming more and more asked for, and
technological advances are making it realistic.
Yes, the company looks to implement as many
strategies as possible because they are general
achieved without the rating system. A strategy of
getting the low hanging fruit first and then discuss
and budget the supplementary points that are to
achieve our star rating. Budgets are set up early for
194

If you were not limited by the
budget, specifications,
materials, etc., would you have
applied additional passive
strategies to the building?
Green Star so it is a factor cost as part of the
project, and not just a nice to have extra.
Black water harvesting would have been nice as
well as incorporating photovoltaic cells into the
glazing which you can see through (technology
currently only available in Switzerland).
195
Annexure 9: Building B2

Company: B Building: 2 Architect: B2

Passive How it is applied to Yes/No Why/ Why not?
Principle the building
Location Was the surrounding Yes The surrounding climate, especially
climate considered the sun angles on the east, north
during the design and west sides were considered
phase? and the building was designed
accordingly. The building is part of
a bigger development project, so
the building was also considered in
the bigger context.
Will the building be Yes The fact that the building would be
subject to a heat subject to an urban heat island was
island? not taken into consideration.
Have measures No The fact that the building would be
been taken to subject to an urban heat island and
reduce the heat that the building would affect the
generated by the urban heat island was not taken
building on the into consideration.
surrounding
environment?

Orientation Is the building No It was orientated according to the

orientated according sun.
to the prevailing wind
direction?
Is the building No The building is placed on a narrow
orientated according piece of land, so it could not be
to sunlight? orientated according to the sun
because of the required bulk. It is
however orientated northward. The

196
 heat loads resulting from the sun
were the most important things to
consider in the design. Because the
heat load has a direct effect on the
cost and size of the HVAC.
Is the building No The building has not specifically
orientated according been orientated according to the
to the views views required form the inside.
required? Suitable views were required by the
client and have been achieved
through an internal atrium and well
placed windows. This was not easy
to achieve because of the
surrounding structures and
orientation of the building.
Is the orientation of Yes Ideal orientation is limited by the
the building limited in shape of the site.
any way?

Layout Does the building Yes
have a shallow floor
plan?
Is energy-efficiency Yes
a consideration in
the selection of
electrical devices?
(Lights, HVAC, etc.)
A doughnut shape has been used
with an atrium. The floor plate
depth is 10m. This is done to take
advantage of the available sunlight.
Amongst other things, low energy
and heat lights and a four pipe
HVAC system has been used to
reduce the energy consumption of
the building.

Fenestration Are openable No The air conditioning system is most

windows used? efficient if the structure in which it is
working is pressurised. Openable
windows were initially an option for

197
 smoke extraction, but a mechanical
smoke extraction system was
preferred.
Do the windows seal NA Openable windows are not used.
completely when The windows are sealed in order to
closed? maintain a pressurised system.
Are the windows Yes The most windows are positioned
positioned according on the north side where full glazing
to the orientation of and large overhangs are used.
the building? Narrow strips of glazing are used
on the east and west sides to
reduce the amount of solar heat
gain in the early morning and late
afternoon.
Are low-emissivity Yes Hard coatings were used on the
coatings used on the outside of the inside pane of double
windows? glazing to reduce the amount of
solar heat gain. The client did not
want reflective glass to be used
because the shape of the building
would cause areas surrounding the
building to heat up.
Is aerogel glazing No The architect was unaware of this
used on the product and there was no need for
windows? it.
Are exterior single Yes The fully glazed north façade is
pane windows used? high performance, low-e single
pane windows because the north
side is seen to be less critical in
terms of heat gain compared to the
east and west, and there is shading
on the north side.
Are exterior double Yes Double glazing has been used on

198
pane windows used? the east and western sides to
reduce the effects of solar heat
gain.
Are exterior triple No It was too expensive.
pane windows used?
Are the windows Yes Vacuum glazing was used because
vacuum glazed? of its insulation advantages.
Is Argon gas used No The glazing system used a hard
between the glazing coating, which is not used in
panels? conjunction with Argon gas.
Is Krypton gas used No The glazing system used a hard
between the glazing coating, which is not used in
panels? conjunction with Krypton gas.
Is dehydrated air No There is a vacuum between the
used between the glass panes.
glazing panels?
Are switchable No The client wanted the glass to be
reflective glazing clear and transparent at all times.
(electrochromics)
used?
Are switchable No The client wanted the glass to be
reflective glazing clear and transparent at all times.
(gasochromics)
used?
Are holographic No This product was not needed
optical elements because sufficient amounts of
used? natural light entered the building.
Are the window No The frames are fully sealed, but not
frames insulated? thermally insulated due to the fact
that it is not a conventional practice
in SA. Insulation has been placed
behind the aluminium window
frames.

199
 Is the level of air Medium A unitised system is used, so even
infiltration through though they are sealed, the joints
the facade: low between them may not be
medium or high? completely sealed.
Are skylights used? Yes The atrium admits natural light to
reduce the need for artificial lighting
and it also enhances the comfort
levels of the building occupants.

Insulation Is insulation used on Yes Insulation is fitted to the underside

the roof? of the roof slab. To stop the flow of
heat through the roof.
Is the building Yes Insulation is fitted to the inside of
envelope Insulated? the building envelope in the form of
a cavity dry wall.
Is the ground floor No Insulation is not needed because
slab insulated? there is effectively no exposed slab
due to the basement being
completely enclosed. Insulation is
used in small areas under the slab
where the slab is used as an
overhang.

Thermal Are materials chosen No The use of thermal mass was never
mass for their thermal a consideration in the design of the
mass properties? building because a high
performance HVAC system was
used.
Is a thermal battery No The use of a thermal battery was
used? never a consideration in the design
of the building because a high
performance HVAC system was
used.

200
Shading Is the building in the Yes The building will be slightly shaded
shade of other by buildings built in the future. This
structures? was considered during the design
stage and the design was adjusted
accordingly to minimise the need
for additional mechanical systems.
Are external shading Yes Shading devices as such are not
devices used? used for aesthetic reasons. The
building itself has been designed to
create an overhang on the north
and south sides, and certain
sections are of the building are
recessed to create shaded areas.
Are the external No The only shading created by this
shading devices building is created by the concave
designed according angle of the walls.
to the sun path?
Are internal shading Yes Manual and automatic blinds are
devices used? used. They are used to reduce the
amount of glare and heat gain.
Do the shading No Unobstructed views to the outside
devices block the are an important requirement of the
view? client. The automatic blinds may be
overridden by the occupants of the
building.
Are there shading No Aesthetics is the reason.
devices on the roof?

Ventilation Is passive natural No The reason is because a

ventilation used? completely sealed building was
(stack driven) desired for the HVAC system to
perform effectively. The two

201
 systems would work against each
other.
Is active natural Yes Fresh air is pumped through the
ventilation used? building all the time, whether the
(mechanical) heating and cooling is on or off.
Are exterior NA Natural passive ventilation is not
protrusions used to used. All of the air that enters the
aid in flow of air into building does so through
building? mechanical means.
Is night time Yes During the evening the HVAC
ventilation used? system will shut down, but fresh air
will continue to be pumped into the
building. This is done to maintain a
more constant temperature inside
the building and replace the stale
air.
Is there passive No All of the air that enters the building
ventilation through does so through the HVAC system.
the roof? The HVAC system is located on the
roof so that it is not visible and does
not take up valuable space.
Is there passive No All of the air going into the building
ventilation through will go through the HVAC system
the walls? on the roof.
Is there passive No There is no ventilation through the
ventilation through windows because they cannot
the windows? open.
Are particle filters Yes Every unit has particle filters which
used on incoming are cleaned out on a regular basis
air? to ensure the occupants health and
wellbeing.

Materials Are the construction Yes For Green Star, each and every

202
 materials selected material has to comply. The rebar is
because they are recycled, the concrete has a certain
environmentally amount of ash, and the façade
friendly/ sustainable? materials are recyclable.
Are solar reflective Yes The coating was used purely to
coatings used on the protect the waterproofing.
roofs?
Are phase change No The use of PCM’s was never a
materials (PCM) consideration in the design of the
used? building because a high
performance HVAC system was
used.
Are organic-based No The use of PCM’s was never a
Phase change consideration in the design of the
materials (BioPCM) building because a high
used? performance HVAC system was
used.
Have substantial Yes Lightweight spray-on concrete has
amounts of been used. This material is often
experimental used in Europe, but not SA. Most of
materials been the other materials used have been
used? selected because they are readily
available in SA.
Have substantial Yes Concrete, glass, aluminium and dry
amounts of walling have been used because it
traditional materials is a quick and clean process, and
been used? readily available in SA. Concrete
has been used for its fire resistant
properties.

Evaporative Has a roof pond No This method of cooling was not

cooling been used? considered because a high
performance HCAV system was

203

Architect-Specific Questions
Architect: B2
What do you see as being
passive design?
Why do you consider the
above to be passive design?
What do you consider active
design to be?
Do you think active and
passive designs are mutually
exclusive or do they overlap
one another in certain
instances?
In your opinion, what are the
passive strategies most
relevant to Gauteng?
chosen from the start.
Designing and integrating components into a
building that are not mechanical and do not
consume any energy. Using the environment to
enhance the building. It could be anything from a
tree in the right location to using thermal mass on
the correct façade.
The above is passive design because the building
is designed in such a way as to eliminate the need
for electricity.
An active system is one that actively reacts to the
surrounding conditions to maintain comfort within a
building. Automatic blinds would be an example of
this.
The architect feels that the systems can overlap,
but the problem is that it is difficult to find a balance
between the two of them in the long term. During
the initial stages of design, both active and passive
elements are taken into account. It is the architects’
opinion that at this stage the fine balance between
active and passive strategies would have to be
achieved. He is unsure though of whether the
overall product would be successful, and that it
would have to be tested.
Well positioned thermal mass for winter comfort
and shading for summer cooling. The architect also
stated that passive methods of cooling are probably
the best for low to medium-rise commercial
buildings, however offices require a lot of light
which means large areas of glazing are used. This
204

Are there passive design
strategies relevant to Gauteng
which you choose not to apply
to your designs? If so, why?
Do you use computer models
to assist in the design of a
passive building?
Are you familiar with the term
“biomimetics”? Have you used
the concept in your designs?
Is interior health a significant
factor in the design of your
buildings? Do you consider
productivity levels, air quality
and comfort levels during the
design stage?
What do you think the South
African perception is in terms
of passive building?
leads to solar heat gain because double glazing is
not widely used due to its price tag. This is one of
the biggest reasons that offices are still designed
with single glazing.
The company for which the architect works is well
known for designing glass and aluminium buildings,
and he says for the reason of aesthetics, passive
strategies are often not used.
Yes. The models are used by the architects and
mechanical engineers to determine how the
buildings will react to different designs as well as
external and internal conditions to which they are
subjected.
Yes. The architect has not used Biomimicry in his
designs. He has briefly looked at passive strategies
that have stemmed from Biomimicry, but has never
conducted research on the topic because of the
time constraints involved in the design of buildings.
Yes. High levels of light are an important
consideration for the architect, so the designs
involve large glazed areas. The heat radiation and
glare are big problems associated with large glazed
areas. More fresh air is pumped into the building to
minimise the need for plant and improve comfort
levels.
The architect feels that most architects would like to
use passive strategies wherever possible, but that
the market is currently not geared that way. People
are traditional in the way they do things and they do
not want to change. For example: if a company is
popular for designing in a certain way, they are not
easily going to change the way they design if the
client is happy with it. The only thing that the
205

Do you feel that there has
been a change in the design of
your company’s buildings since requirement of the client. The design of the
the implementation of the
Green Star Rating? What is
this change?
If you were not limited by the
budget, specifications,
materials, etc., would you have
applied additional passive
strategies to the building?
architect feels will change this perception is the
increasing cost of electricity.
He thinks that the general public is severely
uninformed about the passive strategies available.
The reason behind this is that there is not enough
educational campaigning by the recognised
institutes towards passive design.
The company has always tried to keep the cost of
running a building low because it has been a
buildings has changed slightly in that things like PV
panels are now being integrated into the designs.
The company constantly is looking into other ways
of making a building more energy-efficient, whether
it is by passive design or active strategies.
If it was a medium-rise building, the architect would
have no problem only using passive strategies. He
would have to research it quite carefully and
consider the variables very closely during the
design. The problem is trying to sell the concept to
the client.
206
Annexure 10: Building B3

Company: B Building: 3 Architect: B3

Passive How it is applied to Yes/No Why/ Why not?
Principle the building
Location Was the surrounding Yes The fact that the building is a Green
climate considered Star rated building means that the
during the design surrounding climate had to be
phase? considered from the start so that the
architect could determine if his
designs would in fact allow the
building to perform as required.
Will the building be Yes The building is situated near the city
subject to a heat centre, and is surrounded by
island? various sources of heat.
Have measures No This was never a consideration to
been taken to the architect.
reduce the heat
generated by the
building on the
surrounding
environment?

Orientation Is the building NA This information was unavailable as

orientated according the building was a refurbishment
to the prevailing wind job.
direction?
Is the building No The building is a refurbishment job,
orientated according which meant that the architect was
to sunlight? not in control of the orientation of
the building. The building had been
orientated north-west, the worst
possible orientation for a building in

207
 Johannesburg. Even though this
was a harsh orientation, the
negative effects were mitigated by
the use of large overhangs over the
ground floor, while the upper floors
have external louvers for shading.
Mechanical HVAC systems and
openable windows are also used.
Is the building Yes It appeared that because of the
orientated according buildings pervious use (a car
to the views dealership) it had been orientated
required? mainly for the views that were
desired for advertising. These were
views from the outside, not from the
inside.
Is the orientation of Yes The ideal northward orientation of
the building limited in the building has been severely
any way? limited by the fact that the existing
building faced north-west. However
design of the refurbishment has
lessened the negative effects of this
orientation.

Layout Does the building Yes
have a shallow floor
plan?
Is energy-efficiency Yes
a consideration in
the selection of
The floor plate is shallow. The
architect had no control over this
due to the fact that it is a
refurbishment job. Full glazing has
been used on both of the long sides
of the building to bring in natural
light.
All electrical devices have been
specified to be energy-efficient. The
amount and layout of lights has also

208
 electrical devices? been calculated to reduce the
(Lights, HVAC, etc.) amount of energy consumed by the
building.

Fenestration Are openable Yes Openable windows have been used

windows used? around the entire perimeter of the
building for smoke ventilation.
During operating hours the intention
is that the windows do not open
because it would work against the
HVAC system, however the window
are manually operated, meaning
that the occupants are able to open
them.
Do the windows seal Yes The windows do seal completely
completely when when closed to reduce the amount
closed? of air leakage.
Are the windows Yes All of the windows have been
positioned according orientated according to the
to the orientation of orientation of the building to allow
the building? light in and enhance views. The
windows are however on the north-
west and south-east facades.
Are low-emissivity Yes Coatings have been used on all of
coatings used on the the windows to reduce the heat gain
windows? through the glass.
Is aerogel glazing No The architect was unaware of this
used on the product and there was no need for
windows? it.
Are exterior single Yes Laminated single pane glass has
pane windows used? been used. The reason for using the
laminated single pane is that the
architect was of the opinion that

209
 double glazing is too expensive.
The sound insulation rating of the
laminated glass 36 decibels, three
decibels less than double pane
windows. This number translates to
the laminated glazing being about
half as effective as sound doubles
every three decibels.
Are exterior double No The architect was of the opinion that
pane windows used? double glazing is too expensive for
the three decibel increase in sound
insulation.
Are exterior triple No It was not necessary and it was too
pane windows used? expensive.
Are the windows NA All of the windows are single
vacuum glazed? glazed.
Is Argon gas used NA All of the windows are single
between the glazing glazed.
panels?
Is Krypton gas used NA All of the windows are single
between the glazing glazed.
panels?
Is dehydrated air NA All of the windows are single
used between the glazed.
glazing panels?
Are switchable No It was not necessary.
reflective glazing
(electrochromics)
used?
Are switchable No It was not necessary.
reflective glazing
(gasochromics)
used?

210
 Are holographic No
optical elements
used?
Are the window No
frames insulated?
Is the level of air Low
infiltration through
the facade: low
medium or high?
Are skylights used? Yes
Insulation Is insulation used on Yes
the roof?
Is the building No
envelope Insulated?
Is the ground floor No
slab insulated?
Thermal Are materials chosen No
mass for their thermal
mass properties?
There is no need to use this
concept because the building has a
shallow floor plan.
Standard aluminium frames are
used because they are common in
the market.
The airflow through the window
units is low because the frames are
sealed.
A double volume and atrium has
been used on the ground floor to
allow light in.
After calculations were performed, it
was found that insulation placed
above the roof slab would perform
better at reducing heat flow through
the roof than if it was placed below
the slab.
A 230mm brick skin has been used.
It was determined that no insulation
would be required.
The existing floor had no insulation,
and there was not need to install
installation.
The architect did not think it was
necessary to use high density
materials. The reasoning behind
this is that there is no point
designing a building and spending
money to achieve a 6-star rating if
211
 only a 4-star is the requirement.
Is a thermal battery No The architect did not think it was
used? necessary to have high density
materials, and a HVAC system was
used.

Shading Is the building in the No The area surrounding the building is

shade of other mostly low rise commercial
structures? buildings.
Are external shading Yes The ground floor has been
devices used? recessed, while a combination of
large overhangs and external
louvers have been used on the
upper floors for shading to reduce
the amount of heat gain through the
windows.
Are the external Yes The louvers have been designed,
shading devices angled and spaced in a certain way
designed according to work optimally, however they are
to the sun path? not movable because the budget
did not allow for it. This means that
during certain times of the day and
year, there will be direct sunlight
through the windows.
Are internal shading Yes Internal blinds have been used to
devices used? reduce the internal heat gain and
glare. They are manually operated.
Do the shading No The Green Star Rating requires
devices block the 60% of the occupants must be able
view? to see outside, so the shading
devices were designed accordingly.
Are there shading No There is no shading on the roof
devices on the roof? because there is nothing on the roof

212
 that requires shading.

Ventilation Is passive natural No Stack driven ventilation has not

ventilation used? been used because a sealed HVAC
(stack driven) system was chosen from the start.
Is active natural No Fans are only activated for smoke
ventilation used? extraction. All the air that enters the
(mechanical) building goes through the HVAC
system where it is conditioned
before entering the building. This is
to maintain more control of the
internal air temperature.
Are exterior NA No exterior protrusions are used
protrusions used to because a mechanical HVAC
aid in flow of air into ventilation system is used.
building?
Is night time No The client did not want to use night
ventilation used? time ventilation.
Is there passive No All of the air that enters the building
ventilation through does so through the HVAC system.
the roof? The architect did not want plant on
the roof.
Is there passive No All of the air that enters the building
ventilation through does so through the HVAC system.
the walls? The intake for the air conditioning
units have been placed on the walls
for aesthetic purposes.
Is there passive No Even though the windows are
ventilation through openable, the intention is that they
the windows? are not used for ventilation because
opening a window will decrease the
effectiveness of the HVAC system.
Are particle filters Yes Particle filters are used on the

213
 used on incoming HVAC system to filter out dust and
air? pollution.

Materials Are the construction Yes Most of the materials are recycled
materials selected because it is a Green Star
because they are requirement.
environmentally
friendly/ sustainable?
Are solar reflective Yes Reflective coatings have been used
coatings used on the to reduce the amount of heat
roofs? entering the building.
Are phase change No The architect was unaware of this
materials (PCM) product.
used?
Are organic-based No The architect was unaware of this
Phase change product.
materials (BioPCM)
used?
Have substantial No There is no requirement or need to
amounts of use experimental materials.
experimental
materials been
used?
Have substantial Yes The materials are easy to work with
amounts of and specified to be environmentally
traditional materials friendly.
been used?

Evaporative Has a roof pond No This was not needed, nor was it a
cooling been used? requirement from the client.

214
Architect-Specific Questions
Architect: B3
What do you see as being
passive design?
Why do you consider the
above to be passive design?
What do you consider active
design to be?
Do you think active and
passive designs are mutually
exclusive or do they overlap
one another in certain
instances?
In your opinion, what are the
passive strategies most
relevant to Gauteng?
Are there passive design
strategies relevant to Gauteng
which you choose not to apply
to your designs? If so, why?
Do you use computer models
to assist in the design of a
passive building?
Are you familiar with the term
“biomimetics”? Have you used
the concept in your designs?
Is interior health a significant
factor in the design of your
buildings? Do you consider
A passive design is a design that responds to its
environment automatically.
Because the building responds to the environment
automatically, so no input is required by the
occupants of the building.
Active design is the use of new technology in the
design of buildings.
The architect stated that the company for whom he
is employed mainly designs glass and aluminium
buildings. He says that for this reason new active
technologies are always being applied to the
designs. Passive and active strategies do overlap
at some point because they are still being used in
SA, but that point is not known to the architect.
The architect had no comment on this issue.
The architect had no comment on this issue.
Yes. Computer models are of great assistance
during the design of buildings because they help in
the determination of orientation, shading, and
overall performance of the building.
No.
Yes. These are the aspects that are looked at first
so that you are able to design the shell of the
building in such a way as to assist in the
215
productivity levels, air quality
and comfort levels during the
design stage?
What do you think the South
African perception is in terms
of passive building?
Do you feel that there has
been a change in the design of
your company’s buildings since environment. The designs did however not include
the implementation of the
Green Star Rating? What is
this change?
If you were not limited by the
budget, specifications,
materials, etc., would you have
applied additional passive
strategies to the building?
performance of the finishes and fit out. Basically so
that the inside and outside of the building work in
unison to achieve the required levels of comfort
within the building.
There are varying opinions about this topic. In the
last two years, because of the blackouts, people
have started realising how important it is to have
buildings that are energy-efficient. However they
are not educated about the passive means of
achieving energy-efficiency.
No, not really because most of the buildings
designed by the company already responded to the
all of the features and effects of Green Star such as
rainwater harvesting, grey water usage, etc. In
terms of aesthetics and looks, nothing has
changed. Depending on the Green Star Rating
required, the design will be changed and factors
such as orientation will be considered more.
Yes. The architect would have liked to incorporate
alternative water usage strategies that save and re-
use water to lower the total consumption, as well as
the use of solar panels to generate electricity.
216
Annexure 11: Building C1

Company: C Building: 1 Architect: C1

Passive How it is applied to Yes/No Why/ Why not?
Principle the building
Location Was the surrounding Yes The weather conditions specific to
climate considered the area were taken into
during the design consideration for the design of the
phase? façade and energy modelling.
Will the building be Yes The building is located in an urban
subject to a heat environment and is thus subject to
island? an urban heat island.
Have measures Yes The building takes up around half of
been taken to the site. The rest of the site has
reduce the heat been used for gardens and trees.
generated by the The parking lot is also
building on the underground. This has been done
surrounding to reduce the urban heat island and
environment? increase the amount of open urban
space in the area.

Orientation Is the building No The building is not orientated

orientated according according to the prevailing wind
to the prevailing wind direction because wind in Gauteng
direction? does not have as great an impact
on the building as the sun does.
Is the building Yes The sun has a big impact on the
orientated according building, so it is vital to orientate the
to sunlight? building to take advantage of the
sun. The orientation of the site
allowed for the building to be
correctly orientated.
Is the building No The building has not specifically

217
 orientated according been orientated according to the
to the views views required form the inside.
required? However, several atriums and floor
to ceiling windows have been used
to enhance the view for occupants
of the building.
Is the orientation of No The ideal northward orientation was
the building limited in achievable.
any way?

Layout Does the building Yes
have a shallow floor
plan?
Is energy-efficiency Yes
a consideration in
the selection of
electrical devices?
(Lights, HVAC, etc.)
The use of atriums has cut into the
floor plate, essentially making it
smaller, but allowing for natural
lighting and views. The ground floor
has a deep floor plate, but because
this area is going to be occupied by
business units like shops, they do
not require views.
Among other features, an intelligent
lighting system has been selected
to reduce the amount of energy that
the building consumes.

Fenestration Are openable No No openable windows have been

windows used? used because it would work against
the HVAC system. The double
glazed windows only open for
maintenance purposes.
Do the windows seal Yes The double glazed units are sealed
completely when with a rubber gasket to stop the
closed? flow of air during operating periods.
Are the windows Yes The exterior skin of the building is a

218
positioned according
to the orientation of
the building?
Are low-emissivity Yes
coatings used on the
windows?
Is aerogel glazing No
used on the
windows?
Are exterior single Yes
pane windows used?
Are exterior double Yes
pane windows used?
Are exterior triple Yes
pane windows used?
glass façade. This means that
windows are positioned according
to the shape of the building.
Various types of performance glass
have been selected according to
the different side of the building.
The exterior panel has a low-
emissivity coating applied to it to
reduce the amount of heat gain
through the window.
The architect was unaware of this
product and there was no need for
it.
Laminated performance glass
windows are used on the ground
floor and on all of the atriums. This
has been done from a safety as
well as a practicality point of view,
because of the size of the windows
and the fact that blinds were not
going to be used, and because the
performance models indicated that
the windows did not need to be
double glazed.
Double glazing has been used as a
part of the triple glazed units and
for its sound insulation properties.
The system that is used is not a
typical type of triple glazing. The
unit consists of a 120mm cavity
where a mechanical blind is
installed. On the external side of
the blind is single pane glazing, and
219
 on the internal side is double
glazing. The 120mm cavity is
ventilated to allow for removal of
hot air and moisture. It has been
selected because of its insulation
properties as well as its ability to
reduce the amount of solar heat
gain through the window units.
Are the windows No Krypton gas has been suggested
vacuum glazed? for its insulation properties.
Is Argon gas used No Krypton has been used.
between the glazing
panels?
Is Krypton gas used Yes Krypton gas is used for its high
between the glazing insulation properties.
panels?
Is dehydrated air No Krypton gas has been used.
used between the
glazing panels?
Are switchable No This technology was considered
reflective glazing because of the nature of the glazing
(electrochromics) surrounding board rooms, but the
used? product is not used due to its price.
Are switchable No This technology was considered
reflective glazing because of the nature of the glazing
(gasochromics) surrounding board rooms, but the
used? product is not used due to its price
Are holographic No There is no need for this because
optical elements sufficient amounts of natural
used? daylight enter the building.
Are the window Yes The frames have been insulated to
frames insulated? reduce the amount of thermal
movement through the unit as well

220

Is the level of air Medium Theoretically, the infiltration through
infiltration through
the facade: low
medium or high?
Are skylights used? Yes
as to reduce the amount of noise
entering the building from the
surrounding environment.
the window units is supposed to be
low, but because of the still
developing installation knowledge,
the infiltration through the overall
façade is thought to be medium.
A total of three atriums have been
used to take advantage of natural
daylight and to allow for views of
the outside by the building’s
occupants.

Insulation Is insulation used on Yes The energy model for the building
the roof? indicated that the roof needed to be
insulated to reduce the heat flow
through it. The insulation has been
placed on top of the roof slab
because there is not enough space
underneath the slab.
Is the building Yes The core walls have not been
envelope Insulated? insulated because they form a
relatively small area through which
heat can move, and the energy
model did not indicate that
insulation would be necessary.
However sandstone cladding is
fixed to a grid which essentially
creates a 70mm cavity in which air
may flow.
Is the ground floor No The floor has not been insulated

221
 slab insulated? because the thermal mass of it
wanted to be used to assist in the
cooling of air inside the building.

Thermal Are materials chosen Yes Concrete has good thermal mass
mass for their thermal properties and it has been used
mass properties? throughout the building. For this
reason it seemed logical for
concretes’ thermal mass properties
to be taken advantage of.
Is a thermal battery No There is no requirement for a
used? thermal battery to be used as it is
not a feasible option for a
commercial building.

Shading Is the building in the No Placing the building on the southern

shade of other side of the site, as well as the
structures? location of low-rise buildings to the
south, east and west ensures that
the building is not in the shade of
other structures.
Are external shading No External shading devices have not
devices used? been used because of aesthetic
requirements. The client specified a
building with a flush glass façade.
Trees have been planted near the
building to provide shade to the
ground floor windows.
Are the external NA No external shades are used.
shading devices
designed according
to the sun path?
Are internal shading Yes Blinds inside the modular glazing

222
 devices used? units are motorised and adjust
according to sun angle to optimise
the amount of natural light entering
the building.
Do the shading Yes During certain times of the day the
devices block the views are blocked by the blinds
view? because they are adjusting
themselves according to the angle
of the sun.
Are there shading No This has just not been a
devices on the roof? consideration to the designers.

Ventilation Is passive natural No On a commercial building of this

ventilation used? size, natural or mixed mode
(stack driven) ventilation is not a viable option
because it will work against the
pressurised HVAC system.
Is active natural Yes All of the air that enters the building
ventilation used? goes through the HVAC system but
(mechanical) during off peak periods the air is not
conditioned.
Are exterior NA Natural passive ventilation is not
protrusions used to used.
aid in flow of air into
building?
Is night time Yes During the evening the HVAC
ventilation used? system will go into an economy
mode and pump unconditioned air
into the building. This is done to
replace the air in the building and
cool the building so that the HVAC
system does not need to work so
hard.

223
 Is there passive No All of the air that enters the building
ventilation through does so through the HVAC system.
the roof? The air handling units are situated
in the columns.
Is there passive No All of the air that enters the building
ventilation through does so through the HVAC system.
the walls? The air handling units are situated
in the columns.
Is there passive No All of the air that enters the building
ventilation through does so through the HVAC system.
the windows? The air handling units are situated
in the columns.
Are particle filters Yes Filters are used on the HVAC
used on incoming system remove harmful particles
air? from the air so that internal comfort
levels remain high.

Materials Are the construction No The materials were selected mainly

materials selected
because they are
environmentally
friendly/ sustainable?
Are solar reflective Yes
coatings used on the
roofs?
Are phase change No
materials (PCM)
used?
Are organic-based No
Phase change
materials (BioPCM)
for their aesthetic or performance
characteristics. Most of the glass,
which on this building is a lot, was
performance glass and had to be
imported.
A reflective coating has been
applied to reduce the amount of
thermal heat gain through the roof.
PCM’s have not been used
because of the cost involved. The
architect was unaware of this
material.
PCM’s have not been used
because of the cost involved. The
architect was unaware of this

224
 used? material.
Have substantial Yes The glazing and method of
amounts of installation is one of a kind in the
experimental country. The architect chose to use
materials been a triple glazed façade system
used? because a fully glazed flush
external façade was required by the
client, which meant that no shading
devices were allowed to protrude
from the building. The automatic
shading device had to be integrated
into the triple glazed system.
Have substantial Yes Traditional materials such as
amounts of concrete and brick have been used
traditional materials because it is readily available in the
been used? country and there is a wealth of
knowledge on the material and
methods of construction.

Evaporative Has a roof pond No The building did not require a roof
cooling been used? pond, and this would have added
weight, which would mean that the
structure would have to be
reinforced to support the load of the
roof pond.

Architect-Specific Questions
Architect: C1
What do you see as being
passive design?
Passive design is going back to the basics and
making sure that passive design issues are
addressed early on in the design so that you do not
have buildings that are facing the wrong way and
have heat gain and insulation issues that have to

225

Why do you consider the
above to be passive design?
What do you consider active
design to be?
Do you think active and
passive designs are mutually
exclusive or do they overlap
one another in certain
instances?
In your opinion, what are the
passive strategies most
relevant to Gauteng?
Are there passive design
strategies relevant to Gauteng
which you choose not to apply
to your designs? If so, why?
Do you use computer models
to assist in the design of a
passive building?
be dealt with later. Orientation, natural light and
natural ventilation are among the big passive
design considerations.
The architect considers the above to be passive
design because it does not cost extra to design a
building in such a way that it performs optimally.
Passive design is passive in that no additional
active systems are required to improve the
building’s performance.
Mechanically driven systems aimed at improving
the building’s performance are regarded as being
active strategies. Examples of this are automatic
blinds and a tri-generation plant.
They do overlap. In a commercial building, passive
ventilation is not possible, so active methods of
ventilation must be used. But it is important to
design in such a way that the active system does
not need to work as hard as in a traditional system
because the basic strategies of passive design
have been followed up to that point.
How you deal with the sun. Orientating the building
is such a way to make use of the natural light
without having to deal with glare and excessive
heat gain.
The architect thought that there would be some that
she had not applied, but she was unable to
remember the exact reasons for this.
Yes. Energy models are very helpful in the design
of façade systems and in the determination of
cooling requirements. They are also used after
construction to measure the actual performance of
the building to the designed performance to
226

Are you familiar with the term
“biomimetics”? Have you used
the concept in your designs?
Is interior health a significant
factor in the design of your
buildings? Do you consider
productivity levels, air quality
and comfort levels during the
design stage?
What do you think the South
African perception is in terms
of passive building?
Do you feel that there has
been a change in the design of
your company’s buildings since but not because of the Green Star Rating. The
the implementation of the
Green Star Rating? What is
this change?
If you were not limited by the
budget, specifications,
materials, etc., would you have
applied additional passive
strategies to the building?
determine where there are gaps in the technology,
and how to fill those gaps.
Yes. The architect has not used the concept
because all of her designs are urban based, and
she feels that Biomimicry is more appropriate to
rural landscapes.
Yes. Acoustic insulation and appropriate levels of
ventilation are important considerations in
maintaining high levels of comfort within the
building.
The architect is of the opinion that the general
public is aware of certain passive strategies but that
they often disregard it for other factors such as
creating space.
The architect believes that other architects are
ingrained with the basics of passive design, but
also that it is important that they apply these
strategies at the beginning of a project so that
energy consuming systems do not need to be put in
place afterwards to correct design flaws.
The architect does feel that there has been a
change in the designs that the company produces,
change is more towards designing contemporary
buildings. The company’s point of view has always
been one of good design practice.
The architect would have liked to use more external
shading devices in certain areas so that internal
blinds would not be necessary.
227
Annexure 12: Building C2

Company: C Building: 2 Architect: C2

Passive How it is applied to Yes/No Why/ Why not?
Principle the building
Location Was the surrounding Yes The weather conditions specific to
climate considered the area were taken into
during the design consideration for energy modelling
phase? purposes and to assist in the
designers in designing an energy-
efficient building.
Will the building be Yes The building is located in an urban
subject to a heat environment and is thus subject to
island? an urban heat island.
Have measures Yes All of the parking is below ground
been taken to level to reduce the amount of hard
reduce the heat surfaces, and thus the generation of
generated by the heat by the development.
building on the
surrounding
environment?

Orientation Is the building No The building is not orientated

orientated according according to the prevailing wind
to the prevailing wind direction because wind in Gauteng
direction? does not have as great an impact
on the building as the sun does and
the orientation is limited by the site.
Is the building No The building’s orientation is
orientated according according to the site, but it is
to sunlight? orientated northwards.
Is the building No The building has not specifically
orientated according been orientated according to the

228
 to the views views required form the inside.
required? However, several atriums and floor
to ceiling windows have been used
to enhance the view for occupants
of the building.
Is the orientation of Yes The building orientation is limited by
the building limited in the site. The ideal northward
any way? orientation was fortunately
achievable.

Layout Does the building No
have a shallow floor
plan?
Is energy-efficiency Yes
a consideration in
the selection of
electrical devices?
(Lights, HVAC, etc.)
The building has a floor plate depth
of around 17m. This size of floor
plate is fairly large, but because of
the ‘double H’ shape of the building,
natural light from the atrium assists
with the lighting and internal views
The client is very much aware of the
amount of energy consumed by
buildings and their responsibility as
a company to reduce its impact on
the environment. Among other
features, an energy-efficient
intelligent lighting system has been
selected to reduce the amount of
energy that the building consumes.

Fenestration Are openable No Openable windows have not been

windows used? used because it would work against
the HVAC system. It was decided
during the initial design stages that
an HVAC system would be used to
control the indoor temperature.
Do the windows seal NA Openable windows are not used.

229
completely when
closed?
Are the windows Yes
positioned according
to the orientation of
the building?
Are low-emissivity Yes
coatings used on the
windows?
Is aerogel glazing No
used on the
windows?
Are exterior single Yes
pane windows used?
Are exterior double Yes
pane windows used?
Are exterior triple No
pane windows used?
Are the windows Yes
vacuum glazed?
The windows are sealed in order to
maintain a pressurised system.
Because the building had to be
designed to fit into an existing
campus, the windows had to match
those of the other buildings. Most of
the windows have been positioned
on the north and south sides.
Hard coatings are used on the
double glazing to reduce the
amount of glare and heat gain
through the windows.
The architect was unaware of this
product and there was no need for
it.
Single glazing has been used on
the southern façade because cost
was an issue, and because the
performance model indicated that
the windows did not need to be
double glazed as the south façade
is not a high heat load area.
Double glazing has been used on
the north, east and west facades to
cut down on the amount of heat flow
and glare through the windows.
There was no need to use triple
glazing to achieve the required
performance of the building.
Vacuum glazing has been used for
its insulation properties, and
because units that have air inside
them are prone to moisture build-up
230
 between the panes.
Is Argon gas used No The efficiency of the vacuumed
between the glazing units that had been selected was
panels? sufficient for the environmental
conditions to which the building was
going to be exposed.
Is Krypton gas used No The efficiency of the vacuumed
between the glazing units that had been selected was
panels? sufficient for the environmental
conditions to which the building was
going to be exposed.
Is dehydrated air No Krypton gas has been used.
used between the
glazing panels?
Are switchable No This technology was considered to
reflective glazing be too expensive and it was not
(electrochromics) necessary.
used?
Are switchable No This technology was considered to
reflective glazing be too expensive and it was not
(gasochromics) necessary.
used?
Are holographic No There is no need for this because
optical elements sufficient amounts of natural
used? daylight enter the building.
Are the window No Thermally insulating the window
frames insulated? frames was a consideration during
the design stages, but the
technology was, and is still not
readily available in SA.
Is the level of air Low The frames are completely sealed
infiltration through to prevent the leakage of air through
the facade: low them.

231
 medium or high?
Are skylights used? Yes
Insulation Is insulation used on Yes
the roof?
Is the building Yes
envelope Insulated?
Is the ground floor No
slab insulated?
Thermal Are materials chosen No
mass for their thermal
mass properties?
Is a thermal battery No
Atriums are used to provide natural
lighting to the internal spaces and to
link large office spaces with one
another so that occupants are not
exposed to the possibly hostile
environment when moving from one
building to the other.
The energy model for the building
indicated that the roof needed to be
insulated to reduce the heat flow
through it. The insulation is a double
foil with fibre glass in between. It
has been placed on the underside
of the tiles.
Insulation was required to reduce
the amount of heat gain through the
building envelope. The construction
of the building creates a form of
insulation. A cavity is created
between a 220mm brick wall and a
stone cladding.
The floor has not been insulated
because was not seen to be
beneficial.
The building was not designed
specifically to have thermal mass
because the architect had to follow
the theme of the surrounding
existing buildings.
There is no requirement for a
232
 used? thermal battery to be used as it is
not a feasible option for a
commercial building.

Shading Is the building in the Yes The building is surrounded by low-

shade of other rise buildings on three sides, but a
structures? building is situated close by on the
forth side.
Are external shading No External shading devices have not
devices used? been used because of aesthetic
requirements relating to the other
buildings in the campus.
Are the external NA No external shades are used.
shading devices
designed according
to the sun path?
Are internal shading Yes Manually operated blinds inside the
devices used? building are used to reduce the
amount of solar heat gain and glare
through the windows.
Do the shading No They have not been designed to be
devices block the closed at all times. The internal
view? shading devices will only block the
view if they are closed.
Are there shading No No shading devices have been
devices on the roof? used to shade the roof because of
aesthetic considerations, but solid
sections on the atrium act as
shading for areas inside the
building.

Ventilation Is passive natural No On a commercial building of this

ventilation used? size, natural ventilation is not a

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(stack driven) viable option because it will work
against the pressurised HVAC
system. The HVAC system was
selected because it has become the
norm to use air conditioning in office
type buildings.
Is active natural Yes All of the air that enters the building
ventilation used? goes through the active HVAC
(mechanical) system. The system will heat or cool
the incoming air, depending on what
the difference in temperature is
between the inside and outside of
the building.
Are exterior NA Natural passive ventilation is not
protrusions used to used.
aid in flow of air into
building?
Is night time Yes During the evening the HVAC
ventilation used? system will go into an economy
mode and pump unconditioned air
into the building. This is done to
replace the stale air in the building
and cool the building so that the
HVAC system does not need to
work so hard the next day.
Is there passive No All of the air that enters the building
ventilation through does so through the HVAC system.
the roof? The air handling units are situated
in the walls.
Is there passive No All of the air that enters the building
ventilation through does so through the HVAC system.
the walls? The air handling units are situated
in the walls.

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 Is there passive No The widows are sealed and all of
ventilation through the air that enters the building goes
the windows? through the air handling units are
situated in the walls.
Are particle filters Yes Filters are used on the HVAC
used on incoming system remove harmful particles
air? from the air so that internal comfort
levels remain high.

Materials Are the construction Yes The client had specific Green Star
materials selected requirements for the building
because they are materials to be environmentally
environmentally friendly and sustainable.
friendly/ sustainable?
Are solar reflective No The roof is tiled, so coatings cannot
coatings used on the be applied.
roofs?
Are phase change No PCM’s have not been used because
materials (PCM) of the cost involved.
used?
Are organic-based No PCM’s have not been used because
Phase change of the cost involved
materials (BioPCM)
used?
Have substantial Yes High fly ash concrete, as well as the
amounts of first low VOC paints in the country
experimental was used. This was done to lower
materials been the cost of building and to ensure
used? that the indoor environment was
healthy.
Have substantial Yes Traditional materials such as
amounts of concrete, brick and glass have been
traditional materials used because it is readily available

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 been used?
Evaporative Has a roof pond
cooling been used?
Architect-Specific Questions
Architect: C2
What do you see as being
passive design?
Why do you consider the
above to be passive design?
What do you consider active
design to be?
Do you think active and
passive designs are mutually
exclusive or do they overlap
one another in certain
instances?
In your opinion, what are the
passive strategies most
relevant to Gauteng?
Are there passive design
strategies relevant to Gauteng
which you choose not to apply
in the country, it is cost effective
and there is a wealth of knowledge
on the material and methods of
construction.
No The client did not want this type of
system.
Passive design is when you design according to
orientation, correct openings sizes and shading in
the correct position.
The architect considers the above to be passive
design because you have designed in such a way
that no additional measures need to be taken to
make the building functional and liveable.
Active or reactive design is where additional
mechanical systems are used to ensure that the
building has a specific level of performance.
Examples of this would be extendable shades and
motorised blinds.
Just by the sure realities of how energy-efficient
buildings are designed, it is clear to see that active
and passive design strategies do overlap.
The most important consideration will be
orientation, and glazing and openings relating to the
orientation.
The architect always tries to design according to
passive strategies, but sometimes the client
requires something so unique that active
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to your designs? If so, why?
Do you use computer models
to assist in the design of a
passive building?
Are you familiar with the term
“biomimetics”? Have you used
the concept in your designs?
Is interior health a significant
factor in the design of your
buildings? Do you consider
productivity levels, air quality
and comfort levels during the
design stage?
What do you think the South
African perception is in terms
of passive building?
Do you feel that there has
been a change in the design of
your company’s buildings since implementation of the Green Star Rating. The
the implementation of the
Green Star Rating? What is
this change?
technologies have to be used.
Yes. Energy models have changed the process of
design in that the selection of certain design
elements has changed. The architect has found
computer models to be very beneficial to his
designs because he is able to see beforehand what
will work, and what will not work.
Yes. The architect has not used the concept
because of the scale and requirements of the
projects that he works on.
Yes. It is important to the architect that ventilation
and lighting levels are high, and that clear glazing is
used so that people can look outside. A study was
performed six months after tenants moved in, and it
was found that productivity levels in the building
were higher than in more traditional office buildings.
The architect is of the opinion that the general
public is uneducated and unaware of passive
strategies and that they often disregard it for other
factors such as the view.
The architect believes that if developers are of the
opinion that the application of passive strategies will
compromise the development’s profitability they will
not use it. However there are more and more
clients that are becoming sensitive to this.
The architect feels that there has been a change in
the designs of the company since the
company has always had a firm opinion in terms of
designing a building according to the correct
strategies, but the change is related more to the
design element of a building. This can be seen by
the amount of buildings that the company has
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If you were not limited by the
budget, specifications,
materials, etc., would you have
applied additional passive
strategies to the building?
designed that are becoming Green Star rated. He
feels that the change is more towards designing
contemporary buildings that save a lot of energy
and are nice to be in.
The architect would have liked to use more thermal
mass, and energy storage systems like ice storage
to cut down on the peak energy loads.
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