Chapter Ill

REVIEW OF RECENT STUDIES

This research is particularly oriented to study 'impact of

organisational culture on employees and employers behaviour' in public and
private sector industrial establishments in Kerala. The introductory and
thematic presentation chapters discussed fundamental concept of culture
and organisational culture. The chapter includes several models of
organisational culture, different types of culture, dimensions of culture,
cultural factors affecting human behaviour at work and some related aspects
of organisational behaviour research. This chapter tries to familiarize with
the independent and dependent variable selected for the research, and the
sub variables of independent and dependent variables in relation to
secondary source of data. The independent variable selected for the study
is the organisational culture and the dependent variable sleeked for the
study is the value expectancy behaviour of members.

The independent variables selected for the study includes

Openness, Confrontation, Trust, Authenticity, Proaction, Autonomy,
Collaboration and Experimentation. The dependent sub variables selected
for the study includes Ability utilization, Achievement, Advancement,
Aesthetics, Altruism, Authority, Autonomy, Creativity, Economic Rewards,
Life style, Personal development, Physical activity, Prestige, Risk, Social
interaction, Social relations, Variety, Working conditions, Cultural identity,
Physical prowess and Economic security.

Understanding organizational culture is important because: it

influences how we interpret organizational life and the meaning we place on
organizational activities (Brown, 1998). Culture is best thought of as a set of
psychological predispositions called 'basic assumptions' (Schein, 1985) that
members of an organization possess, and which tend to cause them to act
in certain ways. Organizational culture is complex.. . it is best understood as
a metaphor acting as an organizing tool to help understand complex entities
in relation to each other and as a powerful way of communicating ideas
(Morgan, 1986 and Smircich, 1983). From this perspective, every aspect of
an organization is part of its culture and cannot be understood as separate
from it - culture is not an objective tangible or measurable aspect of an
organization; organizations are cultures (Pacanowsky and Trujillo, 1982).

This chapter is designed specifically to understand each

independent and dependent variables and sub-variables in relation to
relevant studies conducted by several eminent authors. It gives a perceptual
understanding of the relevance and significance of the research topic and a
vision and direction to make effective discussion in the coming chapters.

Studies on organisational culture

Organizational culture has been an important theme in management

and business research for some two decades. One reason for this is that
organizational culture has the potential to affect a range of organizationally
and individually desired outcomes. Ritchie, (2000) notes that, from the time
of the earliest writers on organizational culture (Deal & Kennedy, 1982;
Ouchi, 1981), it has been suggested that organizational culture affects such
outcomes as productivity, performance, commitment, self-confidence, and
ethical behaviour. Similarly, more recent writers have repeated the
assumption that organizational culture impacts significantly on an
organization, its employee's behaviour and motivations and, ultimately, that
organization's financial performance (Holmes & Marsden, 1996).
Organizational culture has been argued to be relevant in a variety of
contexts including the adoption of innovative technologies and workplace
practices.

Pratt, (1993) in his studies indicates that the content and strength of
a culture influences an organizations ethical climate and ethical behaviour of
its members.

Sims and Lorenzi, (1992) in their studies indicate organizational

culture as a type of consensual schema that helps individual employees
cognitively process and evaluate information in similar ways. Therefore,
even if employees are widely dispersed among multiple locations, these
consensual schemas provide organizational members with a common set of
heuristics that guides decision-making and task performance. Thus, culture
may serve as a mechanism to reduce equivocally by providing shared
interpretations that will guide employee behaviour in organizations. In return
for providing employees with reduced anxiety, stress, and uncertainty
regarding their roles and how to interpret events both inside and outside the
organization, the organization achieves increased consistency in behaviour
towards strategic goals.

Martin, (2002) in his studies indicates that as individual come into

contact with the organization they come into contact with the dress, norms,
stories people tell about the organization's formal rules and procedures its
formal codes of behaviour, rituals, task, pay systems, jargon and jocks only
understood by insiders and so on. These elements are some of the
manifestations of organizational culture.

Sastri, (2001) in his studies stated that developing service oriented

corporate ideologies enables firm to grow from small companies into larger,
more successful entities. It takes thoughtful planning and carefully
conceived corporate culture that grows as the business grows. He further
84 UiQpk7 III

notes that for any company to succeed, the following are essential; building
a sound company culture, over all development of its employees, effective
knowledge management, adopting marketing approach.

Sreevastava, (2001) in his report that culture must be central

component of development (organization employee and employer)
strategies in a double sense; on the one hand the strategies must be
sensitive to the roots of the organization, its values, attitudes, on the other
hand the organization must include as a goal to the development of the
employees their creative expansion and change within the HRD activities.
He further pointed out that a culture sensitive process of development will
be able to draw on the large reserves of creativity knowledge and skills that
are found within the organization. Such sensitivity will give organizations
strength and make it easier to introduce and sustain HRD activities of the
organization for the growth and development of the employees.

Krefting & Frost, (1985) in their studies notes that by providing

frameworks for solving problems and interpreting events in everyday life,
culture reduces the number of variables with which individuals must deal to
levels more consistent with human information-processing capabilities.

BT Hewitt Associates, (2001) study on India's best employers to

work for tried to identify top ten organization indicates that many of the most
successful organizations (Infosys, Proctor and Gamble, HP, IClCI, Hughes
Software System, LG Electronics, HLL, Compaq, Asian Paints, and BPCL)
today are thriving and growing because, in large part, of their unique and
strong values and styles - their "organizational culture" exists. Almost every
organization has been concerned with maintaining or changing its culture,
because the culture is an important asset of an organization and regarded
as a key to creating the kind of environment the organization desire to have.
A positive organizational culture is essential for an organization to be
successful. It also provides personal work satisfaction, supports emotional
and physical well-being and generates high morale as well as positive
perceptions by others

Gorden, (1975) in her study indicates that a healthy organizational

culture provides a supportive environment conducive to open, honest, and
trusting communication; collaboration and cooperation; the application of
common sense, experience, knowledge, wisdom, ingenuity, and creativity;
and the realization of individual and organizational potentials. Meta-
motivational, "power with" and "high synergy" approaches to leadership and
management can be instrumental in unleashing creative energies and can
play an essential role in cultivating and sustaining a common sense of
mission. "Power over" approaches to leadership and management, coercive
tactics, and cutthroat competitiveness can have just the opposite results.
Building healthy organizational cultures, transforming unhealthy
organizational cultures into healthy ones, melding dissimilar organizational
cultures into healthy organizational cultures, and maintaining the health of
healthy organizational cultures are all essential to maximizing the potential
of organizations and to unleashing the creative energies of individuals and
organizations alike.

Sub variables: Organisational Culture

Openness

Bennett, (1996) in his studies notes that an organization's culture is

critically important to relationship management practice because it
significantly influences the attitudes and commitment of all members
towards relationship establishment and ongoing practice. Organizational
openness and integrity, transparency, regard and caring for the client and
confidence in the stated focus of the organization are necessary-
prerequisites for successful relationships. The presence, development
andlor management of such supportive values, ideas, beliefs and practices
can contribute to the realization of relationship satisfaction and performance
(Mohr, Fisher and Nevin, 1996 and Morgan and Hunt, 1994).

Hagberg, (2003) has recently completed a study of organizational

culture that sheds lights upon problems related to openness in decision
making. According to the research finding executives believes that they
actively solicit employee input in decision-making, and they highly value
employee input. According to the data, they see themselves as highly
participative in their management style, believe they actively seek out
feedback and consider themselves open to alternative views. Employees on
the other hand, don't confirm this perspective. Rather, they remain skeptical
of management openness to feed back and feel their views do not receive
fair consideration in decision-making.

Schein, (1993) in his studies claim that opening up and sharing

encourages integration between organizational subcultures and in turn,
organizational adaptation to change.

Ruin, (2001) in his studies note that, transparent and sincere

communication is an important ingredient of positive work culture. For an
organizational success, open and honest communication among employees
and to outsiders is paramount. Transparent and sincere communication
promotes peaceful and amicable working environment, breeds creativity and
expands productivity. Transparent or clear communication develops a
learning company and its people are prepared to speak, willing to listen and
assimilate instructions, express frank opinions or speak without fear or
fewour, and every one is prepared to give chances to each other's opinions
or ideas, and in the end grow and move forward together in harmony.
Credible organizational work culture ensures that policy in the company
propagates honest, integral and transparent communication both internally
(among employees and management) and externally (with customers,
outsiders and the public).

Senge, (1990) in his studies reported that the initial step to breaking
down the political nature of an organization is through open discussion, critical
analysis, and challenging thinking within the group and amongst ourselves. The
open dialogue and involvement of all members in the organization in
developing a shared vision is the beginning to fostering a non-political
environment. If a vision is pat into a highly political environment it can easily get
ground tip into a political objective: whose vision is this anyhow becomes more
important than the intrinsic merit of a vision. Thus openness is needed to
'unlearn' the habits of game playing that perpetuates internal politics.

Fisher, (2001) in his studies indicates that openness requires the

elements of both participation, the "freedom to speak one's mind and
reflectiveness, willingness to challenge our own thinking" as well as realize
all ideas are hypotheses open to study and constant development. Without
openness and sharing in a common vision, individuals within the
organization are absolved of any responsibility for the future of the
organization and they come to rely on management to make all decisions.

Allee, (1997) in his studies indicates that the key elements of a

knowledge culture are a climate of trust and openness in an environment
where constant learning and experimentation are highly valued, appreciated
and supported.

Kaiser, (1992) in his studies stated that 'leaders have to operate in

an atmosphere of openness, honesty, and trust.
Confrontation

Argyris, (1986) studies have pointed out; many organizations have

established routines and norms that reinforce non-learning. These norms focus
on defence, control and the avoidance of (potentially creative) conflict and risk-
taking: 'Protect yourself unilaterally - by avoiding direct interpersonal
confrontation and public discussion of sensitive issues that might expose
you to blame. Control the situation and the task - by making up your own
mind about the problem and acting on your view, by keeping your view
private and by avoiding the public enquiry which might refute your view
(Argyris 1986, cited in Salaman 1995).

Xenikou, Athena and Furnham, (1996) in their studies indicate those

confrontations organizational cultures group the following concepts together:
oppositional orientation, power, competition, and perfectionism. The authors
describe this culture as one where perfection is the goal, and where
individuals might tend to react negatively towards the ideas of others and/or
resist new ideas. An organization scoring high on this factor might be
considered a perfectionist organization.

Collins, (2001) in his studies notes that the organizational ability to hear
the 'truth' distinguishes good to great companies, All good to great companies
begun the process of finding a path to greatness by confronting the brutal facts
of the current reality. It is impossible to make good decisions without infusing
the entire process with an honest confrontation of the brutal facts.

Trust

Reina and Reina, (1999) in their studies indicate that trust is an

essential aspect of healthy human relationships (Handy, 1999). In particular,
sharing information and involving employees in running a business
increases trust while affecting productivity and profitability.
 Mishra, (1996) in his studies on organizational trust model showed
that employees perceive trust within organizations that created work
environments that encouraged open and honest communication among their
members and a "sense of community. The notion of "Community" serves to
satisfy the basic human need to develop human connections and
relationships with others.

Many researchers' studies have agreed that trust is a necessary

element for healthy relationships (Bigley and Pearce, 1998). While debate
continues in the literature about the specific meaning of trust (and distrust),
the vast majority of trust scholars have viewed trust as the basic ingredient
of social interactions (Bigley and Pearce, 1998). Flores and Solomon (1998)
described trust as "...a dynamic aspect of human relationships" (p. 206).
Trust--both trusting and being trustworthy - is related to the character of
individuals and relationships. As a dynamic emotion, trust finds its
significance in the bonds it creates - trust is not something that simply
happens, it is created through interaction and in the making of relationships
(Flores and Solomon, 1998).

Poter, (1992) in his studies reveals that without trust one cannot
expect the human imagination to pursue value added. The offerings of trust
must at first be unilateral on the part of management. Trustworthiness
tomorrow, comes only granting trust in the first place today.

Most scholars studies have found that trust enables cooperative

behaviour (Garnbetta, 1998) promotes adaptive organizational forms, such
as network relations reduces harmful conflict; decreases transaction costs;
facilitates rapid formation of ad hoc work groups (Meyerson, Weick, and
Kramer, 1996); and promotes effective responses to crisis (Rousseau,
Sitkin, Burt, and Camerer, 1998). Positive emotions build trust as individuals
recognize shared values and attitudes with others. In this state, individuals
feel secure that they will not be harmed or put at risk by the actions of the
other, and their desire to trust is transformed (Jones and George, 1998).
Conversely, negative emotions contribute to distrust because individuals
feel insecure about the exchange relationship.

Fukuyama, (1995), studies indicate organizational trust, as is the

expectation that arises within a comn~unity of regular, honest, and
cooperative behaviour, based on the shared norms on the part of other
members of that community. The nature of organizational trust, Shockley-
Zalabak, Ellis, and Winograd, (2000) wrote, is complex, communication-
based, dynamic, and multi-faceted". (Shockley Zalabak, P., Ellis, K., and
G. Winoggrad 2000) found that, Organizations with high levels of trust will be
more successful, adaptive, and innovative than organizations with low levels
of trust or persuasive distrust. Research in areas such as communication
(Giffin, 1967), leadership (Atwater, 1988), labor-management relations
(Taylor, 1989), and implementation of self-managed work teams (Lawler,
1992) all have highlighted the importance of trust in the work environment.

Gibb, (1991) studies indicates that within an organizational

environment, higher degrees of trust enhance the discovering processes
and, ultimately, the ability of groups and organizations to fully function.
Simply, as trust increases, defensive and unproductive behaviours
decrease.

It has been confirmed that an organization's culture will influence all

management practice (Kabanoff, 1993), and that shared adherence to
standards of honesty and fairness is fundamental to building trust and
maintaining long-term business relationships (Morgan and Hunt, 1994), no
research to date has linked cultural dimensions directly to relationship
management practice. Successful business-to-business relationships
display characteristics of trust and commitment, measured through
constructs such as benevolence, communication openness, investment,
control reduction, collaboration and constructive conflict resolution (Morgan
and Hunt, 1994; Ganesan, 1994; Zinn and Parasuraman, 1997).

Hickman and Creighton-Zollar, (1998) showed in their study of

diverse self-directed work teams; the development of interdependence and
trust emerged as team members spend time together. This includes
collaborative work tirne and group social time, which provide opportunities
for the development of collegial conr~ections and friendships. Fostering
successful teams requires the development of trust and the creation of
interdependence between members. Managers need to recognize, however,
that this takes time.

As lines of communication are opened over time, members make

valuable contributions and trust and respect is gained, leading to greater
openness among members to consider ideas and willingness to take risks
(Hickman and Creighton-Zollar, 1998). Much research has demonstrated the
importance of providing diverse teams with time to overcome process problems
so that performance improvements can emerge (Watson, Michaelson 1991;
Kirchmeyer and Cohen, 1992; Williams and O'Reilly. 1998).

Gibb, (1978) studies indicates that a manager in an empowering

organization must establish and maintain the technical aspects of the
information exchange, more importantly he or she must also establish and
maintain a climate of trust ... a high level of personal trust is essential to the
flow of valid information.

Poters, (1992) studies stated that with out trust one couldn't expect
the human imagination to pursue value added. The offerings of trust must at
first be unilateral on the part of management. Trustworthiness tomorrow,
comes only granting trust in the first place today.
90 hp* 111

Bansal, (2001) studies indicates that the security and trust make
people free to express views and ideas and stimulate them to problem
solving activities aims to improving the competitive stimulation of the
organization.

Saxl, Miles, and Lieberman, (1989) in their studies indicate that

building trust is the most important skill leaders need to improve
organizations.

Proaction

Schein, (1992) studies notes that several requisites for

organizational success that organizational culture must now take into
account: The organization must be proactive, not just reactive, the
organization must influence and manage the environment, not just adapt,
the organization must be pragmatic, not idealistic, the organization must be
future-oriented, not predominantly presentlpast oriented, the organization
must embrace diversity, not uniformity, the organization must be
relationship-oriented, not just task-oriented, the organization must embrace
external connectivity, as well as promote internal integration.

Urch, (2001) while describing the emotional intelligence of groups

indicates that to be most effective, a team needs to create emotionally
intelligent norms - attitudes and behaviours that eventually became habits -
which support behaviours for building trust, teams need resources that
members can draw on to deal with group emotions; creating an affirmative
environment is an obvious way to build emotional capacity. One of the most
powerful norms for building a group's emotional capacity is an emphasis on
proactive problem solving.

Amabile, (1997) research has identified three broad determinants of

creative and proactive behaviours
 of- Studies 91

High-level expertise

Creative thinking

Motivation

Expertise is the foundation for all creative work. An individual is unlikely

to come up with a creative idea in a domain that they do not have considerable
expertise in studies, such as being able to take on new perspective's and
suspending judgment of novel ideas, is also important, providing the 'something
extra' of creative performance. Together, expertise and creative thinking largely
determine what a person is capable of doing in a given domain, or what they
can do. However, it is motivation that actually determines what a person will do.
Without motivation, an individual is not likely to put forward, or try to implement,
any creative ideas or suggestions for improvement they might have as a result
of their expertise and creative thinking.

Amabile, (1988) studies further indicates all of the research evidence

suggests that intrinsic motivation is more important than extrinsic motivation
for stimulating proactivity and creativity. In other words, proactive and
creative behaviour cannot be coerced or closely controlled, such as through
constant evaluation, surveillance, competition with peers, dictates from
supervisors, or the promise of rewards. There is even evidence that some
forms of extrinsic reward can stifle and diminish creativity and innovation.
Rather, creativity and proactivity are most likely to occur when individuals
are intrinsically motivated. One therefore needs to understand how to
enhance employee's intrinsic motivation at work.

The preponderance of research that has been conducted on

proactiveness has centered on two main attributes: 1 ) aggressive
competitive behaviour directed at rival firms, and 2) the organizational
pursuit of favourable business opportunities (Knight, 1997; Lumpkin & Dess,
2001; Stevenson & Jarillo, 1990). Knight argued that the emphasis of
proactiveness is on aggressive execution and follow through, driving toward
achievement of the firm's objectives by whatever reasonable means are
necessary (Knight, 1997). The majority of these studies have found that
entrepreneurial firms must successfully match their competitive strategy to
their external environmcmt, and that the fit between these two variables will
ultimately determine firm performance (Miles, Arnold, & Thompson, 1993).

Covin & Slevin, (1989) in their studies indicates that the greater
willingness of managers in uncertainty accepting societies to engage in
conflict and competition will naturally increase the level of proactive firm
behaviours, since competitive aggression is at the heart of proactive
behaviour.

The emphasis in high power distance cultures is on maintaining

status consistency (Hofstede, 1980). There is a society-wide view in these
cultures that subordinates should be deferential and obedient to those in
positions of power over them (Shane, 1993). Given the inclination towards
improving their position in the power structure, managers in low power
distance cultures will be more aggressive when implementing strategies for
their firm. Since power in low power distance societies must be perceived as
legitimate (Hofstede, 1980), firms will attempt to distinguish themselves from
one another in an effort to improve their industry standing. Firms are thus
forced to be proactive in their orientation, since the industry structure in low
power distance cultures changes at an almost constant rate. This system of
pure competition will make it necessary for firms to enact proactive
strategies and to aggressively seek the exploitation of opportunities as a
means of survival.

Knight, (1997); Lumpkin & Dess, (2001); Stevenson & Jarillo, (1990)
in their studies reported that proactiveness can be conceptualized as the
level of aggressive behaviour directed at rival firms and the inclination of
firms to actively pursue favorable business opportunities. Firms operating in
cultures that place an emphasis on assertive and decisive action, that
believe conflict and competition are healthy mechanisms for social
interaction, and that place a high emphasis on taking advantage of potential
opportunities will exhibit higher levels of proactive behaviour than
organizations in cultures that value tranquillity and stability.'

Autonomy

Skinner, (1971) saw the culture as a constantly adaptive mechanism

enabling its inhabitants to survive and yet forcing them to develop in a way
that enabled the culture itself to service. Skinner pointed to three ways in
which culture may be designed,

To reduce disturbance and increase autonomy,

To increase well- being and reduce power.

To increase efficiency and survival.

Autonomy is the degree to which the task provides substantial

freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and in
determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out (Hackman and
Oldham, 1980) the more autonomy an individual or team possesses, the
greater the degree to which the individual or team will feel responsible for
the outcomes of their work. Heightened responsibility should result in
increased performance.

Laiken, (2001) in his study indicate that among our intewiewees found
a shared desire for freedom and autonomy. Workers are clear that the more
room they feel to give rein to their individual creativity, the more likely they are
to be satisfied and productive in their jobs. However, at the same time as they
94 Uiavter 111

desire freedom, they expect leadership. They search for the boundaries of
organizational expectations within which to exercise their creative potential,
and feel lost and chaotic when such structure is not in place.

Barnett & Rivers, (1996); Levine & Pittinsky (1997) in their research
indicates that the most important elements in creating a workplace
conducive to family issues are policies that encourage flexibility and
autonomy for workers regardless of parental status.

Kune, (1999) in his research indicates that a culture that stimulates

creativity and encourages innovation is essential for structurally enhancing
innovative capacity of organizations. Diverse aspects such as
freedom/autonomy, work pressure, challenge and trust plays a role in this.
By far the most important is the encouragement provided by the
organization, by managemenWboss, and by colleagues.

Sinha, (1980) study on work culture recommended the salience of

the N T style as an alternative model within the lndian culture. The following
typical characteristics that the lndian subordinates bring to their
organizations led to the formulation of the NT style: (i) lndian subordinates
tend to depend excessively on their superiors, with whom they want to
cultivate personalized rather than contractual work relationships; (ii) they
readily accept the authority of their superior and yield to his or her demands;
(iii) work is not valued in itself; and (iv) yet the subordinates are willing to
work extra hard as a part of their efforts to maintain a personalized
relationship with the superior (Kakar, 1974; Pareek, 1968; Sinha, 1980).
Under such conditions, according to Sinha (1980), a nurturant-task leader
would be more effective. According to Sinha, the NT leader "cares for his
subordinates, shows aflection, takes personal interest in their well-being,
and above all, is committed to their growth. He or she, however, makes his
or her nurturance contingent on subordinates' task accomplishment. The
effectiveness of the NT style has recently been demonstrated in a number of
laboratory and field investigations by Sinha and others (e.g., see such
reviews as those of Ansari, 1986; Sinha, 1983). In these studies, this style
was perceived as distinctly different from other styles such as F and P, and
it was found to have a positive impact on several indicators of effectiveness
commitment, facets of job satisfaction, and organizational productivity.

Thompson, (1967) studies indicate that Organizations in high power

distance cultures also tend to maintain tight control mechanisms and
implement hierarchical, bureaucratic structures. Individuals in high power
distance cultures will have less freedom and autonomy to make bold
decisions, since high levels of control tend to encourage conservatism within
organizations.

Moddie, (1972) found that, in both private and public sectors the
Indian managers favour delegation of authority to him not so much from him
to a subordinate. lndian decision-making is a process of much
consultativeness in which decisions ultimately emerge at the top, seldom in
the middle and almost never at the bottom of private and public
managements beyond the routine.

Collaboration

Mariappan, (1999) in his study indicates that, no business venture is

one man's endeavour. It requires guidance from the top level, co-ordination
among the middle level and support from the lower order to get things done
well. Teamwork is the best way of getting things done.

Rajendran, (2001) in his research further indicates that no

organisation can be effective unless its members are motivated to work
together. Building a team with subordinates and to make an effective
organisation is not a one-time task. Maintain a healthy team and developing
its demands continuous attention. Considerable efforts have to be put into
ensuring that differing personalities are able to relate to communicate with
and value the contribut~onof their colleagues.

Bayer and Chapel, (1999) in their study further indicates that Culture
may range from the type where the assumptions, beliefs, and values of the
members support authoritarian and submissive behaviours across all levels
of the organization to one where there is mutual trust and respect and a
strong sense of equality. The latter characterizes the collaborative work
system. A collaborative culture includes:

Trust and respect in everyday interactions;

Egalitarian attitudes among members at all ranks;

Power based on expertise and accountability;

Shared leadership where all members take initiative;

Valuing of diverse perspectives;

Commitment to the success of other members, rather than just one's

own;

Valuing of truth and truth telling;

Commitment to continuous improvement of the whole organization;

+ Active learning; and

Personal responsibility.

The impact of these cultural facets depends on a strong and

consistent consensus about the values and on their practice by leaders.
 Crow, (2002) states that collaboration is the basis for bringing
together the knowledge, experience and skills of multiple team members to
contribute to the development of a new product more effectively than
individual team members performing their narrow tasks in support of product
development. Effective collaboration requires actions on multiple fronts:

. Early involvement and the availability of resources to effectively

collaborate,

A culture that encourages teamwork, cooperation and collaboration,

Effective teamwork and team member cooperation,

Defined team member responsibilities based on collaboration,

A defined product development process based on early sharing of

information and collaboration,

Collocation or virtual collocation and

Collaboration technology.

Crow, (2002) in his study further indicate that collaboration requires

effective teamwork. Team members must trust and respect one another.
There must be open communication and a willingness to accept input from
others.

Relational processes or normative control mechanisms yield highly

collaborative behaviours, with relational partners flexibly adjusting to each
other's needs and requests (Dahlstrom, McNeilly and Speh, 1996).
Collaborative behaviour in the form of sharing information and ideas,
communication, openness and forbearance from opportunism will increase
the perception of fairness in terms of relationship inputs, whereas collective
decision-making implies joint agreement on operational aspects of the
relationship, which will include the distribution of risk and rewards.
Collaboration (or cooperation) has been linked positively to relationship
satisfaction (Anderson and Narus, 1990: Smith and Barclay, 1997) and
measures of extensive tolerance, mutual goals and group solidarity have
been linked positively to fairness (relationship equality) (Gassenheimer,
Houston and Davis, 1998).

Key dimensions of relationship management practice that have been

identified as encouraging strategic integration between organizations and
influencing positively relationship outcomes are collaboration, flexibility and
conflict resolution (Anderson and Narus 1990; Johnson 1999; Lusch and
Brown 1996; Mohr, Fisher and Nevin 1996; Morgan and Hunt 1994).

O'Reilly, (1995) describes the first mechanism that is critical in

developing or changing a culture are systems that provide for participation in
organizations. These systems stimulate people to be involved and send
signals to the individual that he or she is valued. These may range from
formal efforts such as advisory boards and quality circles to less formal
efforts such as suggestion systems and opportunities to meet with top
managers and informal social gatherings. What is important about these
processes is that people are stimulated to make incremental choices and
develop a sense of responsibility for their actions. In some cases, such as
work design, the specific choices made may be less important for future
success than the fact that people had the chance to make them. Over the
last ten years, organisational teams have become more distributed and
complex. Despite the number of technologies available to assist teams and
group-based work, it is still exceedingly difficult to manage teams......what
is dangerously lacking is a culture of collaboration and cooperative learning
capable of becoming aware of the critical importance of adopting a set of
behaviour-policies supportive of strong team interaction.
 Bayer and Chapel, (1999) indicate that a traditional, bureaucratic
organization based on command-and-control hierarchy is designed with firm
horizontal and vertical boundaries and the dominant practice of "repeat"
rather than "create." As a result, the design is often too rigid, too simplistic,
and too impoverished to adapt to a more complex world. The old
organizational structure is too rigid to adapt quickly to changing
environmental conditions; it is too simplistic to match the complexity of the
environment; it is too impoverished through suppression of human talent
and collaborative synergies to create a rich variety of responses to the
challenges of the 21st Century environment. Although pure bureaucracies
are now less common, the assumptions that underlie them continue to have
strong influence on managers.

There is a wide spread belief that the transitions from supervisor to

team leader involves a change of style from 'top" to "coach" as it is sometime
suppressed. In practice, this can be very diicult to achieve. It has long been
observed that one significant obstacle on the road to teamwork is managers
and supervisors reluctance to delegate the necessary autonomy and
responsibility to workers (Safizadeh, 1991; Ames, 1995).

Barkers, (1993) in his study found that team working involves the
replacement of a rational, bureaucratic from of management controlled by a
concretive form in which team members actions are controlled by normative
roles that they themselves establish. One can also view teams as a vehicle
for communicating management values. Knights and McCabe, (2000) put it
very well: Management is concerned not only with changing the way in
which employees work but also the way they think.

Experimentation

Davenport and Prusak, (1998) in their study claim that lack of

forgiveness for mistake making is one of the basic stumbling blocks
100 Chapter 111

because it slows or prevents or even erodes some of the knowledge as it

moves through the organization (sharing of information). Organizations have
a responsibility to create a culture in which learning occurs, and that culture
will determine the quality of learning that takes place. A culture that
minimizes the fear of making mistakes and exercises praise and rewards,
not only for those who succeed but also for those who tried hard and might
not have achieved the desired results, is important in the learning
organization.

Hagberg, (2003) in his study indicates that executives also assumes

that they have created an environment where risk taking is encouraged,
where employees feel free to disagree and build off each others ideas,
where conflict is openly addressed and where nonconformity is accepted. In
short, they see openness and a minimum of threat. In addition management
sees itself as being trusted by employees. Employees on other hand are
less far less certain that management will always do what it says it will do
and whether management really wants to hear bad news. Employees are
therefore reluctant to be the messenger of bad news and are more sceptical
about whether management can actually be trusted. Employees don't feel
that risk taking supported and believe that conformity is expected. They also
see management as allowing conflicts and disagreement to fester. This
finding indicates that management and employees don't feel the same level
of trust, openness and freedom of expression.

Ali, Pascoe and Warne, (2002) in their research indicate that culture
of forgiveness and learning from mistakes was widely prevalent in the
tactical environment where mistakes were freely admitted and discussed.
This process became a vehicle from which the whole group benefited. in the
single service strategic HQ, 92% of those surveyed reported that they can
positively learn from the mistakes they make, and the same percentage
stated that their supervisor would stand by them when they make a good
suggestion.

Oldham, (1996) in his study indicates that when supervisors are

highly supportive of their subordinates (e.g., showing concern for the
employee's ideas and feelings), it enhances employee initiative at work.

Laiken, (2001) in his study an environment of continuous learning

and "no blame" allows workers to make provisional attempts, receive
feedback from supervisors and colleagues, make changes, and try again.
Teams, which are not only responsible, but also accountable for their
decisions, engage as well in this experiential learning cycle of action -

reflection - learninglchange - new action.

Brockhaus, (1980) in his studies indicates that the risk-taking

dimension of entrepreneurial orientation gauges the willingness of managers
to engage in calculated, business-related risks. Organizations in cultures
that maintain positive expectations of future outcomes, that are willing to
deal with the stress and anxieties created by uncertainty, and that place a
high value on ambition and personal success will tend to exhibit higher
levels of risk-taking than firms in cultures that value certainty and
conservative behaviour.

Radebe, Thuli, (2003) in their study while describing the mindsets

structure, practices and procedures of public sector indicates that an
organizational culture dominated by rigid adherence to rules and regulations
very seldom encourages staff to ask challenging questions and to alter the
status quo. In many public services, in fact, the practice of questioning the
status quo is not in accord with conventions, and in some instances, the
practice is even actively discouraged.
 Gravin, (1993) in his study for an organization to become a true
Learning Organization the following to be added in the organization

Systematic problem solving: thinking with systems theory; insisting

on data rather than assumptions; using statistical tools.

. Experimentation with new approaches: ensure steady flow of new

ideas; incentives for risk taking; demonstration projects.

Learning from the experiences and best practices of others:

enthusiastic borrowing.

Learning from their own experiences and past history:

recognition of the value of productive failure instead of unproductive
success.

Transferring knowledge quickly and efficiently throughout the

organization: reports, tours, personnel rotation programs, training
programs.

Robbins, (1998) states that a company with a conservative culture

fills with people who self-select not to take risks and not to admit mistakes.
These aren't people who will come rushing with open arms when someone
proclaims...Shifting a culture means addressing fears with substance: the
organization must faclor risk-taking into its rewards and performance
measures. That support must come out in daily interactions. And even then,
the best learning comes from carefully separating judgments from facts, and
promoting the search for solutions, rather than rehashing blame.

Gephart, (1996) point out the culture is the glue that holds an
organization together; a learning organization's culture is based on
openness and trust, where employees are supported and rewarded for
learning and innovating, and one that promotes experimentation, risk taking,
and values the well-being of all employees

Similarly, Ellinger, (1999) points out that open communication and

the encouragement of questions are effective vehicles for driving
organizational learning.

Studies related t o Values and Work Values Expectancy

Rokeach, (1973) in his studies differentiated values from interests on

two grounds:

the role of values as standards, and

the number of values people have versus interests.

Interests are preferences or likes, not standards against which

individuals judge their own behaviour as well as the functioning of others.
Moreover, individuals may develop several interests, but they develop rather
few values. Needs may also serve as a guide to behaviour, but according to
Rokeach, (1973), they are transitory, and once satisfied, they may not
influence behaviour for varying amounts of time. Values develop so that
individuals can meet their needs in socially acceptable ways, but unlike
needs, transcend situations and are stable influences on behaviour. Finally,
not only do values provide individuals with a basis for judging the
appropriateness of their behaviour in the present, they also provide them a
sense of what goals they would like to attain in the future. Once developed,
values become the primary basis for goal setting.

Research by Ravlin and Maglino, (1987) and Judge and Bretz,

(1992) strongly suggests that, when options that are related to the strongly
held values of the decision maker are available in the decision making
process, those options are frequently chosen. Moreover, Schulenberg,
Vondracek and Kim, (1993) found that certainty of career choice was
directly related to the strength of the values held by the individuals they
studied. Values are the dominant factor in the decision making process, but
other factors influence decision making as well. Self-efficacy and interests
will also have an impact on decision-making (Bandura, 1986; Feather, 1988;

Flannelly, (1995) who used a modified version of the LVI in his

research, found that when people rated the values they hoped to satisfy
within various roles, their ratings varied significantly from role to role.
Success in a life role will usually depend on (1) the congruence between the
person's values and those of others in the role; (2) role related skills which
the person has developed prior to entering the role; (3) the person's ability
to cope with change, as the demands of the role change; and (4) the nature
of the interaction of the role with other roles performed by the individual.

Ravlin and Meglino, (1987) in their studies found a direct

relationship between the congruence of supervisors and workers values and
job satisfaction. Research on the Theory of Work Adjustment (Dawis &
Lofquist, 1984) has also been supportive of this proposition. Several types
of values-based problems sometimes require therapeutic interventions.
These include (1) values poorly crystallized and/or poorly prioritized;
(2) intra-personal values conflicts; (3) intra-role values conflicts; (4) inter-role
conflicts that may or rnay not be values-based; and (5) perception that
values satisfaction is blocked resulting in depression. This proposition has
not been tested directly at this time.

LeMon, (2000) in his studies indicates in his studies that one of the
main reasons for the development of a value statement is to influence the
attitudes and behaviours of employees who work for the organisation. It also
provides clear guidance to potential employees about what is considered to
be fundamental in the organisation. Thus, a clear and precise value
statement can guide and motivate employees' work behaviour towards
organisational objectives and assist in recruiting employees that share and
can relate to the stated values of the organisation.

The power of value statements to focus the efforts of an organisation

and motivate its employees has become increasingly important in recent
years. Many researchers indicate the importance of shared organisational
values and the role of the value statement (Sullivan & Sullivan & Buffton,
2002; Dearlove and Coomber, 1999; LeMon, 2000; Kouzes, 2003).

Lencioni, (200%)declares that empty value statements create cynical

and dispirited employees, alienate customers, and undermine managerial
credibility. It is also known that younger workers are much more in tune with
their individual values than older generations, and that the younger
generations pay significant attention as to how their individual values might be
fulfilled when looking at career options and potential employers (Sullivan,
Sullivan & Buffton, 2002). It is important to note that clarifying employee's and
organization's values can help to create a win-win outcome for all concerned.
Individuals can find meaning in their work and organisations can develop a
committed workforce that is able to function well through periods of change
(Sullivan & Sullivan & Buffton, 2002). Bryce, (2002) states that developing a
strong organisational value statement can, in combination with a few long-
term recruiting techniques, reduce both employee turnover and recruitment
costs. It is argued that, if the value statement is ambiguous, the job applicants
attracted to the organisation might not be those who hold appropriate
individual values, and the organisation might not recruit the right people.

Kar and Thivari, (1999) made significant findings on their study that
employees who are properly aware of the organizational values and ethics
have fostered better citizenship behaviour. It can also be concluded from
the present findings that factors like support, structure, risk tolerance and
some of the most sensitive components of organizational culture, which
have strong impact on employee's citizenship behaviour.

Values are an integral part for the religious, commerce, spiritual and
Governmental spheres of social behaviour within a culture .... The
anchorage of values in the religious, spir~tual,and Governmental areas of
social life should make values and integral part of specific culture and hence
allow for variation between cultures (Sheth, 1995). Values are assumed to
form a certain organization of an individual's needs, desires, and goals,
hierarchically structured according to their relative importance for the
individual (Dawis, 1991).

Referring to general change in work values, Cherrington (1980)

states that many mangers have complained that today's work force does not
have the same values as previous generations...the evidence indicates that
the claims of these managers are generally correct. One of these reasons
for this change in work values is the fact that the meaning of work has
changed. He ascribed this changing nature of work to a number of factors,
namely the shortened working weak, the change in power positions between
employer and employee following the forming of unions changing labour
legislation as well as technological advancement changing the nature of
work. The possible implications of changes in work related values for
organisations have been researched by Cooper, Morgan, Faley and
Capalan, (1979). They come to the conclusion that companies are managed
different than in the past. It is clear that although management practices and
personal policies are continuously being changed and adapted, the values
and expectations of employees have been evolving at an even faster pace.
In order to keep up with employees changing values, companies will have to
increase the pace and appropriateness of their efforts to change.
 As Crace and Brown, (1996) have pointed out, in their studies that
values have long been viewed as important determinants of human
behaviour (Allport, Vernon & Lindzey, 1960; Rokeach, 1973; Super, 1990).
In addition, values have been empirically linked to important aspects of
organizational behaviour (Meglino, Ravlin, & Adkins, 1989), academic
performance (Coyne, 1988), and career decision-making (Ravlin & Meglino,
1987). They have also been identified as important determinants of
culturally unique behaviour (Sue & Sue, 1990), and thus are critical to the
understanding of cultural differences (Brown, 2002).

Within an organization, the social system includes all the people in it

and their relationships to each other and to the outside world. The behaviour
of one member can have an impact, either directly or indirectly, on the
behaviour of others (Clark, 2000). Behaviour is any form of human action
based on culture. (Adler, 1991), Culture is the conventional behaviour of a
society that encompasses beliefs, customs, knowledge, and practices. It
influences human behaviour, even though it seldom enters into their
conscious thought. People depend on culture as it gives them stability,
security, understand~ng,and the ability to respond to a given situation
(Clark, 2000). The behaviour that is modeled by the leader and the
management team profoundly shapes the culture and practices of the
organization. What management emphasizes rewards and punishes can tell
you what is really important. The behaviour of members of the senior team,
their reactions in a crises and what they talk routinely talk about, all sets the
tone of the culture (Hagberg and Heifetz, 2000). The behaviour that is
modeled by the leader and the management team profoundly shapes the
culture and practices of the organization.

Organisation exists in society and derives their Strength from it. The
way the organisation functions is affected not only by the powers of
managers but also by underlying cultural forces. Cultural Value base is
108 Uiapter 111

therefore, is a central organizing principle of employee's comprehension of

work; their approach to it and the way expect to be treated... values reflect
the mental disposition of people comprising a societylorganization in
reference, thus strongly reflecting the behavioural patterns (Rometra, 2000).
When management process and practices are inconsistent with these
values, the employees are likely to feel dissatisfied and uncomfortable. On
the other hand, wher management practices are consistent with their
cherished value system, the employee exhibit high performance outcomes
(Newman and Nollen, 1996). The work behaviour and individual group
expression representing culture are socially constructed and related to the
anthropological concepts (Hofstede, 1990), there by supporting the
argument that cultures exert magical effect on behaviour at work (New
storm and Davis (1995). Organisational culture affects and is affected by the
cherished beliefs nurtured values and held perceptions of organisational
members which are given situations in organisations. In other words, the
work values and ethical beliefs are functions of both organisational variables
and differences in personality development in a given cultural environment
that determines behaviour of man. (Rometra, 2000).

Adler, (1991) studies indicates that that personal values affect

corporate strategy and that managerial values affect all forms of
organizational behaviour, including selection and reward system, superior
subordinate relationship, and group behaviour, communicatioh leadership
and conflict levels.

Studies on work values have shown that these values play a

significant role not only in individuals' vocational choices, but also in their
work-related attitudes and behaviours like job satisfaction and turnover
(Butler, 1983; Judge & Bretz, 1992; Meglino, Ravlin & Adkins, 1991; Roe &
Ester, 1999). In the literature on psychological climates, researchers agree
that values serve to create the cognitive schema through which individuals
interpret their work environment (James & James, 1989; Meyer, Irving &
Allen, 1998; Young & Parker, 1999). In this respect, Ravlin & Meglino,
(1987) have demonstrated that values influence the selection and
interpretation of stimuli as well as actual decision-making behaviour at work.
This finding corresponds with London's (1983) thesis indicate that individual
characteristics associated with career motivation affect how employees
perceive their work situation. This relationship will be stronger the more the
situation initially is ambiguous or uncertain. The latter is more probable at
organizational entry, when individuals have only a restricted image of how
their new employment relationship will be in practice. Related to this, there
is considerable evidence that people tend to be satisfied with jobs in which
they have an opportunity to attain their significant work values. This is a
major assumption and focus of research within Person-Environment Fit
theories (Taris & Feij, 2000; Vianen, 2000).

Human Values and Work Ethics are immense importance for the
effectiveness of managers (Chakraborty, 1995). Ethics is the study of
human values and refers to 'morally permissible standards, rules, principles,
obligations of a group or a society that each member of the group or society
wishes everyone to follow, including himself or herself. Phegade, (1997).
Work character ethics maintain that the identification and responsible
development of noble reflective practitioner traits at work-such a
competence, creativity, honesty, fairness, trustworthiness, co-worker
appreciation, task competition, honour, loyalty, shared work pride, diligence,
resourcefulness, level headedness, tolerance, dependability, civility,
empathy, conscientiousness, discretion, patient urgency, co-
cooperativeness and supportiveness-determine both the instrumental and
intrinsic ethical quality of work life (Patric and Quinn, 1999). Some of the
dimensions registering impact on work behaviour include power orientation,
achievement orientation hedonism, stimulation conformity and benevolence.
Understandably there for individual behaviour to a large extent is function of
personality development that take place in a defined cultural environment
(Schwartz et. a1 1997). A lot of research has been conducted about the
consequences of these values in the work context. For instance, some
authors have proposed that the declining importance assigned to them is
one of the main causes of the increasing rate of unethical practices in
organizations, such as fraud and corruption (e.g. Etzioni, 1993). Other
authors have shown that the presence of these values is vital to the well
functioning and survival of organizations (e.g. Organ, 1988), and that values
related to altruism are common to all forms of helping behaviours in
organizations (Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Paine & Bachrach, 2000).

Sastri, (2001) stated that 'instilling and practicing four basic

corporate values. i.e. integrity, leadership, dedication and service, will
creates an observable corporate culture.'

Sub Variables: Value expectations

Ability Utilization

Mohapatra, (2001) in his studies indicates that utilization of talent is

an absolute pre requisite for building a healthy work culture where all
individuals contribute there maximum for the growth of the organisation. It
reinforces the behaviour in the individual and he strives for a series of
success, which ultimately benefits the organisation.

Steers, (1977) in his studies indicate that individuals enter the

organisation with specific skills, desires, and goals and expect a work
setting, where they can use their skills, satisfy their desires, and achieve
their goals. To the extent the organisation is perceived as facilitating these
ends, organizational commitment is likely to increase. On the other hand, if
the organisation is perceived as failing to provide sufficient opportunities
along these lines, organisational commitment is likely to diminish.

Nord, (1978) in his studies indicate that the right culture from a
managerial humanist perspectives is one where individuals are treated as
ends and not means, are offered meaningful work, can develop their abilities
are treated with dignity and respect and are able to exercise substantial
control over events affecting them.

Cabrera et al., (2001) indicates in his studies that organization

culture governs the conduct of people and how the organization operates, in
terms of language of communication, work efficiency, meaning of authority,
hierarchy and managerial power, strategic change, creation and utilization of
knowledge.

Lisa fain, (2003) in her studies notes that the importance of

embedding mentoring in the organization's culture cannot be
overemphasized. Embedding mentoring into an organization's culture
facilitates knowledge utilization. Cultural integration enables an organization
to create opportunities to integrate new learning and leverage knowledge
gained as a direct result of mentoring.

Rothstein, (1 995) in his study indicates that empowerment is the art

of building development and increasing power through cooperating, sharing
and work together. An empowerment value system promotes utilization of
employee abilities; knowledge and skill to a great extent by giving support
and encouragement, in order to the accomplishment the task.

Achievement

Tan, (2001) in his studies notes achievement environment as a

culture encourages and values performance of people. The leaders spell out
and communicate clearly the visions and goals to all levels of people in the
organization. These organizations have measurable objectives and hold
people accountable in achieving them. They have a transparent and fair
appraisal system, which ties closely reward to performance. He further
indicates that the achievement culture emphasizes on the work to be done
rather than roles. People will cross roles to get the job done and swap
responsibilities when needed. This culture empowered individuals who are
trusted to get on with ?hejobs and react to what the job needs. There are no
job descriptions or thick manuals to limit what people can do. Decisions in
such a culture are made laterally rather than hierarchically. Individuals are
driven and motivated by enthusiasm for the job, or because they know they
will be fairly appraised and rewarded according to merits. Collaboration is
the order of the day, and employees are encouraged to think of new ways of
doing work. The strong achievement organization is an exciting and creative
place to be. Rules, regulations, policies are under constant review.
Consultation takes place on all levels. Change is part of the working life;
creative thinking and innovation are common practices, which result in
higher and higher levels of achievements.

McClelland, (1088) in the concussing part of the study indicates

characteristics and attitudes of achievement-motivated people:

Achievement is more important than material or financial reward;

Achieving the aim or task gives greater personal satisfaction than

receiving praise or recognition;

Financial reward is regarded as a measurement of success, not an

end in itself;

Security is not prime motivator, nor is status;

 Feedback is essential, because it enables measurement of success,
not for reasons of praise or recognition (the implication here is that
feedback must be reliable, quantifiable and factual);

Achievement-motivated people constantly seek improvements and

ways of doing things better;

. Achievement-motivated people will logically favour jobs and

responsibilities that naturally satisfy their needs, i.e. offer flexibility
and opportunity to set and achieve goals, e.g., sales and business
management, and entrepreneurral roles.

Herzberg, (1959) researched the work-related motivations of

thousands of employees. He concluded that there were two types of
motivation: Hygiene Factors that can demotivate if they are not present -
such as supervision, interpersonal relations, physical working conditions,
and salary. Hygiene Factors affect the level of dissatisfaction, but are rarely
quoted as creators of job satisfaction. Motivation Factors that will motivate if
they are present . such as achievement, advancement,, recognition and
responsibility. Dissatisfaction isn't normally blamed on Motivation Factors,
but they are cited as the cause of job satisfaction.

Advancement

Wallace, (1995) found organizational commitment to be highly

dependent on perceive opportunities for carrier advancements and criteria
(such as legitimacy and fairness) used in the distribution of rewards.
However, participation in decision-making and formalization were not found
to be important determinance of organizational commitment.

Narain, (1971) from a comprehensive study of managers in public

sector enterprises has found that managers rank feeling of worthwhile
accomplishment, recognition for good work done, decision making authority,
opportunity for personal growth and development, opportunity for promotion,
prestige of organization outside the company, pay, allowances and other
benefits, job security in that order.

Lahiry, (1973) in his study found that important of job factors related
to various needs as perceived by the different levels of managers does not
correspond to the need hierarchy suggested by mass low. Autonomy,
responsibility, promotion and growth opportunities are assigned higher
priorities by Indian Managers.

Swatantra Kumar, Sing and Verma (1982), found that managers

and supervisors ranked various job factors as job security, opportunity for
advancement, pay according to merit, working conditions, task welfare,
housing, supervisors, work group, bonus and name of the company in
that order.

McClelland, (1984) indicates that Highly Achievement-motivated

people spontaneously think about and enjoy.

Meeting or exceeding a standard of excellence and/or improving

their performance

Outperforming others who represent a standard of excellence (as

opposed to beating a particular person)

Meeting or surpassing self-imposed standards of excellence

Accomplishing something new,unique, or innovative

Being involved in long-term planning or advancement of their career.

 Newman, Katherine and Attewell (2003) studies reported that as part
of a three-year longitudinal study, The Initiative for a Competitive Inner City
(ICIC) surveyed 173 non-managerial workers who worked at seven inner-
city firms to chart their occupational, educational, and family outcomes over
time. Of the nearly 11% who had voluntarily left their jobs after the first year,
the most common reasons cited for leaving were to look for higher wages
and more opportunities for promotion and advancement.

Workplace motivators are considered to include both monetary and

non-monetary incentives (Becker, J., Ballantine, R., Tedford, C., Townsley, C.,
& Lee, A. 2001; Merchant, 1989). According to a survey conducted in 2000
by Watson Wyatt, an increasing number of employers were found to use
non-monetary rewards as compared to the previous year, 1999 - the three
commonly used non-monetary rewards by employers include career
advancement opportunities (76% employers surveyed as compared to 60%
in 1999), flexible work hours (73% as against 64% in 1999) and
opportunities to gain new skills (68 as compared to 62% in 1999).

Altruism

Barbuto, Brown, Wilhite, & Wheeler, (2001) Successful organizations

have subordinates who go beyond their formal job responsibilities and freely
give of their time and energy to succeed at the assigned job. Such altruism
is neither prescribed nor required; yet it contributes to the smooth
functioning of the organization.

Based on the theoretical work of Simon, (1900; 1993), Korsgaard,

Meglino and Lester, (1996) stated that individuals who assign high priority to
values related to altruism are less willing to evaluate personal costs and
benefits when processing social information because engaging in personal
evaluations limits the importance of information an individual obtains from
others. Under this way of thinking, individuals who assign high priority to
116 Chapter I11

other-oriented values tend to pay less attention evaluating personal costs

and benefits when processing social information.

Ouchi, (1981) indicates that some academics, mostly left-wing

sociologists, who have looked at business organizations, have decided that
the most successful companies are those where employees have developed
a mysterious self-sacrificing loyalty to their company. They often point to the
Japanese as the suprerne example of this type of company. The underlying
idea behind the claim that a collectivist culture is good for business is that
people do better for their companies if they forsake their own interests in
favour of a 'greater good,' and participate in a culture of altruism.

Singh, Bhandarkar, (1990) and Sinha, (1980) indicates that the

altruistic mode of leaders concern for their subordinates well-being and
growth. Like a mentor or Kartha (head of the family) the leaders shows
warmth and affection to his or her subordinates, nurtures and grooms them
by directing, guiding, encouraging appreciating, reprimanding, inspiring,
and so on.

Authority

Weber used the term bureaucracy to describe an organization

ordered by rules, laws, and regulations, and indicated that bureaucracies
possess hierarchies with systems of super- and subordination. The
management of the modern bureaucracy is based on written documents,
such as standard operating procedures, which are more or less stable,
exhaustive, and which can be learned (Mintzberg, 1979). The prototypical
bureaucracy is the machine bureaucracy (Mintzberg, 1979), and the primary
coordinating mechanism in such an organization is the standardization of
work processes. Behaviour in such an organization is relatively formal and
employee tasks are specialized. Employees contract to receive wages in
exchange for submitting to rules, regulations, and supervision, which in turn
help employees handle the uncertain future from day to day. However, such
a system is ineffective when employees are widely dispersed and direct
supervision is not possible. It is also less effective in controlling behaviour
variability in organizations with a high percentage of tasks with substantial
complexity (Wilkins & Ouchi, 1983).

Whitener, et. al., (1998) in their review article which focuses on

management, develop a number of propositions about trust in organizations.
Their first proposition is that: organizations that are highly centralized,
formalized, hierarchical, and focused on efficiency will be less likely to
generate managerial trustworthy behaviour - in particular, communication
and delegation of control - than will organizations that are decentralized,
less formal, less hierarchical and focused on effectiveness.

Kakar, (1971) in his study indicates that in public sector organizations,

the inadequate delegation of authority starts from the government. In fact, the
policy decision in regards the various pubic sector organizations rest with the
government and not with the functional heads of these organizations. Coupled
with this, appointment of non professionals-bureaucrats and in many cases,
politicians also works against the adequate delegation of authority. More over,
in many public sector organizations, there is always a lack of job clarity, which
affects the delegation adversely. Further in such organizations, delegates'
lack of confidence in the subordinates to use the authority properly and
effectively and his own reluctance to use the authority in the discharge of his
responsibility for fear of criticisms for mistakes are also factors in inadequate
delegation of authority.

Elhance and Agarwal, (1975) in their studies indicate that there is an

inherent desire for with holding of authority on the part of superiors because
of the love for authority. Though there is a universal phenomenon, this is
operative more strongly in Indian organizations because they have to work
in authoritarian culture. Thus inadequate delegation starts right from the top
and flows through the various levels of the organizations. Delegant's love for
authority has been identified as a major source for inadequate delegation in
lndian organizations. They further that there is moderate degree of
delegation of authority both in private and public sector, and the degree of
delegation is higher in the later. Further, in both sectors, there is high
degree of technical delegation and lowest degree of financial delegation.

Kakar, (1972) in the study of delegation of authority covering two

units in pubic and private sector found that there is moderate degree of
delegation of authority both in private and public sectors and the degree of
delegation is higher in the later.

Lotia, (1967) indicates that in lndian business organizations, there is

lack of adequate delegation authority to various managerial levels. In public
sector enterprises delegation of authority is not always for the whole job. In
most of the enterprises, due to its bureaucratic or semi governmental nature
delegation is not enough to enable the manager to execute his duties with
confidence and convenience.

Kakar, (1972) indicates that in private sector too, the position is not
different, except in few organizations, where most of lndian mangers and
owners of the enterprises manage the affairs of their organizations in an
authoritarian way. They rely more on their personal whims, prejudices and
attitudes. They have always a habit of deciding the fate of the organizations
and they have been very rigid in their directions and instructions to their
managers and workers. In such case, adequate delegation cannot be
expected.

Singh (1973), indicate, in many private sector organizations, the

delegation of authority is gradually increasing. This phenomenon is more
common in the case of big organizations than in the case of small and medium
size companies. Th~sis due to the diversification of business into dierent
types of industries, increasing complexity and environmental situations,
realization on the pan of industrial houses regarding the effective contribution of
professional managers as evidence by the examples of westem countries, legal
provision of the Indian Companies Act, regarding the appointment of Directors
and the abolition of managing agencies etc. Because of these developments,
the management in India is now being increasingly handled by professionals,
independent of family types. Day today control is now being delegated to the
young people recruited from outside.

Khandwalla. (1988) and Virmani and Guptan, (1991) reported. power

tends to be centralized in Indian organization. As the size of the
organization increases, instead of becoming decentralized, power tends to
be more centralized in the top positions.

Lotia, (1967) observed, in most of the enterprises due to its

bureaucratic or semi-Governmental nature, delegation is not enough to
enable the manager to execute his duties with confidence and convenience.

Creativity

Schuler (2002) indicates that 'competitive environment requires

organizations to institutionalize the process of innovation - to plant the seeds
of creativity that could utterly transform a business. Creativity necessarily
involves the destruction of old - and sometimes comfortable and perfectly
good - ways of doing business. But for companies willing to take the risk -
and for leaders committed to building innovative cultures - the first
requirement is to understand the creative process, and the second is to
commit to policies that support the creative process.
 Key organizational factors related to creativity include "proximate
factors" that are close to daily experience (job design, managerial
behaviours, training, work group diversity) and "distal factors" that are more
remote, such as organizational structure and climate (Shalley, et al. 2000).
Amabile, (1988) indicates that complex and challenging jobs that enable
workers to decide how to carry out tasks are more likely to encourage
intrinsic motivation that, in turn, increases creativity. Motivation is also aided
by a sense of urgency that increases the perception that the project or task
is valuable and worth pursuing. In contrast to complex, challenging jobs,
routine work can readily be accomplished by adhering to well-known
processes and information. In such circ~lrnstancescreativity may actually
incur a cost if it reduces efficiency by introducing unnecessary change.

Research on team dynamics emphasizes the potential of interactions

with others to motivate, stimulate interest, add complexity, and introduce
competitive pressure -- all of which can lead to enhanced individual and
group creativity. Hargadon, (1999) argues that groups play a central role in
organizational creativity by "creating novel and unexpected combinations of
an organization's past knowledge in ways that individuals or more formal
organizational structures do not" and that group analogic reasoning plays a
central role in organizational creativity.

Another distal factor influencing creativity is organizational

adaptability. Highly adaptive organizations tend to be more supportive of
creativity (Basadur, 1997). Adaptability means continually and intentionally
changing routines to find better ways of doing business. Adaptable
organizations engage in "opportunistic sutveillance" - which means
scanning the environment to anticipate new opportunities and problems and
responding with new methods and approaches. Organizations that show low
adaptability exhibit high levels of control through centralized decision
making. Rigid adherence to rules and regulation tends to have negative
impacts on creativity.

Amabile, (1998) argues that. centralized decision-making and

adherence to rules and regulations reduces intrinsic motivation, with
corresponding decreases in creativity and the ability to cope with problems
and demands, both of which detract from well being. Centralized decision-
making and control also reduces information flow through an organization.
To the extent that creativity requires free access to information and
knowledge, this will dampen the generation of new ideas.

Scot, (2003) indicates that culture is the set of shared norms, values
and beliefs in an organization. Many aspects of culture can affect creativity.
Organizations that show that they value creativity by providing rewards and
recognition for it naturally tend to get more of it. On the other hand,
organizations that value risk minimization are somewhat less supportive of
creativity.Climates characterized by political game playing and
interpersonal competition also tend to restrain creativity.

Scot, (2003) related to experimentation, further indicates that

creativity is often the result of experimentation. Experimentation is resource
intensive. To promote creativity, organizations should permit funds,
materials, facilities, and the time needed for experimenting with new ideas.
Time to reflect and be imaginative is essential to creativity. Research has
found that pressures to be productive reduce creativity.

Economic rewards

Lawler & Hall, (1970) in their studies indicates that the individual
always establishes a process of social comparison between the inputs and
outputs he or she puts into and receives from a job. For example,
employees evaluate the effort and dedication they give to their jobs and
therefore expect that the rewards and benefits received from the
organization will matcti or exceed their efforts. If a positive relationship is
perceived, the employee will be satisfied. However, if the relationship is
perceived as negative, the employee will experience dissatisfaction.

A study cond~~cted
by Sing, Mathew and Das, (1990) concluded,
Organizational culture affects the determining level of economic demands.
Lower quality of organizational milieu leads to higher level of expectations
for monetary compensation. This is so because such organizations do not
gratify social and psychological needs of individuals. They lead to
subordination, dependence and submissiveness. Concern for money arises
because of the basic incongruity between the individual need system and
the organizational demands. Coercive authority system - autocratic and
custodial - affects the motivational pattern. It de-emphasizes self
actualization, growth process, creativity and innovativeness and emphasizes
the role of monitory rewards for the motivation. In the absence of autonomy
of work system and socio task grouping, higher order human needs - love
and belongingness, ego, achievement and self-actualization are threatened.
It hampers the growtin of full personality and leads to frustration and anxiety.

Sing, Mathew and Das, (1990) further indicates that Since the
individual wants some form of socially and organizationally accepted
compensation for the sacrifices he makes, he starts assigning more wieghtage
to the gratification of the physical needs and hence the added pressure on
economic rewards. incorporating some social and psychological elements in
organizational ethos can substantially reduce the pressure on and demand for
more economic compensation. The mechanistic bureaucratic model needs to
be replaced by an organic system with a view to granting meanings, challenges
and greeter autonomy from the work systems. A meaningful linkage between
the work technology and the special milieu is to be established. The quality of
group life and process of human interaction need to be enriched considerably.
The organizational control based on traditional authority system should be
substituted by a self-control system.... The study further comments upon the
relation between organ~zationallife and economic rewards indicate that the
belief of the Indian top managers that those who desert the organizations are,
basically, money directed and higher economic rewards hold them back needs
re-examination. In fact, many people leave the organizations at a considerable
personal loss in terms of security, income and working conditions. Executive
turnover in general is c:oupled with search for more meaningful and exciting
jobs. When an organization can create a climate, which has its strengthening
impact on the quality of life the work life, would be a source of pleasure. Credo
for finding meaning in material rewards will considerably be reduced.

Agnew and Hedmon, (1992) in their study indicates that the

organization may have the latest technology, well -thought out strategic
plans, detailed job descriptions and comprehensive training programs, but
unless the people are rewarded for their performance-related behaviours,
the "up-front" variable (technology, plans and so on) or the rules that govern
their behaviour have little impact.

Singh et. al., :1977) in a study of organizational culture and its

impact on managerial remuneration concluded that the demands for money
was significantly influenced by the quality of organizational culture and that it
can substantially be reduced by improving the quality of organizational
culture. Findings such as those suggest that satisfaction, task involvement,
demand for money and commitment are largely determined by
organizational culture.

Poduval, (1991) stated that feeling of inequality is existing high in

Kerala labour force. 'The workers feel that their counterparts within the
organization and else where were receiving better compensation package
for the same contribution by way of efforts and performance.
 Buyniski, (19951, in his study indicates that despite the tendency in
recent years to down grade the importance of money as an organizational
reward, there is ample evidence that money can be positively reinforcing for
most people.'

Life style

Feldman, (1985) his study indicates organization promotes job

requirement capability match ensures the correlation of employability of the
person on the job and the expected contribution from him. Here the value
system supports emplc~yee'sfree way of living as it give importance to 'end'
rather than the 'means' with which they accomplish the tasks. Employees
can have their own life style at work place as the contribution and
accomplishment matters than what they engaged.

Kramlinger, (1992) in his study indicates that while indicating the

human-oriented cultural values of learning organizations indicates that in
this type of cultural values 1) every one can be a source of useful ideas, so
personal should be given access to any information that can be value to
them; 2) the people closest to the problem usually have the best ideas
regarding how to solve it; 3) learning flows up and down the hierarchy, so
managers and employees can benefit from it; 4) new ideas are important
and should be encouraged and rewarded; 5) and mistakes should be
viewed as learning opportunities. Here in this value system people have the
freedom to live with their own ideas and spirit as it facilitates human and
organizational learning.'

Prestige

Mariyappan, (1999) in his study indicates that generally human

beings are anxious to be recognized. They expect recognition for their good
work and acceptance for their views, ideas, and suggestions. They also like
to be given credit for their positive contributions and achievements.
Recognition of contribution is one of the factor that human being attached
with prestige at work place.

Prasad and Gowda, (1977) in their study indicate that regarding what
managers want from their jobs, it is disclosed that top-level managers rank
recognition for work, job contents, higher status and authority, good salary
relationship with higher-ups, and clearly defined responsibility in that order.
The lower managers attach more importance to good salary and higher
status and authority, which command low rank from top level.

Sinha, (1995) found that interesting work, social status and loss were
crucial factors contributing to workers satisfaction whereas inadequate
salary and lack of security were regarded as important factors causing
dissatisfaction

Personal Development

Renganekar, (2000) indicates that one important aspect at work

place is the sense of development- feeling of growth that I am working here,
I am growing here, I am learning some thing new. This is a great motivator
for excellence-particularly among youngsters.

Argyris, (1964) focused his attention on the personal development of

the individual in the context of the organization. Organizational effectiveness,
was a function of the interpersonal competence of the team members and the
extend to which the organization supported positive norms.

Sathe, (1998) indicates that the value that affects people in

organization is the opportunity for personal development in organization.
People expect many opportunities to climb the ladders in the organization. A
culture, which integrates the development of organization with, that of
126 , Uiapter III

individual ensures a supportive value system within the organization. Here,

the managerial approaches and style of management play a crucial role in
the integration of personal development.

Physical activity

Kapoor, (2001) in his study indicates that, the nature of work

imposes so much stress on the employees that they need to resort to
psycho-spiritual values. It is in this context that yoga, physical exercise,
meditation and breath-control have become a part of the work culture to
relieve employee's stress to get maximum productivity.

Sutherland and cooper, (1990), in their study indicates that the

worker who struggles to do job that is too difficult is likely to take more time
to finish the task and need to work extra hours in order to complete the job
to satisfactory standard. A link between long hours of work and stress and ill
health has been establrshed.

Social interaction

Singh and Chhabra, (1998) in their study indicate that organization is

a social system, which coordinates the activities of its members for the
achievement of organizational goals. It is a part of society and consists of
people who are social beings. People have many psychological needs and
play different types of roles. An organization, which permeates social
interaction, where individual behaviour is influenced not only by their drives
but also by the groups, of which they are members. Here the value system
promotes better interaction and interrelationship between members and
develop a family culture

The online literature Advancing womenTM, (2005) indicates that

casual social interaction, such as sharing meals, joining together to play
softball, or being able to take a break, all tend to help workers relax and
build trust. Insights offered in personal stories also can become a basis of
shared values, or show others the areas of commonality where they may be
able to relate to a co-worker and produce a better working relationship.
Ultimately, it's all about trust, and it's hard to trust someone one don't know,
or know only by job title. Organisat~onspromotes such social system
provides healthy social interaction and ~nterrelationshipat work.

Kumar, (1999) in his study indicates that cohesiveness or

interpersonal interaction is essential for team work, which in turn helps to
increase productivity and efficiency of a team involved in production
maintenance or projects.

Social Relationship
Davis, (1997) in his study indicates that widespread interest in the
informal organization developed as result of the Western Electric studies in
the 1930's which concluded that it was an important part of the total work
situation. These studies showed that informal organization is a network of
personal and social relations not established or required by the formal
organization but arising spontaneously as people associate with one
another. The emphasis within the informal organization is on people and
their relationship.

The online literature Advancing womenTM,(2005) further indicates

that Good working relationships are built over time and establishing and
maintaining an open line of communication is key to developing trust.
Another dimension of trust is time. Allowing time for a relationship to
develop, and to discover areas of possible agreement or shared values
helps pave the way to better understanding. Particularly, if one is seeking
change, or accommodation at work, most people need time to give up old
habits and develop new ways of doing things or adopt new procedures.
 Etzioni, (1961) indicates that workers are reflective, responsive human
beings embedded in networks of social relations rather than simply part of the
organizational machinery or completely rational economic individuals.
Therefore, they canno be expected to simply comply with new policies or
procedures and may not respond as anticipated to changes in incentive
structures. A more soc:ialized understanding of organizations recognizes that
internal rather than external control mechanisms are required. Managers have
to learn how to develop shared goals, promote organizational values, maintain
relationships, influence social networks, and build trust, rather than simply
relying on hierarchical authority or financial incentives.

Pfeffer, (1997') indicates that organizations can be categorized as

informal or formal, depending on the degree of formalization of rules within
their structures. In formal organizations, say researchers, management has
determined that a comparatively impersonal relationship between individuals
and the company for which they work is viewed as the best environment for
achieving organizational goals. Subordinates have less influence over the
process in which they participate, with their duties more clearly defined.
Informal organizations, on the other hand, are less likely to adopt or adhere
to a significant code of written rules or policies. Instead, individuals are more
likely to adopt patterns of behaviour that are influenced by a number of
social and personal iactors. Changes in the organization are less often the
result of authoritative dictate and more often an outcome of collective
agreement by members.

Variety

An empirical study on fourteen organizations conducted by Super,

(1986) indicates that organizations where management engages employees to
do different activities at their work than routine job; there is greater job
satisfaction and employees involvement at work. The research reported that
employee's engagement on variety of job activities it helped to reduce
employee's perception on monotonous nature of job. Employees enjoyed doing
different things at their work and found every day different from others.

Dhawan, (2000) indicates that to develop a culture of high

performance modern organisation has to concentrates more on multi-
skilling, job rotation and variety of job engagements. Organisations should
facilitate development of a value system, which ensures job variety and job
enrichment. Frequently changed activities at work facilitate differential
learning among members.

Working Condition

Mayo and the Hawthorne Studies (1927-1932) - notes, human

relations as the prime motivator, realized that physical surroundings affected
output that workers worked harder just because someone took an interest in
what they were doing when varying the lighting and other factors with a test
group, he found that productivity increased with both the test and a control
group

Herzberg, (19'2%) had close links with Maslow and believed in a two-
factor theory of motivation. He argued that there were certain factors that a
business could introdice that would directly motivate employees to work harder
(Motivators). However there were also factors that would de-motivate an
employee if not present but would not in themselves actually motivate employees
to work harder (Hygiene factors) Importantly Herzberg viewed Working condition
as a hygiene factor which directly influence the employee attitude.

ILO, (2003) in connection with Ergonomics module indicates that

often workers are given little choice and are forced to adapt to poorly
designed work conditions, which can lead to serious injury to the hands,
wrists, joints, back or other parts of the body. In particular, injuries can result
from:

Repeated use over time of vibrating tools and equipment, such as a

jackhammer;

Tools and tasks which require twisting hand or joint movements,

such as the work many mechanics perform;

Applying force in an awkward position;

Applying excessive pressure on parts of the hand, back, wrists or

joints;

Working with the arms outstretched or over the head;

Working with a bent back;

Lifting or pushing heavy loads.

ILO, (2003) further indicates that Injuries to workers caused by

poorly designed tools or workstations can be very costly in terms of pain and
suffering, not to mention the financial loss to workers and their families.
lnjuries are costly to employers as well. Carefully designing a job from the
beginning, or redesigning it may cost an employer some money initially.
However, in the long term the employer usually benefits financially. The
quality and efficiency of the work being done may improve. Health care
costs may be reduced, and worker morale may improve.

Syptak, Marsland, Ulmer, (1999) in his study indicates the

environment in which people work has a tremendous effect on their level of
pride for themselves and for the work they are doing. Do everything you can
to keep your equipment and facilities up to date. Even a nice chair can make
a world of difference to an individual's psyche. Also, if possible, avoid
overcrowding and allow each employee his or her own personal space,
whether it be a desk, a locker, or even just a drawer. If you've placed your
employees in close quarters with little or no personal space, don't be
surprised that there is tension among them.

Peace of Mind
Senecal, (2005) in his study indicates that a joyful environment can
be built even more extensively into the structure and systems of a company.
One organizational method promises interesting work that stretches
employees' capabilities. Joy in the workplace comes both from appreciation
of the human spirit and organizational support for developing capabilities.'

Gerald et.al., (1996) after an extensive search of empirical research

indicates that 'like conflict at organizational and group level, role conflict and
role ambiguity develops stress at work life. Work orientation, work schedule,
job difficulty, work overload etc., significantly contributes to loss of
happiness at work and leads to employee's organizational maladjustment.

Comfort of life

Bagpai, (1992) in relation to occupational stress and comfort of life

indicates, that the mangers should take into account the following discomfort
factors that develop dissatisfaction among employees. They are;

Relationship with boss, subordinates and colleagues

Role ambiguity and confusion caused due to shifting roles.

Heavy workload and setting unrealistic target and dead line,

Keeping up with technological change.

Problem with carrier growth

 Conflicting demands by supertors.

Conflict between required task and classical personnel.

Argys, (1957) suggested that there will always be a frustrating

elements in industrial work with its incongruence between the requirements
of the individual and those of the organizations has put forward. It is not
necessary that all the requirement provided by the industry to generate a
better job environment, and comfort of life perceived by the employers and
employees as satisfactory for their proper growth and development. E.g.:
motivational factors, tra~ning,safety etc .... In his concluding part of thesis
indicated that industrial setting is a formal organization and it follows such
principles related to formal policies. Frustration, conflict, failure etc. are
predicted as resultant on the basis of incongruence. It develops both
comfort and stress in life.

Sreevasthava, (2001) in his study indicates to keep people in the

workplace safe and healthy means to guard against physical as well as
psychological ill health and also to promote the healthy way to work. By product
of healthy organizational environment is the member's comfort of life.

Dependency

Pfiffer, (1996) indicates that the values propagated by informal

organizations encourage employees to seek situational help even from
personal matters. It gives psychological satisfaction to members. It provides
a cushion to absorb the shock of tension and frustration among the
members as a result of organizational pinpricks.

Hersay and Blanchard, (1982) indicates that the environment which

promotes close, personal relationship with the members of the group and
there is open communication and psychological and emotional support,
there the members have feeling to seek support from their leaders and team
members.

Mohan, (1983) stated, in his study indicates it appears from the

studies that Indian Managers have a high degree of dependency, less
participative, status oriented, autocratic, indecisive and has comparatively
lesser commitment to wganizational goal achievement.

Other sub variable influences both organisational culture and

value expectancies

Leadership

Vogt and Murral (1990), pointed out that leadership that excites,
energizes, motivates, liberate others is the essence of empowerment.

According to Hayward (1996) empowering leadership leads to;

Responsiveness to customer needs

Initiative and creativity

. Speed of decision making

Motivation

Commitment to successful outcome at all level".

Nielson, (1986) notes that empowerment involves giving

subordinates, resources and increasing their sense of self-work.
Empowerment culture seems important for basic tolerance of employees for
at least two reasons: First, studies of leadership and management suggest
that the practice of empowering subordinates is a principal component
organizational effectiveness (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Kanter, 1983;
McClelland 1975). Second studies of power and control suggest that power
and effectiveness increase when superiors share power and control with
their subordinates.

Pfeiffer, (1994) argues that effective management of people

including developing and empowering people, showing information, creating
self managed teams, training people is a more important determiner of
competitive advantage.

Various researchers note that leadership practices which empower

subordinates include expressing confidence in subordinates accompanied
by high performance expectations (Burke, 1996) fostering opportunities for
subordinates to participate in decision making and providing autonomy from
bureaucratic constrained (Block, 1987; Kanter, 1979).

Kanter, (1979) notes that to truly empower subordinates, superiors

must be willing to provide subordinates with both the freedom and support
needed to perform their jobs. Together, negotiating latitude and support for
self worth should empower the subordinates. Negotiating latitude provide
the subordinates with increased freedom in performing their jobs, while
support for self worth provides subordinate with emotional support from
superiors.

Kar and Thivari, (1999) have of the opinion that in organizational

culture support measures the degree ot warm and support of the superiors
to the subordinates. People who obtain this support feel obliged and
grateful to their supervisors. These employees would like to help the
supervisors in achieving the departmental targets and see that the
supervisors do not face any serious problems.

Srivasthava, (2001) right kind of leadership can encourage people to

tap their differences for creative ideas, and make explicit use of cultural
differences at work to fight all forms of dominance and subordination so that
the tensions coming in the way of diversity management is resolved.

Ahuja, (1997) indicates in his study that a People Oriented Leader need
not manipulate and still can bring out the best out of his people. He will not
mould his people contrary to their nature rather encourages the individual by
creating a climate that allow them to grow and contribute according to their
abilities and potential. He further indicates that 'Vested with Power', whose
values are authoritarian can frustrate the other members and may disintegrate
the team but on the other hand leader with the same power but with the
achievement values can be a great asset to the team growth.

Niehoff, Enz and Grover, (1990) strongly suggested that the over all
management culture and management style, driven by top management
actions, are strongly related to the degree of employee commitment and
these effects vary for different organizational settings.

When the organization succeeds, the founders entire personality

becomes embedded in the culture of the organization. The culture at
Hyundai is largely a reflection of rts founder Chung Ju Yung. Other
contemporary exaniples include Bill Gates at Microsoft, Akio Morita at Sony,
David Packard at Hewlett-Packard, Herb Kelleher at Southwest Airlines,
Fred Smith at Federal Express, Mary Kay at Mary Kay Cosmetics, and
Richard Branson at the Virgin Group.

Motivation

Singh, (1979) has identified that managers rank various job factors in
the order of scope of autonomy of work, scope of shoulder responsibility,
scope of challenges, and variety at work, scope for carrier advancements,
self actualization, inter personal relations, appreciation and recognition of
work, chance to get prestige in the organization, consistent and sound
company policy, salary and pre-requisites, good relationship with superiors,
good physical working conditions, stability and security of job. Further there
is no significant difference in motivation profile of public and private sector
managers.

Singh, (1979) in one of his cornprehensive study disclosed that

freedom from supervision and subordination, adventurous experiences and
challenges and use of special ability and talents, to be creative and original,
social status and prestige, opportunities to work with people, exercise of
leadership control over others, chance to earn a good deal of money and
stable and secure future were ranked in that order.

Prasad, (1979) in his study found that workers ranked good wages,
job security, promot~onand growth, appreciation of work and working
conditions, interesting work, management loyalty to workers, sympathetic
understanding to personal problems, feeling in on the things and tactful
discipline in that order.

Singh, (1979) in one of his comprehensive study disclosed that

freedom from supervision and subordination, adventurous experiences and
challenges and use of special ability and talents, to be creative and original,
social status and prestige, opportunities to work with people, exercise of
leadership control over others, chance to earn a good deal of money and
stable and secure future were ranked in job satisfaction order.

Prasad and (Gowda, (1977), in another study indicate that regarding

what managers want from their jobs, it is disclosed that top-level managers
rank recognition for work, job contents, higher status and authority, good
salary relationship with higher-ups, and clearly defined responsibility in that
order .... The lower managers attach more importance to good salary and
higher status and authority, which command low rank from top level.
 Singh, (1979) In one of his comprehensive study disclosed that
freedom from supervis~onand subordination, adventurous experiences and
challenges and use of special ability and talents, to be creative and original,
social status and prestige, opportunities to work with people, exercise of
leadership control over others, chance to earn a good deal of money and
stable and secure future were ranked in that order.

Vroom, (1964) indicates that people are motivated to do things to

reach a goal if they believe in the worth of the goal and if they saw that they
can see that what they do will help them to activate it.

Work identity of lndian workers

Bartlett and Ghoshal, (1994) indicate that undoubtedly shared vision

and mission together provide clear direction, as also impart a sense of
identity to the work force.

Smircich, (1983)in his study indicates that culture conveys to

employees a sense of identity, facilitates the generation of commitment to
something larger than the self, and enhances social system stability, as well
as guiding and shaping behaviour. Culture emerges at many levels to solve
problems posed by life situations and generates learned ways of coping with
experiences (Gregory, 1983; Krefting & Frost, 1985).

McClelland, (1975) contended that Indian's perform work as a favour

to others. Work is believed to exhaust a person by draining his energy and
is therefore preferred to be expended little as one can afford or only for
someone who is close or can return the favour.

Parikh, (1970), study notes that it is natural to find that Indian

organizations have assumed social rather than work identity and that work
behaviour is determined socially rather than technologically.
 Kanungo, (1990) explained that work identity in terms of people's
generalized helpless and family ethic. He commended that "lndian workers
manifest a family cantered ethic ... there is an emphasis on idle leisure
pursuits that satisfy security and affiliative needs, rather than creative leisure
pursuits that achieve work objectives; on maintaining status positions rather
than task goal accomplishment; on performing socially approved duties in
interpersonal contexts rather than in the job contexts.

Mathew and Poduval, (1994) referring to the results of analysis of

the effectiveness of Pllblic sector units and the private sector units indicates
that decision making c:ommunication, interaction, clerical, training, planning,
evaluation, motivators, public relation, scientific-academic and selection
recruitment had a significant influence on the effectiveness of Private sector
managers.

An Overview

The introduction, review of literature and review of research studies

explores various studies related to management, organisation and human
behaviour at work. Many studies reported that Indian organisations are
varied in their managerial approaches, leadership, work morale, work
motivation power, delegation of authority, quality of working life, conflict
management etc. (Hoque, 1996; Ramaswamy, 1989; Sharma and Bhaskar,
1991; Mishra, 1996; Bass 1990; Rao Mohan, 1983; Pareek, 1989; Sinha,
1990). These studies indicate the difference that exists in the public and
private sector organisations related to various organisational factors. Such
studies are organisational specific and not specific to the organisational
culture. Culture specific studies are limited with specific reference to lndian
organisations.

It is widely known that Kerala's industrial sector has been

undergoing stagnation since the mid sixties. It is found that Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka were three states experiencing continuous
deceleration, till the mid 1980's. Kerala has a long history of trade
unionism. The most striking feature of workers in Kerala is that they are
highly organized. This is well reflected in the increase in the number of
unions and varying intensities of industrial disputes, usually resulting in
work stoppages that Kerala has been experiencing in the past. The high
intensity of disputes in the past or the very perception that the labour force
in the region is militant and trouble making and has created a phobia, or
psychological fear resulting in psychic cost among the entrepreneur,
(Oommen- 1981, Prakash-1989, Thamp~, 1994, Kannan 1998). While
looking at these finding it is difficult to conclude that trade union militancy is
the major factor behind Kerala's low profile industrial growth and
development. It is pointed out that many organ~sationsin Kerala, in which
strong-trade unions exists are running with profit and business surplus.
This indicates that unions in some organisations are influencing less on
work motivation, work relationship and work behaviour towards profit and
surplus. The public and private sector organisations selected for this
research consists of strong trade unions. The public sector organisation is
running with loss and the private sector is running with profit. The
economic status of the organisation IS thus giving only one side of the
enterprise growth and success. While, the major part missing is the human
side of enterprise, where the psychological contract between members and
the top management exists in the work situation.

It is widely acknowledged that the north Indian states are not much
different in the trade union militancy behaviour. The strikes and lockouts
are common in outside states also. The Kerala labourers are working
across that borders and abroad. While, it is widely evaluated that Kerala
labourers are highly committed, hard working and efficient in their work
performance when they go outside the state or abroad even in the midst of
trade union culture. This indicates that when they move outside the state,
Kerala work force shows their high competency and work importance.
While within the state they shows a work behaviour opposite to that we
found out side the state. It leads us to believe that more than union
militancy work behaviour of Kerala labour forces is affected by the cultural
factors specific to Kerala industrial organisations. The role of culture in
influencing employee bet~aviourappears to be increasingly important. If we
examine the behaviour of organizational members in work environment,
we may find some glaring differences in the way they organize their efforts
and perform their task etiectively. It may be observed that some members
are more involved and put in their best effort and some others detached
from work. The possible explanations offered by the behavioural scientists
on such behavioural variations as individual motivation to work in a cultural
environment where employees' derived maximum pleasure and
satisfaction in the task performance. Human behaviour is the out come of
frequent interaction between several value system and pattern of the
interrelation of cultural traits. It is not a self-induced phenomenon. Man
acquires organisational behaviour and develops habits as a member of
organisation. Here, culture act as a blue print influencing all aspect of life.
Strong culture is said to 3xist where staff respond to stimulus because of
their alignment to organizational values. If the culture is strong and
supports high ethical standards, it should have a very powerful and
positive influence on employee behaviour. The strong culture develops a
strong psychological corntract between members and management, by
developing mental schernas. A Strong work culture, which utilizes human
potential effectively, will reinforce individual behaviour and it facilitates for a
series of success. It creates involvement, integrity and commitment on the
part of organisational members and thereby develops a dedicated work
force. Strong work behaviour is the keenness to work hard and a strong
desire and willingness to contribute to the best. Conversely, there is Weak
Culture where there is little alignment with organizational values and
control must be exercised through extensive procedures and bureaucracy.
This indicates that the shared perceptions and beliefs about the work
values of the organisation are influencing the human behaviour at work.
The work importance members attached with the organisation are related
to the impact of work culture on the behaviour of members. With specific
reference to the findings of Sinha, (1990) the work culture of the Indian
industrial organisations indicates that the culture of the private sector
organisation has synergetic work culture and the public sector
organisations have soft work culture. In synergetic work culture work is
primary to members and in soft work culture work is secondary to
members. If we wish to understand the significance of human behaviour at
work, particularly collective human behaviour, we can only do so against
the background of culture in which the behaviour takes place.

Current interest in organizational culture arises from these literatures

that posed several research questions, with specific reference to Kerala
industrial scenario.

Research Questions

Current interest in organizational culture arises from these literatures

that posed several research questions, with specific reference to Kerala
industrial scenario.

How the organisational culture influences the value expectancy

behaviour of members?

How the practices and policies in relation to culture of public and

private sector industrial organisations varied in Kerala?

What are the factors contributive to Kerala work forces strong and
weak work behaviour?
 Do the culture affect in the same manner on employees engaged in
different nature of work (Technical and Administrative)?

If the culture affect differently, how it results in the Value

Expectancy of employees who engaged in different nature of work?

What is the moderate effect of different years of service on value

expectancy in relation to culture?

Do culture affect in the same manner on employees having

different years of service?

Statement of the problem

Hence the study identifies its problem as "Impact of organisational

culture upon employees and employee's behaviour," with specific
reference to Kerala industrial scenario.

Objectives of the Research

1. To understand the organizational culture of industrial organizations
in Kerala.

2. To understand the effect of organizational culture on value

expectancy behaviour of employees

3. To understand whether the organisational culture is different in

public and private sector industrial organizations.

4. To understand whether the value expectancy behaviour of

employees is different in public and private sector industrial
organizations.

5. To study the moderating effect of the nature of work (technical and

administrative) on value expectancy, in relation to organisational
culture.
 6. To study the moderating effect of the different years of service on
value expectancy, in relation to organisational culture

Hypotheses:
Based on the rationale and logic of the study the following
hypotheses are formulated.

1. Stronger organisational culture results in strong value expectancy

behaviour of employees.

2. Private sector industrial organizations have strong organizational

culture compared to public sector industrial organizations.

3. Private sector industrial organizations have strong organizational

culture compared to public sector industrial organizations.

4. Nature of work moderate the effect of organisational culture on value

expectancy behaviour

.5. Different years of service moderate the effect of organisational

culture on value expectancy behaviour

Individuals arrive at organizations with varied motivations,

experiences, and values. These individual differences tend to direct
behaviour in numerous, often divergent directions. If an organization is to
direct behaviour toward the accomplishment of a strategic mission, and is to
present itself to stakeholders as a unified form, mechanisms must be
created for reducing this variability among individuals and focusing
employee efforts on the accomplishment of cultural goals. Many of the most
successful organizations today are thriving and growing because, in large
part, of their unique and strong values and styles - their "organizational
culture" exists. Almost every organization has been concerned with
maintaining or changing its culture, because culture is an important asset of
an organization, it influence the ethical behaviour of the members in the
organization and regarded as a key factor in creating the kind of
environment the organization desire to have. Understanding and assessing
an organization's culture helps to provide a sense of the hidden and
complex aspects of organizational life, and can mean the difference
between success and failure in today's fast changing business environment.
While researchers have been continuing to argue about what organizational
culture really is, organizational culture is still a relatively new, controversial
and little understood management concept.

Cultural assessment can provide measurable data about the real

organizational values and norms that can be used to get management's
attention. It can dispel some of management's illusions on what really
matters in the organization and will tell them how far off the mark things
really are. Understanding and assessing organization's culture can mean
the difference between success and failure in today's fast changing
business environmenr. This theme of study explores the reality of an
organization's culture and influence of various perceptual components on
human behaviour. These Introductory and Review of Literature chapter
helps to clarify the theoretical underpinnings of past researches with that of
the present findings.