WATER RELATIONS OF PLANTS

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION -
 The study of variou svial activities and metabolism of plant is known plant physiology.
 Stephan Hales is known as fate of plant physiology.
 J.C. Bose is known as father os Indian plant physiology.
 Plants grow in soild and absorb water and minerals, which are available in soil. So that water has greater
importance for plant. Water forms 80-90% of fresh weight of plant body. The method or technique, plant
cell obtain water, comes under the heading of water relations.
 To understand the plant water relations, we should know the following proces :

DIFFUSION

“The movement of molecules or atoms or inon os a materials from an area higher concetration to
an area of their lower concentrtion is called diffusion. “
 The diffusion is continue till the dynamic equilibriu m is not established. At this stage the net movement of
molecules is equal to both direction.
 The kinetic energy, which is present in the molecules of material is distributed equally in their available
space by their nature.
Diffusion rate  Gas > Liquid > Solid

DIFFUSSION PRESSURE

The diffused molecules or ions exert a pressure on the substance or medium in which diffusion
takes place, known as diffusion pressure.
 This developed due to difrerence in the concentraion of molecules of the material. Diffusion pressure of
pure sovent (1236 atm) is always higher than its solution.
 Water molecules moves form their higehr concentration to the their lower concentrartion in plants.
 The rate of diffusion decreases with increasing size of molecules/

Significance of diffusion :

(1) Exchagne of gases liek CO2, O2 take place through the diffusion.
(2) The districution of hormones in the plants tkaes place through the diffusion
(3) The process of pranspiration is a diffusion process. The evaporation of water from the intercellular spaces
is linked with diffusion during the transpiration.
(4) The ions of the minerals may diffused into the plant body.
(5) The process of osmosis is a special type of diffusion of solvent molecules through semi-permeable
membrnes.
OSMOSIS
“Osmosis is defined at the special diffusion of solvent (water in this context) from the solution of
lowr concentration to the solution of higher concentration when both the solutions are separed by
a semipermeable membrane”
 Osmosis was discovered by Abbe Nollet.
 The detailed explanation of osmosis was given by Traube and Duterochat.
 Passing of water through the semipermeable membrane is the example of osmosis.
 The water moves into the cell during the osmosis is called endomosis.
Ex. : Resin & grapes placed in water.
 When the water starts moving out of the cell then it is called exosmosis.
Ex. : grapes kept in salt solution.

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 PERMEABILITY

The exchange of materials in ou through the membrane is called permeability.

 The membranes are divided in the following types of the basis of permeability :
(i) Permeable membrane :
Such membranes are permeable for both - soluted and solvent .e.g cell wall, filter paper.
(ii) Semipermeable membranes :
Such membranes allow diffusion of solvent molecules, but do not allow the pasage of solutes e.g.
artificial membrances like Cellophane and Copperferrocyanide membranes, porchment paper, goat
bladder.
(iii) Selective permeable membrane OR differentially permeable membrane :
Such membranes allow some selectrive solutes to pass through them along with the solvent molcuels.
e.g. Cell membrane, tonoplast, Organeller membrane.
 These membrnes are permeable for CO2, N2, O2 gases, alcohol, ether and water, but impermeable for
polysaccharides and proteins.
(iv) Impermeable membrane - Rubber membrane, Al-foil, Suberised cell wall, cork wall.

OSMOTIC PRESSURE OR O.P.

 Osmotic pressure is the pressure developed in a solution when solution, and water are separeted
by semipermeabele membrane (given by Pfeffer)
or “O.P. of solution is equal to pressure, which required to be applied ona solution in order to
prvent as increase in it’s volume due to tendency of solvnet to enter in when the two are separated
by a semipermeable membrane.”
 The osmotic pressure of pure water is zero. O.P. i due to presence of solute into the solution.
 The osmotic pressure of a solution is directly proportional to the concentration of solute in is.
 Teh osmotic presure shows maximum variatioin in teh plants cell.
 According to Hariss the osmotic pressure is highest in leves and lowest in roots.
 The highest osmotic presure is found in the holophyte group. Atriplex confortifolia (202 atm.)
 The lowest osmotic pressure is found in aquatic plants or hydrophytes.
 Hydrophytes < Mesophytes < Xerophytes < Halophytes.
 Generally osmotic pressure is lesser during th enight and higher at noon.
 Osmotic pressure of a solution is measured by osmomemter, O.P. of cell is measured by incipient
plasmolysis. First osmometer was made by Pfeffer.
 The osmotic pressure can be measured by various methods :
The formula of Vont Hoff for measuring O.P. :
OP = mRT

Here - m = moler concentration

R = Gas constant [0.082 mole/molecules]
T = Absolute temperature
the osmotic pressure of 1 mole. glucose solution at 00C -
OP  1 × 0.082 × 273  22.4 at,m for non electrolytes
The O.P. of electrolytes is find out by the following formula-
OP = MRT I
Where I is the constant of ionisation of electrolytes.

 The osmotic pressure of electrolytes is higher than that of non electrolytes.

 For example - solution of 1 M NaCl and 1 glucose. The moler concentration of both soluiton are equal but
O.P. of 1 M Nacl is higher than solution of 1 M glucose.
 Water moves from lower O.P. towards the higher O.P.

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Significance of Osmosis :

(1) Root haris of the roots absorb water from the soil through the process of osmosis.
(2) The conduction of water from one cell to anohter cell in paltn and distribution of water in plant through the
osmosis.
(3) Turgidity is developed by the process of endosmosis, which helps o maintain a definite shape of
leaves, stem and flowers. Turgidity also provides mechanical strenght to the plants.
(4) The opening and closing of stomate is also depends on the process of osmosis.
(5) The leves of Miosa pudica (“Touch me not”) are dropping down only by contact and dehiscence of frutis
depends upon turgor change ater osmosis.
(6) The resistance power increases due to high osmotic concentration against the dry climate and low
temperature.
TURGOR PRESSURE OR T.P. AND WALL PRESSURE OR WP

“When a cell is immersed in water, then water enter into the cell because osmotic pressure of teh
cell sap is higher. The cell content press upon the wall or develop a pressure gainst the cell wall,
which is called turgor pressure.”
 Turgor presure is not applicable for free solution. this only applicable for osmotic system. Furgor
pressure is also known hydrostatic pressure>
 The turgor pressure in encounter blanaced by an equal but opposite pressure of the thick cell wall on the
enclosed solution or potoplasm is known as wall pressure. It means whetever the amount of pressure
exerted by cytoplasm on the cell wall is same and opposite direction s pressure exerted by the cell wall
towards the inner side on the cytoplasm.
 Therefor, wall presure and turgor presure and equal to each other but W.P. is inward in direction.

TP = WP

 Plant cells does not burst, when placed

in a pure water due to wall pressure, but
an animal cell burts when placed in pure
water because wall pressure is absent
due to absence of cell wall. for example
the consequence of endosomic is
animal cell can be demonstration by
placeing RBCs of human blood is
distrilled water. When examined after
some time, the RBCs are found to have
burst upon, leaving their cell
membranes s empty cases.
 A flaccid cell has zero turgor pressure.
 The highest value of turgor presure is found in fully turgid cell and it si equal to the osmotic pressure.
Fully turgid cell has OP = TP
 The value of turgor pressure is normally form zero to in between the osmotic presure in plant cell.
 The value of turgor presure is assumed as negative (-ve) during th eplasmolysis of the cell.

Significance ot T.P.

(1) Protoplasm of the cell atahced with the cell wall due to turgidity of the cell and cell is is stretched condition.
It maintains the normal shape of the cell in which physiological proceses are going on.
(2) The 3-D strucutre of mitochondria, chloroplast and microbodies is maintained due to turgor presure,
which si essential for their physiological activities.
(3) Turgor pressure is essential for maintaining definite shape of delicate organs
(4) Turgor pressure hleps in cell elongation or growth of cell.

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(5) Plant movment like, movement of gaurd cells of stomata, wilting movements and seismonastic
movements etc. depend upon turgor pressure.
(6) Turgor pressure provides essential powr to the plumule to coming out from the soild and help in penetration
of radicle into the soil.

DIFFUSION PRESSURE DEFICIT (DPD) OR SUCTION PRESSURE (SP)

DPD : The difference between the diffuctio pressure of the solution and it’s pure solvent at
particular temperature is called DPD
or The DPD of any solution is the difference between the diffusion pressure of the water, which is
present in the solution and diffusion pressure of pure water.
 The term Diffusion pressure difict [DPD] is used by B.S. Meyer Renner named as Suction Pressure
(S.P.) in cell.
 DPD determines the direction fo osmosis and it is the power of obsorption of water for the cell. (Suction
pressure)
 This is also know as demand of water in cell. DPD  concentration of solute.
 The diffusion of water takes place from the region of lowr DPD to the region of higher DPD int the
process of osmosis.
SPM
 
Lower DPD H2 O Higher DPD

 Normally, osmotic pressure is greater than the turgor pressure in a cell. The difference between
osmotic pressure and turgor pressure is called suction presure or DPD.
DPd = OP - TP or WP

 The DPD of any free solution is equal to the osmotic pressure of the that solution.
DPD = OP

(i) DPd in partially turgid or normal cell :

DPD = OP - TP

(ii) DPd for fully turgid cell :

 When a cell placed in pure water or hyptotonic solution then water enter into the cell, results turgor
pressure develop in the cell. The ell starts swelling due to the turgor pressure. Simultaneously,
concentration of cell sap decreases dur to continuous inflow of water. Therefore OP is goes on
decreasing and T.P. increases due to At this stage cell becoems fully turgid. Therefore in a fully turgid
cell-
DPD = OP - TP
When, OP = TP or OP - TP =
So that DPD = 0
(iii) DPD in flaccid cell :
 if, the cell is in flaccid state then its T.P. or WP would be zero and value of DPD would be equal to OP.
TP or WP =O
Therefore, DPD or S.P. - OP

 If a flaccid cell placed in water then waters enter into cell because DPD of the cell sap is higher.
(iv) DPD for plasmolysed cell :
 Sometimes the value of turgor presure in negative as in plasmolysed cell. In this state
DPD = OP - TP
 [TP = - Ve]
DPD = OP - [-TP] = OP + TP

 So that the DPD of the plasmolysed cell is greater than osmotic pressure.

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 It means- DPD - OP + TP
Demand of water = Plasmolysed cell > Flaccid cell > Partially turgid cell > Fully turgid cell
 The demand of water in plasmolysed cell is highest.
 It means, when the osmotic pressure and turgor pressure will be equal, then the DPD will be zero. Water
will not enter in this type of cell and cell become fully turgid.
 But, when turgor pressure is lesser than the osmotic pressure, in normal cell then some DPD will be
definetely present in the cell and weter would enters into the cell

For Ex. A – Cell B – Cell

OP = 25 atm OP = 30

TP = 10 atm TP = 25

DPD = 15 atm DPD = 5

Greater DPD  Leser DPD

H O 2

WATER POTENTIAL OR w
“The difference between the free energy of molecules of pure water and free energy of the solution
is called water potential of the system:’
 Now a days according to concept of free energy and thermodynamics DPD of a solution is also
represented by water potential.
(Given by Taylor and Slatyer).
 The water potential of pure water is maximum the pure water ahs greater free energy. The free energy,
lower down by addition of solute.
 Water always flows from higher water potential to lower water potential
 Water potential is represented by Greek word  (Psi)/ w and it is measured in bars or Pascal (Pa).
Water potential is equal to DPD, but opposite is sign. Its value is negative.
w  S  P  g and DPD = O.P. - T.P.
so w  DPD S = Solute potential = - O.P.
P = Pressure potential = T.P.
g ,m = is neglesible
 Water potential has following components :
1. Osmotic potential S
 Osmotic potential or solute potential represents the concentration of the solute. Water potential ( w ) is
negative in the presnet of solutes. So that osmotic potential is also negative.
 According to thermodyamics, osmotic pressure is called solute potential or osmotic potential. it is
represented by S nd shwon by negative sign (-ve) or it is better to say osmotic potential on the basis of
free energy.
 Osmotic potential or solute potential measured in bars. [1 Bar = 0.987 atmospheric pressure].
 OP = 22.4 atm = > osmotic potential = -22.4 atm. (1 M glucose solution)
2. Presure potential ( P ) :
 Turgor presure is known as pressure potential. It is shown by positive sign (+ve).
 1 Bar = 106 dynes/sq. cm. or 0.987 atm. (1 megapascal = 10 bars)
 According to this concept their relation is as follows.
Water potential = Osmotic potential + presure potential + matric potential
 or w  S  p  m

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 w  S  P As m and g (Matric potential and gravitational potential) are negligible

w  ve
s  ve
p   ve

 According to the above concept the relation of the three phases of the cell by the water potential will be as
follows :
[A] In case of fully turgid cell -
 There is no fllow of water in a turgid cell, because the cell is in equilibrium conditiin with water which is
present out side the cell. So that water potential will be zero at this state, Because osmotic pressure
potential are equal in teh cell.
 For example - if the value of osmotic potential of a cell is - 10 and presure potential ( p ) is + 10, then water
potential will be zero as -
 w  S  P
.  w  10  10
W  0

[B] In case of flaccid cell :

 Turgor presure is zero at this stage. It means presure potnetial is zero. If osmotic potential of the cell is - 10
bars then W  S
W  S  P
W  10  0bar
W  10bar   P  0  TP

[C] In Plasmolysed cell :

 The pressure potential ( p ) means turgor presure is negative in this stage. Therefore water potential ( w )
of ths cell will be more negative [more - ve]
 If the value of osmotic potential is - 10 bar of a plasmolysed cell and value of pressure potential is - 2 bars
then its water potential ( W ) will be - 12 bars.
 W  S  P
W  10  ( 2)bars
W  12 bars

 So, this is the conclusion that water always move from higher water potential towards the lower water
potential.
 For example if the water potential of ‘A’ cell si -10 bars and water potential of ‘B’ cell is - 12 in to cells, then
water will be flow from ‘A’ cell to the ‘B’ cell.

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
[i] Isotonic solution :
If solution in which a cell is placed, has equal osmotic concentration to that of cell sap, the outer soltuin is
called iotonic solution
[ii] Hypotonic solution :
If the osmotic concentration of outer olution is leser than that of the cell sap, the outer solution is called
hypotonic solution. If a cell is placed in such solution endosmosis takes palce, results, cell swells up e.g.
Swelling of dried grape (resins).

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[iii] Hypertonic solution :
If the osmotic concentration of a solution is higehr than that of the other (cell sap), solutionis known as
hypertonic solution
If a cell placed in this type of solution, exosmosis take palce. It means water of the cell sap diffused out
into the outer solution, resulting cell become flaccid.
e.g. Grapes placed in higher concentration of sugar solution becoems flaccid (contracts).

PLASMOLYSIS
If a plant cell palced in a hypertonic solution, water molecules diffused out from the cell. As a result
of exosmosis, the protoplasm of the cell detached from the cell was and starts shrinking. this is
called plasmolysis.
 The various sequances of plasmolysis are as follows 
(i) In a trugid cell, the cell sap pushed away the protopasm so that it is in close contct with cell wall.
(ii) When it placed in a hypertonic solution, the volume of the cell reduces due to shrinking of cell
because some amount of water of sap diffused out by exosmosis. Turgor presure decreses by
which cell wall is not pushed by the protoplasm, so that shrinking cell membrane reduces in total
volume of the cell. This situation, is called the firsdt stage of plasmolysis or limiting
plasmolysis

(iii) If the diffusion of water to the

outside is continue by the
exosmosis then cetnral acuole
contracts and with this
protoplasm also shrinks but
cell wall is not contracting. So
taht protoplasm is seems to
detach from the corners of
cell wall. This condition is
known as second phase of the
plasmolysis or incipient
plasmolysis.
(iv) The shrinking of protoplasm is
continuous due to continuous
exosmosis, it detaches from
the cell wall and assumed a
spherical shape. This phase is
known as evident
plasmolysis/full plasmolysis.
 Hypertonic soluition is
present in between the cell
wall and protoplasm.

Plasmolysis :
A-A cell in normal stage, B-A cell placed in pure water and resulting in increased turgor pressure and, C-A
cell placed in strong salt solution leading to plasmolysis.

Significance of plasmolysis :
[i] A living cell is distinguished from the non living [dead] cell through the plamolysis. Because plasmolysis
does not occur in dead cell.

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[ii] The osmotic pressure of any cell can be measured by incipient plasmolysis.
[iii] If the plasmolysis remains for long duration in a cell then it dies. To destroy the weeds, salts puts in their
roots.
[iv] Fishes and meat are prevented from spoilage by salting, which inhibits the growth of bateria and fungus.
[v] Higher concentration of sugar in jams and jellies stops the growth of bacteria and fungus.
[vi] High amount of chemical fertilizers near the root causes death or browning of the plant due to plasmolysis.
[vii] The fresth water growing plants asre either wilted or die when they are kept in marine water.

IMBIBITION

Adsorption of undissolved liquid by an solid material is called imbibition or adsorptionof water by

hydrophilic colloids is known as imbibition.
 this is a physical process by which as dry soli collid material swells up by adsorption of water.
 The cell wall is amde up of colloidal substances as cellulose, pectin, hemicellulose etc. All they are in
nature. Therefore they imbibe water.
 Proteins, Agar - agar, starch etc, these are all imbibant materials.
Agar-agr can adsorbs 99 times more wqter than that of its weight. Some of the proteins adsorb 15 times
more water. Affinity must be between imbibant and liquid material and movement of water occurs in
order of water potential gradient.
Imbibition power = Agar - Agar > Pectin > Protein > Starch > Cellulose
 The heat released during the imbibition is called heat of wetting.
 A huge presure is developed in material due to imbibition. This pressure is called Imibition presure (IP).
 IP is also called as matric potential wich respect to water potential. DPD - IP or w  m
 Dry wood is filled in the natural grooves of rocks and watered them. The rocks and broken due to their
swelling.
 The imbibitiion is less compact arranged material like wood, and more is lighter or soft material lke gelatin.
 Imbibition decreases with increasing pressure on imbibant material.

Significance of Imbibition :
(1) Aborpition of water during th eseed germination is only initiate through the imbibition.
(2) Breakking of seed coat during th eseed germination is due to imbibition process. Proteins fats and starth
is present in the kernle. This kernel swells up more as compared to the seed coat which break the seed
coat.
(3) Initial process of water absorpition in roots by root hirs is imibition.
(4) Resurrection in many plants like Selaginella, Lichen, Takes place due to the process of imibibition.
(5) The water enter into the aerial roots and dry fruits is due to imibition.
(5) Newly formed wood swells up in rainy season
Movement of water molecules :
Higher D.P.  Lower D.P.

Lower O.P.  Higher O.P.

LowerDPD  Higher DPd

Higher (less - ve) w  Lower (more - ve) w

Higher T.P.  Lower T.P.

Hypotonic  Hypertonic

Lower conc. of solution  Higher conc. of solution.

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 ABSORPTION OF WATER BY PLANTS
 Water in an excellent solvent and essential for the physiological process and helps in up take and
distribution of nutirents and solutes for growth and development of plants.
 Water participates in mnay vital activites of the plant. All the organic and inorganic material are
translocated only through the water. The cells of the plant remains in turgid condition due to water. It helps
the growth of the plant. Water is esential for germiatnoi f seeds. All the enxyme action only takes place in
the presence of water. Plant movements is due to the turgidity of the cells. Transoloaction nutrients and
chemical reaction of platns take place in aqueous solution.

FORMS OF WATER

Water is mainly obtained through rain. Some of the water groed into the water reservoris. This is called run
off water. Rest of teh water enter into the land. Water present in soil is following types 
(a) Grativational waterl :
From of water, which reaches at the soil water table due to the gravitational force acter the rainfall. This
form is not available to plants but available by mechanical emthods or by tubewell irrigation. Some plants
can absorbed this watar - Calotropis, Prosopis, Caparies, etc.
(b) Hygroscopic water :
This film of waer is trightly held by the soil particles is caleled hygroscopic water. This water is also not
avaialable to the plants.
w of hygroscopic water is highly negative or very low.
(c) Chemically combined water :
The amount of water present in the chemical compouds, which are present in the particles of soil. This is
not available to the plants ...... 24 H2O, ....... 7 H2O
(d) Capillary water :
Water exists between soil particles in small capilalry pores is called capillary water. It is the most
available form to the platns. Plants only absorb this from of water.
(e) Atmospheric humidity :
This is water vapour present in air, which can be absorbed by hanging roots of the epiphytes due to
presence of velamen tissue.
Holard : it is the total amount of water present in the soil.

Holard = Chresard + Echard

Chresard : This is the water available to the plants.

Echard : This water is not available to the plants

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 ORGAN FOR WATER ABSORPTION

Water is absorbed by eitehr the whole surface or by the rhizoids

in lower plnat but in ptreidophytes and spermatophytes
absorpiton of water takes place throguh the root.

[i] Root cap region

[ii] Meristemactic region
[iii] Elongation region
[iv] Root hair region (v) Maturation region
The maximum absorption of water takes place from root hair
regeion.
These root haris increases the absorption area of root.
 Transplated plant can not grow easily a root ahirs are damaged.
 Osmotic presure of cell sap is greater that that of osmotic
pressure f solil sulution. The osmotic presure of cell sap is about
3 atM.

PATH OF WATER ABSORPTION

Soil solution  Root hairs  Epiblema/Epidermis  cortex  (Epiblema)  Cortex  Endodermis

(Pasage cells)  Pericyle cells  Protoxylem  Metaxylem.

 The water situated in the soil is to be reach up

to the xylem of root. Root hairs remains in the
contact of water. First of all water is absodbed
on pectin wall of root hairs, then water
entered into the epidermis of root hairs. From
here water reaches up to the endodermis are
suberised. But cells lie in fron of the protoxlem
are thin walled known as pasage cells. These
cell transfer water to the xylem. From here
water reached to the xylem from endodermal
cell through the thin walled pericycle cells.

(a) Symplast :
A sutainable living parth is known as symplast. This is the living pasage. The movement of water from cell
to cell through plasmodesmata is called symplastic path in plant. This movemetn of water through cell
memrance is also called as transmembrane pathway.

(b) Apoplast :
This is the non living path is plants
Watered cell wall, intercellular space
and xylem cavity associated together to
form apoplast.
 Term “apoplast” & “symplast” given
by Munch
 The path of water from root hair to
cortex, may be apoplastic or symplastic.
Casparian strips blokc the apoplast,
thus water must pases through pasage
cells via symplast.

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 MECHANISM OF WATER ABSORPTION

Water is absorbed by two differnt ways :

(1) Active water absorption (2) Passice water absorption.
Mechanism
Term active & passive absorption was proposed by Tenner.
1. Active abosrption of water  Acco. to the method water is absorbed due to the activity of roots or by
expenditure of ATPs.
I. Osmotic active  This is given by Atkins & Priestly. Acco. to this method water is absorbed
due to the osmotic activity of roots in order to O.P. & D.P.D. No direct ATP are consumed in this
method.
II. Non osmotic Active  Propsoed by Theimam, Bennet-Clark. According to this method
absorption of water occurs against the osmotic concentration by direct
investement/expenditure of metabolic energy in the form of ATPs. Generally this process
present in Halophytes.
 Only 4% of total obsrobed water is taken by this proces.

2. Passive abosorption of water 

According to this method forces fo
rht eabsorption of water organates in
aerial parts by rapid transpiration &
root remain as passive organ.
According to Kramer water
absorption in plants in followed
by transpiration. About 96?% of
wter is absorbed by passvie
method. Due to rapid transpiration,
D.P.D. of leaf cells  result in
suction force, which suck the water
from roots.
Factors affecting water absorption :

[1] Available soil water :

 Plant absorbs capillary water, which is present in soil. Aborption of wter depends on the amount of
capillary water present in the soil. Absorption increases by increasing amount of capiallry water.
 If, water is present in higher amount in the soil then such type of soil is called “Water logged soil”. This
soil is physilogically dry and lack oxygen. Because of this anaerobic respiration takes place in roots, and
alcohol is formed. Roots can be degenerte due to form alcohol. (Dry soil is physically dry).
[2] Soil temperature :
 Soil temperature affects the folloiwn gmechanisms :
(i) Low temerature decreases the permeability of cell membrane.
(ii) It is essential for the activity of enzymes for the formatioin of root hairs.
(iii) At low temperature viscosity of capillary water is increased.
 Generally, normal absorption of wter take plce at temperature of soil between 20 - 35 0C.
 Increasing or decreasing soil temperature, lower down the rate of absorption of water.
Col soil is a physiologically dry.
[3] Soil Air :
 Absorption of water proceeds more rapidly in well aerated sol. Deficiency of oxgygen in soil
causes improper respiration in roots.
 Poorly aerated soil is physiologically dry.
[4] Soil Concentration :
 The rate of the absorption is inversely proportional to the concentration of minerals present in soil.
11
 1
Water Absorption 
concentrat ion of soil min erals

 Water absorption is only take place in appropriate soil solution. If the concentration of soil minerals is high,
it decreases the rate of absorption. Therefore saline soil is physiologically dry. Halophytes can grown
only in this soil.

[5] Transpiration :
 According to Krmer the rate of water absorption is directly proportional to the rate of transpiration. The rate
of absorption increases due to increases in the transpiration. Because passiv e waer absorption increases
due to transpiration.
OTHER METHODS OF WATER ABSORPTION
(a) By mycorrhiza:
 The root hairs are not developed in some of conifer plants thus water is absorbed with the help of
mycorrhizal assocation.
 These fungus myecilium absorb water and minerals and transfers to the roots.
These fungus myecilium obtain their food from the roots.
(b) By Velamen :
 Velamens are found in epihytes such as Orchids.
 Absroption of water vapur of air takes place in these plants through the hanging roots. These roots have
specialised tisue on the out side of their cortex is called velamen.
(C) By Hygroscopic hairs :
 Hairs are arises from the aerial parts of the epiphytic plants which absorbs atmospheric moisture are called
hygroscopic hairs.
ASCENT OF SAP
Upward movement of absorbed water against the gravitaional force upto top parts of plants in
called as acent of sap.
 Xylem is water conducting tissue in plnats.
Evidence for this : Experimenets which that xylem is water conducting tisue of the plants :
(i) Girdling or ringing exp. Malpighi, Hartig and Stephen hales.
(ii) Experiment on Balsam plant - By using eosin dye and found that xylem is water conducting tissue.
(iii) Blockage experiments By Dixon -Xylem was blosked by using wax.
 Mechanism : Various theories are given to explain the mechanism of ascent of sap.

(A) Vital force theories : Accoring to these theories living cells involved in ascent of sap.

(1) Wastermainer (1883) : According to him ascent of sap is due to the activity of xylem
parenchyma cells.
(2) Godlewski’s theory (1884) : According to his the ascent of sap is due to rhythemic change of
osmotic pressure of xylem parenchyma & medullary cells.
This theory is also known as ‘Relay pump theory’ or Clambering hypothesis.
(3) Pulsation theory : By Sir J.C. Bose : According to this theory ascent of sap is due to the
pulsatory activity of the inner most layer of cortex.
Bose explains his theory with hel of galvanometer or electric probe.
Objection :
According to Strasburger ascent of sap is continue after the living cells of xylem killes by poisen picric
acid It means ascent of sap is through the non living elements of xylem i.e. vessels & tracheids.

(B) Root pressure theory : By Priestely.

According to it, a positive pressure is develop in to xylem sap, due to turgidity or activity of root cells
(cortical cells), is called root pressure, which pushed water upwards is xylem.

12
 Term root presure & phenomenon was discovered by Stephen Hales.
Objection :
(i) Root presure is absent in woody plants.
(ii) When root pressure is high, during night, the accent of sap is low.

(C) Physical force theories :

(1) Capillary force theory : By Boehm - According to this cesels & trachieds acts as capillaries &
ascent of sap takes place due to capillary force.
(2) Imbibition force theory : By Unger & Von Sachs - According to it ascent of sap is due to the
imbibition force of xylem wall.
(3) Chain theory : By Jamin - According to it a chain of alternate layers of water and air are formed
in xylem. When layer of air is expands than water will move upwards.
(4) Transpiration pull & cohesion force theory : By Dixon & Jolly
Most accepted or universally accepted theory of ascent of sap.
According to it 3 component are involved in ascent of sap.
(a) Cohesion : Mutual attraction between the water molecule is known as cohesioin, which from a
contunous water column in xylem elements.
(b) Adhesion : Attraction between xylem walls & wter molecules is called adhesion force, which helps in
maintance of water coloumn of xylem.
(c) Transpiration Pull : A tension or negative pressure dvelops in xylem, due to rapid tanspiration in leaves
(because of high DPD), this crates a tarnspiration pull, which is responsible for the pulling up of water
column in xylem. So ascent of sap is constitutive efect of cohesion, adhesion & adhesion & transpiration
pull.

13
 FOOD TRNASLOCATION IN PLANTS
 Food/organix material conduction in plants mainly occurs by phloem. (Proved by Girdlin experiment).
 Food conduction occurs in between source and sink. Source is net exporter while sink is net importer.
 Generally green photosynthetic palnt parts act as source like leaves while non photosyntehtic parts like
root, shoot, fruits acts as sink.
 Foor conduction may be in any required directio unlike the water conduction which is a unidirectional
process.
 Translocaetion of food mainly occurs in the form of source or it is non-reducing sugar and chemicall yinert
in it’s pathway of conduction

 Presure flow/mass flow hypothesis of food/sucrose translocation - Given by E. Munch (1930). this si the
most
accepted thoery of food conduction in plants.A
According to it food translocation occurs in between source and sink in order of turgor presure gradient i.e.
high T.P. to low T.P.
 phloem loadin/surcose loadin at source  it is an active process helped by carrier molecules. At
source due to phloem loading concentration of sieve cell increase, results in increases in osmotic pressure
and water will moves from neary xylem into sieve cells results in increase in turgor pressure T.P.) and
increase in water potential (w ) . It establish a higher T.P. at source and in seive tubes. Surcrose moves
from source in sieve tubes sink form high T.P./High  to towards the low T.P./low w .
 Phloem unloading/sucrose unloading at sink  It is an active process helped by carrier molecules. At
sink surcrose is unloaded results in decrease in osmotic pressure (O.P.), it results in exits of water into
near by xylem leasds to decrease in Turgor pressure (T.P.) and water potential (w ) of phloem). In sink
cell the unloaded sucrose is either changed into starch (as starch not change O.P.) or consumed, to
maintain low O>p. and continuous unloading.
 So the process of sucrose loading at source and unloading at sink continues. This turgor pressure
difference will maintained and water will continue to move in at source and out at sink.
 This mechanism was experimentally demonstrated by Bimodel exp. of Munch.
 According to evidences of modern research phloem conduction is an active process and it required
metabolic energy in phloem cells.

14
 TRANSPIRATION
Loss of water in form of vapour, from the aerial pars (organs) of living plants is known as
Transpiration.
 Only few percetage [1-2%] of absorbed water is used by the plants, while remaining (98-99%) of water lost
atmosphere.
“Transpiration is an essential evil” - by Curtis
“Transpiration is an unavoidable evil” - by Steward.
 The minimum transpiration is found i succulent xerophytes & no transpiration is submerged hydrophytes.
 Maximum trnspiration is found is mesophytes.

TYPES OF TRANSPIRATION

Transpiration is of the following three types :-

[i] Stomatal transpiration :
 Transpiration takes place through the stomata which are present on the leaves of the plants and delicate
organs, is called st omatal transpiration. The maximum amount of water is lost by this transpiration.
about 80% to 90% transpiration is occurs through the stomata.
 Stomata are absent in algae, fungi and submerged aquatic plants.
Foliar transpiration : Total transpiraion takes plave through the leaves is called as foliar transpiration.
Foliar transpiration = Stomatal + Cuticular, for the leaves.
[i] Cuticular Transpiration :
Loss of water through the cuticule wihich present on the herbaceous stem and leaves. Cuticle is a wax like
thin layer present on epidermis. About 9% transpiration is cuticuler.
[iii] Lenticular Transpiration :
 Minute pore like structure found on the stem of some woody plants and epidermis of some of some fruits
called lenticles. Some amount of water is lost by lenticels is kown as lenticular tranpiration. However it is
approximately .1% to 1% of the total water lost
STRUCUTRE OF STOMATA

 Stomata are found on teh aerial delicate organs and outer surface of the leaves in the form of minute
pores. Stomatal pore is surrounded by two specialised epidermal cells called as guard cell. They are
kidney shaped. The number of guard cells are two.
 The structure of guard cells in monocots (Gramineae) is dumbel shaped.
 Guard cells are epidermal cells. But due to presence of chloroplast they are different from that of epidermal
cells.
15
 The outer wall of the guard cells is thin and elastic, while inner wall is thick and non elastic.
 Guard cells are surrounded by some specialized epimdermal cells called subsidiary cells are accessory
cells.
 Stomata are found on both upper and lower surface. Stomata attache with air chambers and fomrs a cavity
is called sub-stomatal-cavity.
 In xerophytic plants position of stomata is deep in the surface of the leaf. Stomata are present in this
position are called suken stomata.
TYPES OF STOMATA

(A) Based on distribution :

(1) Apple and Mulberry type  When the stomata present on the lower (Dorsal/abaxil) surface of
the leaf e.g. - Oxali, Peach, Nausturtium, Morus etc.
(2) Potato type  When stomata present mainly on the lowre surface but some stomata are
present on the upper surface (Adaxialy) also. e.g. - Tomato, Brinjal, Cabbage, Pea etc.
(3) Oat type  When stomata are almost equally distribued on both surface of the leaf. e.g.
Monocots
(4) Water lily type  When stomata present only on the upper surface of the leaf. (Aquatic plants
with floating leaves)
(5) Potamogeton type  The stomata in this type are either absent or rudimentary or functionless
e.g. Submerged hydrophytes.

Hypostomatic  Stomara on lower surface

 Leaves Epistomatic  Stomata on upper surface

Amphistomatic  Stomata on both surfaces

(B) Based on time of opening & closing  By Loftfiel

(1) Alfa-alfa type  Stomata are opened in day and closed in night.
Ex.- Mesophytes as Pea, Bean, Radish, Grapes, Apple etc.
(2) Potato type  Stoamta always open except evening time.
Ex. - Onion, Potato, Cabbage, Banana etc.
(3) Equisetum type  Always opened stomata. Amphibious plants.
(4) Barely type  Stomata always closed except few hurs in day time. Wheat, Maize etc.
(5) Scotoactive opening  Stoamta closed in day and opened in night
Ex. Succelents - Opnutia.

(C) Stomata based on structure and number of accessory cells :

(1) Anomocytic  Subsidiary cells - 5 ot 6 and same in strucutre.
(2) Anisocytic  Subsidiary cell-3 and one cell smaller than two.
Ex. - Cruciferae
(3) Paracytic  Subsidiary cells - and parallel to guard cells.
Ex. Rubiaceae
(4) Diacytic  Longitudinally situated nd 2 accessory cells.
Ex, - Caryophyllaceae.

Stomata in Gymnosperms :

(i) Syndetocheilic - When subsidiary cells & guard cells orginate from single cell.

(ii) Haplochielic - Both cells arises from separate cells.

16
 MACHANISM OF OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMAT OR
STOMTAL MOVMENT AND MECHANISM OF TRANSPIRATION

Stomata generally open during the day & closed during the night with new execptions. The important
theories of stomatal movments are as follows -
(1) Photosynthesis is guard cell hypothesis :
This theory was proposed by Schwendener & Von mohl. According to this theory guad cell
chloroplastperform photosynthesis during the day time. this produce sugar in guard cell which increases
the O.P. of GC, compared to adjacet epidermal cell (subsidiary cells). Water enters in guard cells form
subsidiary cells by endomosis, due to this guard cells become turgid & stomata will open.
Objections -
(i) In CAM plants stomata open during dark/night
(ii) Chloroplastof monocot guard cells are non-functional (inacive) photosynthetically.
(2) Starch Sugar interconversion theory :
 This theory was propsed by Sayre (1926). First of all Lloyd states taht amount of sugar in GC is increases
during th eday time & starch in nigh.
 Detail study of this change was done by Syre & given Strch hydrolysis theory. Acco. to Syre, strach
converts in to sugars during day time when pH of guard cell is high. Sugar changes in to starch during night
as low pH in guard cells (Supported by Scarth). Sayre clarified that CO2 reacts with water during night.
Dut to accumulation of H2CO3, pH in guard cell is decreases.
 Hanes -States that this chagne takes place by phosphorylase enzyme.
 Yin & Tung reported the presence of phosphorylase enzyme in guard cells.
day pH 7.5
Starch + ip Phosphorylase Glucose – 1.P  conc. of GC increased  Entry of H2 O in GC
Night pH-4.5-5
GC – Turgid Stomata

Stewards modification -
Acco. to Stewrd (1967) appriciable change in O.P. of GC is possible after the conversion of glucose - 1 P
into Glucose & ip (inorganic phosphate)
Steward gave stomatal mechanism as following
Mutase
(i) Glucose -1, P   Glucose-6P
Phosphatas e
(ii) Glucose-6, P      Glucose + ip

Conc. of GC increased

osmotic entry of H2O  GC-Turgid  Somata open
Hexokinase
(ii) Glucose + ATP    Glucose-1, P  Starch  Stomata closed
Objections -
(i) Starch is absent in GC of some monocots like onion
(ii) Formation of organic acids is observed during stomatal opening.
(3) Active K + +
 H exchange theory or active proton transport mechanism -
 Given by Levitt (1973-74). This is modern & most accepted theory for stomatl opnening & closing.
 Fist of all Funjino observed that influx of K+ ions in guard cells during stomatal opening. (Supported by
Fisher & Hsiao.) Detail study of this pnenomenon was done by Levit, who proposed this theory. Acco. to
him stomata opens by followin mechanism-

17
 PEP
Enzymes 
(i) Carbohydrates    PEP  CO 2 Carboxylas e OAA

H+ k+
(ii) O.A.A.  Malic Acid ATP
Malate-
(iii) Malate + K+  K-malate  Conc. of GC increased

Entry of H2O in GC  GC turgid  Stomata open
 Closing of stomata : Plant hormone ABA-acts on
guard cells, which interfere the exchagne of K+ 
H
+
ions in guard cells, result in reverse of rxn. of opening
of stomat, hence stomat closed. pH of guard cells is
decrese dring night, which favours tomatal closing.
 High concentration of K+ ions in guard cells in
electrically balanced by uptake of Cl- and malate ions
in guard cell.
(4) Ca-ABA second messenger model -
Given by Desilva & Cowan (1985) this is modern
explaination of stomatal closing only
 Ramdas & Raghvandra Suggested that ATPs for
stomatal movement comes from cyclic ETC.
 Bowlings : Malate switch hypotehsis.
 Raschke : K+ ions in guard cells comes from
subsidiary cells.
 Stomata opoens during the night in suculent plants
and closed during the day. This nature of stomata in
opuntia is called sctotoacive stoamta.
 In CAM plants organic acid is formed during night
which broken down during day & Co2 is liberated
which is used in photosynthesis.

Factors affecting stomatl opening and closing :

[1] Light :
In most of the plants stomate open during th eday except succulent xerophytic plants and close during the
dark. Opening of stomata completes in the presence of blue and red light. Blue light is mot effective and
causing stomatal opening.
[2] Temperature :
Loft Field show temperature quotient of opening of stomata is [Q10] = 2
[3] Co2 concentration :
Stomata opens at low concentration of CO32 while clsoed at high concentration of CO 2
CO2 is antitranpiration gas.
[4] Growth Hormones :
 Cytokinin hormone induce opening of stomata. It increase the influx of K+ ions and stimulate the
stomata for opening.
 While ABA stimualte the stomata for closing. This hormone oppose the induction effect of cytokinin.
 ABA effect the permeability of the guard cells. Ir precent the out flux of H. + ions and increase the out flux of
K+ ions. Because of this pH of the guard cells decreased.
18
 Cl- ions also plays important role is stomatal movment.
Above mentioned effects also found in high amoun of CO2
 ABA is formed due to high water stress in chloroplast of leaves.
[5] Atmospheric humidity :
Atomata opens for long duration and more widen in the presence of humid atmosphere, while stomata
remains closed in dry atmosphere or partial opening at higher atm. humidity transpiration will be stop but
stomata remain completly open

Factors affecting the rate of transpiration.

Factors effecting the rate of transpiration are divided into two type :
[A] External factors (Environmental factor)
[B] Internal Factors
[A] External factors :
1
[1] tmospheric humidity : Tr 
Re lative humidity
 This is the msot important factor. The rate of transpiration is higher in low atmospheric humidity while at
higehr atmospheric humidity, the atmosphere is moistened, resulting decreasing of rate of transpiration.
 Tehrefore, the rate of transpiraion is high during the summer and low in rainy season.

[2] Temperature : Tr  Temperature

 The value of Q10 for transpiration is 2. It means by increasing 1000C temperature, the rate of transpiration
is approximately double. (By Loftfied)
 Water vapour holding capacity of air increased at high temperature , resulting the rate of transpiration
increased.
 On contrary vapour holding capacity of air decreased at low temperature so that the rate of transpiration is
decreased.

[3] Light :
 Light stimulates, transpiration by heating effect of leaf.
 ACtion spectrum of transpiration is blue and red.
 Rate of transpiration is faster in blue light than than of red light. Because stomata are completely opened
as their full capacity in the blue light.

[4] Wind velocity : Tr  Wind velocity

 Transpiration is less in constant air but if wind velocity is high the rate of transpiration is also high, because
wind removes humid air (saturated ait) around the stoamta.
 Transpiration increases in teh beginning at high wind velocity [30-35 km./hour] But latter on it cause closure
of stomata due to mechanical effect and transpiration decrease.
[5] Atmospheric Pressure :
 The speed of the air increase at low atmospheric pressure, due to this rate of the diffusion increase which
increase the rate of transpiration.
 The rate of transpiration is found maximum in the high intensity of light at high range of hill.s
 By carrying a plant form Kota, to hill station, rate of transpiration increased.

Transpiration ratio (TR) : Moles of H2O transpired/moles of CO2 ssimilated

 Ratio of the loss of water to the photosynthetic CO2 fixation is clled TR.
 TR is low for C4 plants (200-350) while high for C2 plants (500-1000). It means C4 conserve
water with efficient photosynthesis.
 CAM plants passes minimum TR (50-100)

19
[6] Anti transpirants :
Chemical sustances whcih reduce the rate of transpiration are known as antitranspirants. Anti
transpiratns are as follows :
Phenyl Mercuric Acetate [PMA[, Aspirin (Salicylic acid), Abscisic Acid [ABA], Oxi-ethylene, Silicon
oil, CO2 and low viscous wax
PMA closed the stomata for more than two weeks partially.
 Antitranspirants are used in dry farming.

[B] INTERNAL FACTORS :

These factors are concerned with structure of plants. These are following types :
[1] Transpirin area :
Pruning increase the rate of transpiration per leaf but overall reduce the transpiration.

[2] Anatomical characteristics of leaf and leaf orientation :

Several strucutres of leaf effect the transpiration as follows :
Stomatal characteristics of leaf and leaf orientation :
Several structures of leaf effect the transpiration as follows :
Stomatal characteristics :
Transpiration is effected by the struture of stomata, position of stomata, distance between the stomata,
number of stomata per unit area and activity of the stomata.
S
By Salisbury - Stomatal Index (SI) 
ES
SI - Stomatal index S = No. of stomata/unit area
E = No. of epidermal cells in same unit aea

[3] Water status of Leaves

[4] Root - Shoot Ratio :

 The rate of transpiration decreses with decreases in root - shoo ratio.
 The ratio of transpiration increases with increase root - shoot ratio.
The following characteristics are found in leaf to recude the transpiration.
(i) Leaves modify in spines.
(ii) Leaves transformed into needle e.g. Pinus.
(iii) Folding and unfolding of leaves by bulliform cellls. eg. Amophilla, Poa etc.
(iv) Small size of the leaves.
(v) Presence of thixk waxy layer on leaves.
e.g. banyan tree.

Significance of traspiration :

[1] In regulation of temperature :

Cooling effect on teh surface of leaves is produced by the process of transpiration, due to which
temperature remains contant in plants.
The plants re protected fromt he burining of heat due to transpiration. Evaporation of water produce cooling
effect.
[2] In mineral absorption :
Mass flow of water is found during the passive absorption of water. Hence it is assumed that minerals enter
the roots through the water.
[3] In ascent of sap
[4] In water absorption
[5] Distribution of absorbed salts
[6] Gaseous exchange
[7] Control of hydrological cycle.

20
 GUTTATION
Loss of wate form the uninjured part of maring of leaves of the plant in the form of water droplets is
called as guttation.
 he term “Guttation” was coined by Burgerstein.
 xuded liquid of gattation along with water contains some organic and inorganic (dissolved) substances.
It means it is not pure water.
 Normally, gutation proces is found in herbacious plants like grases, tomats, balsum, Naustertium,
Colocasia, Sexifraga and in some of the plants of Cuburbitceae family.
 Guttation occurs from the margins of the leaves through the special pore (always open) like strucutre are
called hydathodes or water stomata.
 Generally guttaion occurs during mid night or early morning.
 Parenchymatous and loose tissue are lie beneath the hydathode, which are known as epithem or transfer
tissues.
 The process of guttation take place due to root pressure, develope in cortex cells of root.
BLEEDING
Fast flowing of liquid from the injured or cut parts of the plants in called bleeding or exudation.
 This process takes place due to high root pressure.
 Sugar is obtained from the Sugar mapple by this process.
 The highest bleeding is found in Caryota urens (Toddy plam) (about 50 liter per day).
 Bleeding is important in economic biology, because Opium, Latex of rubber is obtained by this.
WILTING
 Droping of soft plarts of the plants due to loss of turgidity in their cells is called wit\lting. Wilting is caused
due to high rate of transpiration during mid-day or deficiency of water in soil and also in prolonged drought
conditioin.
 Wilting may be temporary or permanent.
 Incipient wilting : This is the starting of wilting wihtou any external symptom is called incipient wilting.
SPECIAL POINTS
 The main reason of osmotic pressure for stomata is potassium chloride or potassium malate.
 Porometer is used to find out the ara of stomata on the leaf.
 Transpiration measuring intrument is called potometer. The rate of absorption of water is measured
through this instrument. In potometer rate of water absorption is proportional to the rate transpiration.
 Cobalt - chloride test : This method is used for the comparision of transpiration at both the surface of the
leaves. it is firsdt of all shwon by Stall.
 Stomata covers 1-2% of total leaf area. Size of stomata is 10-40  (lenght) × 3 12  (width).
 The photophosphorylation process in the guard cells is a energy metabolic process, not CO 2 - metabolic
process. (Cyclic photophosphorylation)
 The rate of transpiration of C4 plants is les as compared to C3 plants. In CAM plants minimum transpiration
occurs.
 Manometer is used to measure root pressure.
 Distribution of Stomata on leaf surfaces :
Plant Type Stomata no./mm2
Dicots Upper epidermis Lower epidermis
Sunflower 120 175
Alfa-alfa 169 188
Geranium 29 179
Monocots
Wheat 50 40
Barley 70 85
Onion 175 175

21
 MINERAL ABSORPTION AND NUTRITION OF PLANTS
MINERAL ABSORPTION

 Soil is the main source of mineral salts. These mineral salts are mainly absorbed by the (Sub terminal)
meristemetic region of roots.
 Menral stals are present with soil particcles in colloidal form and in water as soil solution. Conduction of
mineral salts is done through the xylem.
 Mineral absorption is done in form of ions mainly form meristemetic zone.
 Absorption of mineral is plant is an active process. There are two methods of absorption of mineral salts.

(A) Passive absorption of minerals : (Without expenditure of ATP)

(1) By Simple diffusion : According to this method mineral ions may diffuse in root cells from the
soil solution.

(2) By mass flow : According to this method mineral ions absorption occurs with flow of water under
the influence of transpiration.

(3) By ion exchange : This is exhcange of mineral ions with the ions of same charge.
(i) By contact exchange : When the mineral ion exchgne occurs with the H+ and OH- ions.
(ii) carbonic acid exchange : When the mineral ion exchange takes place with the ions of
carbonic acid.

(4) By Donnan equilibrium : This theory explain the passive accumultion of ions against the
concentration gradietn ro electrochemical potential (ECP) withut ATP. At the inner side of cell
membrane, which separates form outside (external medium), these are some anion,s which are
fixed or non diffusible and membrane is impermeable to these anions. While cations are diffusible.
 In such condition, for maintenance of equilibrium additional cations are needed to balance
negative charges of anions (at inner side of membrne). Thus some cations moves, inside the cell
from soil solution.
 So according to this theory Donnan equilibrium is attained, if the anions and cations in the internl
solution become equal to the anions and cations in external solution.

Objections for passive mineral absorption / evidences in facvour fo active mineeral absorption :
(1) Absorption of K+ ions in Nitella algae is observed against the concentration gradient.
(2) Rate of respiration of a plant is increases, when plant transferred to mineral solution. (Salt
respiration)
(3) Factors like deficienty of oxygen, CO, CN, which inhibits rate of respiration, these factors also
inhibit the absorption of mineeral ions in plants.
Thus ion abosorption in plants is considered mainly as an active process.

(B) Active ion absorption : (By expenditure of ATPs)

(1) Cytochrome pump theory : By Lundegargh and Burstrom (1933) according to this theory,
only anions are absorbed by active mechanism through cytochrome pumping and absorpition of
cation is passive process.
According to cytochrome pump theory salf respiration is called as anion respiration.

(2) Carrier concent : By Vanden Honert. According to this theory some specific carrier molecules
made up of proteins are present in cell membrane of root ell, which absorb both the ions and
forms ion-carrier complex. This complex is broken inside the cell membrane with the use
energy.

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 (3) Protein - lecithin theory : By Bennet Clark
According to this theory a phospholipid lecithin in root cell membrane works as carrier for both
type of ions.
Lecithin has two type of groups.
Phosphate gropu  ions absorption)
Lecithiin
Choline group (  ions abosrption)
 Goldacre - A contractile protein is associated, with absorption of minerals.
Minerals absorbed by the roots of plants are carried by xylem by to pathways, apoplastic and symplastic
pathway.
 P.R. Stout and Hoagland (1939) proved that mineral salts are translocated through xylem along with
transpiration pull (exp. with help of radiosiotopes).

MINERAL NUTRITION

About 50-60 elements are present in plant body but only 16/17 elements are considered as essential
elements. According to Arnon-Criteria of essentiality of minerals :
(i) The element must be necessary for normal growth and reproduction fo all plants.
(ii) The requirement of the element must be specific for plant life. That is indespensible element to
plant.
(iii) The elements must be direct ly involved in metabolism of plant.
C, G, O, N, K, S, Ca, Fe, Mg, P, Cu, Mn, B, Cl, Zn, Mo, Ni
Arnon divides these necessary elements in to two group on the basis of requirement of plant
(i) Major element/Macro nutrients : Concentration must be 1010 g L-1 / 10 m mole kg- 1 of dry
matter (mmole-Milimolar)
C,H,O,N,K,S, Ca, Fe, Mg, P
(ii) Minor element/micro nutrients : (Concentration present less than 1.0-0.1 g l1-/10 m mole
kg-1 per gram of dry matter)
Cu, Zn, B, Cl, Mn, Mo, Ni
 Some physiologist consider Fe as micronutrient.
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Common Role :
1. Constituent of protoplasm - C, H, O, N, P, S are porotoplamic elements.
2. Maintain the osmotic pressure of cell
3. In redox process - (In ETS) - Fe, mN, Cu, Cl.
4. Antagonistic role (balancing function) - Ca, K neutralize the toxicity of harmful substance.
5. Control permeability of cell mebrane - Ca+, K+
6. As cofactors or activator - Mg, Fe, Ca, Zn, Cu, K, Mn, Mo
Benificial nutrients : Mineral elemetns other than essential elements, which satisfy specific additinal
nutrient requirement of some specific plants.
Ex. Na - halophytes (eg. Atriplex - helps in C4 pathway)
Si - grasses (Provides mechanical strength)
Se - astragalus
Co - leguminous plants (root nodule formation)
 Toxic elements / Toxicity - Any mineral ion concentration in plant tissue that reduces the dry weight of
tissue by about 10 percent is considerd as toxic or toxic element and this effect is called toxicity.
 Most of the micronutrients become toxic as their required amount for plants is very low. This excess
concentration inhibits activity of other essential elements.
Ex : Excess Mn (Manganese) may induce deficiency of iron, magnesium and calcium casue appearance of
brown spots surrounded by chlorotic veins, Mn competes with iron (fe) and magnesium (Mg) for uptake and
with Mg for biding to enzymes. Mn also inhibits, calcium translocation into the shoot apex and causes
disease ‘Cricke leaf’. So the dominant symptoms of Mn toxicity may actually be the symptoms of Fe, Mg
and Ca deficiency.

Deficinecy symptoms and mobility of minerals.

 The dificiency symtoms of highly mobile elements in plnats like N,P,K, and Mg first appear in older plant
parts. These minerals are presnet as structural constituent of biomolecules of mature plant parts and when
plant part become older, these biomolecules broken down making these elements available for younger
plant parts.
 The deficiency symptoms of immobile elements like Ca, S first appear in young plant parts, as they are not
transported from older plant plarts.

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 MINERAL – NUTRITION

NAME ROLE/FUNCTION DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

(i) Imp. constituent of proteins (A), (i) Chlorosis (yellowing) in older
NITROGEN RNA, DNA leaves (highly mobile)
(Imp. in growth, (ii) Present in porphyrins of (ii) Anthocyanin formed in stem,
metabolism, heridity Chlorophylls & Cytochromes, petioles & leaf. (tomato etc.)
reproduction) thus active role in photocynthesis (iii) Plant growth student (cell div. &
No3- form & respiration. (ETS). respiration reduced).
(iii) Parts of vitamins, Co-enzymes (iv) Protein synthesis, cell
(Nitrate)
(NAD, NADP) & alkaloids. enlargement, chl-cynthesis
(iv) Constituent of plant hormones- decreases.
IAA, & AT Ps. (v) Late floweing & plant become
(v) Absorbed from soil as No3- NO2, more suceptible to fungal
disease due to excessive
NH4+ some plants from air by nitrogen.
nitrogen fixeres (Rhizobia, Azolla, (vi) Seed dormany increased.
fungi)

(i) Part of cystine, cystein, & (i) Chlorosis in yellowing in

SULPHUR methionine amino acids. younger leaves, with
2
SO 4 (Sulphate) form (ii) Vit. biotene, thiamine, Co -A in anthocynain.
respiration. (ii) Stem & rotos become woody
(iii) Disulphide linkage (-S-S-) for protein (Hard) because sclerenchyma
orientation. development.
(iv) Role in oil synth, chlorophyll (iii) Tip. & margins of leafs curbed
synthesis & prt of ferredoxin inwardly “tea yellow disease”
(vi) Root nodule formation. (iv) Cell div. reduced & chek fruting.

(i) Very imp. to RNA, DNA (heredity) (i) Premature leaf fall, necrosis,
PHOSPHORUS Phospholipid (Cell membrane) anthocyanin formation.
H2Po4 -and HPO4 - NADP (Co-enzyme) ATP (Energy (ii) Protein synthesis decreases
(Orthophosphate anion reaction) (iii) Growth of roots, Shoots checked
form) (ii) Imp. in Photo synthesis (NADP), delay in flowering
protein synth. (DNA, RNA ATP, (iv) Xylem & phloem differentiation
AA) reduces.
(iii) In oxidation-reduction reactions, fat (v) Inhibits seed germination.
metabolism,
(iv) In growth of roots, dev. of leaf form
of seeds and crop yeild.
(v) Important for endergonic &
exergonic reaction.

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CALCIUM (i) Imp. for mechanical strength, (i) Disintegration of growin
Ca++ form because Ca is contituent of middle apices (root, shoot, leaf apex).
Lamella (Ca- pectate in cell wall) (ii) Irregular cell division (mitosis)
(ii) Permeability of biomembrane and death of meristem.
maintained by calcium.
(iii). Chlorosis on margins of younger
(iii) Stability of chromosome structure leaves, malformation.
& in spindle formation (Hewit (iv) Flower falling necrosis.
1963) (v) Abnomalities in chromosomes.
(iv) Detoxification (Oxalic Acid 
Ca-Oxalate), Na+, K+,
(v) Activator of enxymes-Phospholipae,
arginin kinase, ATPase, amylase
(vi) essential for growth of apical
meristems.

MOLYBDENUM (i) Role as prosthetic grown of (i) Interveinial chloroise e.g. Lemon.
MoO42-form nitrate reductase and nitrogenase (ii) Whip tail of cauliflower.
(Molybate ion) in nitrogen metabolism. (iii) Inhibition of flowering
(ii) Tanin synthesis process.

POTASSIUM (i) Not a essential constituent of (i) Mottled (interveinal) chlorosis,

K+ is only Monovalant organic meter but im. for respiration & shorter the internodes. (bushy
cation in photosynthesis, protein synth. and habit)
Free form DNA synthesis as activator (ii) “die-back” desease,
(ii) Key role in stomatal movement (iii) Necrosis & blight effect on leaf
and transpiration tips, margin curved downward.
(iii) In starch synthesis & distribution, (iv) Stop the carbohydrate
regulation of permeability and metabolism, storage of
charge of cells (Cation- anion carbohydrate in potato, beet.
balance) inhibited
(v) Decrease the apical
dominance, seeds less
developed.

MAGNESIUM (i) Constituent of Chlor-ophyll and in (i) Interveinal chlorosis on large

Mg++ from ribosomal units binding. scale and form. Of
(ii) Essentil for phosphate transfer anthocyanin in older leaves.
reactions (P-metabolism). (ii) Necrotic spots
(iii) Activator of many enzymes in (iii) Inhibition of glycolysis Krebs
Carbohydrates metabolism. cycle (Carbhohydrate
hexokinase metabolism)
(iv) In cell wall formation

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IRON(Fe) (i) Absorption in acidic soil, because (i) Rapid Interveinal chlorosis
Absorption in Fe++ (us) present in soluble form. (New leaves)
form, which is active (ii) Iron-porphyrin protein for (ii) Inhibition of respiration.
form. cytochromes, Peroxidase, (iii) Disintegration of chloroplast.
Catalases (Photorespiration)
(iii) Fe imp. to ferredoxin 
biological N2 fixation & ETS.
(iv) Essential role in chlorophyll
synthesis.
(v) In aconitase enzyme of Krebs
cycle.
MANGANESE (i) Mn++ is activator of many enzymes – (i) Deficiency cause chlorotic &
Mn++ form Nitrite reductase, hydroxyl amine necrotic spots on leaves.
reductase decarboxylase, (Mosaic pattern)
dehydrogenase (ii) Chlorophyll & starch disappear
(ii) Essentil for O2 evolution and form plastids
photolysis of water in light (iii) Marsh spot of pea, and grey
reaction (M++ & Cl- H2O to e- Ps II speak of oat.
on transfer ) (iv) Chlorosis in young & older
(iii) Chlorophyll & IAA formation. leaves
(iv) Respiratory metabolism.
BORON (i) B is only micronutrient, which not (i) Stem and root tips (apex) dies.
H3BO3- or asso. With enzymes root growth stunted.
B(OH)3 Or bo3-3 (ii) Key role in sugar translocation (ii) Flowr formation supp-resed.
(Borate) (Phyloem conduction) (iii) EMP pathway change in HMP
(iii) Must for cell division, flowering, (PPP) pathway
fruiting, active salt absorption, (iv) Physiological diseases – top
nodule formation in legumes rotten in tobaccom water core
(iv) B is essential in pollen tube in turnip, brown heart rot of
formation beets, Brittleness of Celeary
(v) Lethal effect at carbo hydrate stem, Heart rot in carrot &
metabolic site marigold, fibers in apple fruit.

COPPER (i) Oxi-Reduction Process, as parts of (i)

Necrosis of tip in young leaves
Cu++ form Enzymes, cytochromes (PC & a) (wither tip)
‘toxic in High cons.’ (ii) Vit.-c (ascorbic Acid) formation.(ii) “Die-back of citrus” and other
fruit trees Exanthema in tress.
(iii) Reclamation disease of cereals
and legume crops.
ZINC (i) Specific role in Auxin (IAA) (i) Checked veg. growth and shorter
Zn++ form Hormone synthesis in cell. the internoded leaf deformation.
(ii) Activator of Carbonic anhydrse, (ii) Mottle leaf disease in fruit
alcohol dehydrogenase, trees Little leaf disease.
Peptidase (iii) ‘Khaira disease of paddy’
(iii) In seed formation Rosset disease in walnut.
(iV) Inhibit seed formations, white
bud disease in maize.

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 SPECIAL POINTS

 C,H,O, N and P are main constituents of protoplasm (organic meterils). So they are called protoplasmic
elements C,N & O from atmosphere and H2O form soil for H & O.
 C, H and O re the main components of nucleic acid, proteins, enxymes, carbohyddrates, fats (frame
work elements)
 Mostly soil is deficient of NPK and these elements are knowna s critical elements, NP K-fertilizer is good
for crop yiels.
 Co is part of Vit. B12, which acts as coenzyme, Cobalt also used in cancer therapy and  -garden of
crop improvement.
 Silica (SiO2) is present in cell wall of diatoms grasses and paddy straw.
 Al-present in pteridophytes i.e. - Lycopodium.
 Mo. requires in minimum quantity.
 Hydroponics/solution culture / soil les growth / tank farming and ash analsis is a technique whcih
determines the role of nutrients in plants. (By Geriack)
 Gold (Au) present in Equisetum, mustars plants.
 Plants grown in moistened air with nutrients is aeroponic.
 Root meristem is important is storage and absorption of minerals.
 Na+ found in halophytes for their growth (marine plants).
 Trace- element are micro-nutrients, while tracer-elements are radio-isotopes.
 Mg present in chlorophyll, as non-ionic form
 Mg remians after chlorophyll burning.
 Minerals and organic matter regulates the osmotic concentration of cell.
 Mo in nitrogen metabolism.
 One abundant and stable form of Fe in leaves in stored in chloroplasts as an iron protein complex called
phytoferritin (Seckback 1983).
 C,H,O, are provided by H2O, O2 nd CO2 but 13 elements essential to all plants are absorbed as ion from
the soil solution is called a solution mining. (N2 from soil & atm.)
 Putrifiction/proteolysis : Becillus, Pseudomonas, Cllostridium.
Pr oteases Peptidase
 Proteins    peptides    amino acids (conversion of proteins in to amino acids) smell of
dead bodies.
 Deaminaion : Removal of amono group as NH3 from an amino acid.
 Root pressure is measured by manometer

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