THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

By: drh. Triva Murtina Lubis, M.P.

Department of Physiology
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Syiah Kuala University
CLASSES OF HORMONES

 The hormones fall into two general classes based

on their solubility in water :

 The water soluble hormones are the

catecholamines (epinephrine and
norepinephrine) and peptide/protein
hormones.
 The lipid soluble hormones include thyroid
hormone, steroid hormones and Vitamin D3
TYPES OF RECEPTORS
 Receptors for the water soluble hormones
are found on the surface of the target cell,
on the plasma membrane.
 These types of receptors are coupled to various
second messenger systems which mediate the
action of the hormone in the target cell.

 Receptors for the lipid soluble hormones

reside in the nucleus (and sometimes the
cytoplasm) of the target cell.
 Because these hormones can diffuse through
the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane,
their receptors are located on the interior of
the target cell.
SECOND MESSENGERS FOR CELL-
SURFACE RECEPTORS
 Second messenger systems include:
 Adenylate cyclase which catalyzes the
conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP;
 Guanylate cyclase which catalyzes the
conversion of GMP to cyclic GMP (cyclic AMP
and cyclic GMP are known collectively as cyclic
nucleotides);
 Calcium and calmodulin; phospholipase C
which catalyzes phosphoinositide turnover
producing inositol phosphates and diacyl
glycerol.
RECEPTORS FOR THE WATER SOLUBLE
HORMONES
RECEPTORS FOR THE LIPID SOLUBLE
HORMONES
HORMONES AND THEIR RECEPTORS
Hormone Class of hormone Location

Amine Water-soluble Cell surface

(epinephrine)

Amine (thyroid Lipid soluble Intracellular

hormone)

Peptide/protein Water soluble Cell surface

Steroids and Lipid Soluble Intracellular

Vitamin D
TRANSPORTASI HORMON DI
DALAM DARAH
 Hormon-hormon yang ditransportasikan di dalam
darah bervariasi tergantung daya larut hormon
tersebut.
 Hormon protein dan peptida bersifat hidrofilik,
dibawa ke dalam plasma darah dalam bentuk
larut.
 Hormon steroid dan tiroid bersifat lipofilik, dibawa
ke dalam plasma darah melalui gabungan dengan
berbagai jenis protein.
 Beberapa dari protein yang mengikat steroid
memiliki afinitas tinggi terhadap steroid tertentu.
 Contoh : globulin mempunyai afinitas tinggi
terhadap kortisol dan kortikosteron namun juga
bertindak sebagai alat transportasi penting untuk
progesteron meskipun globulin memiliki daya ikat
yang lebih rendah terhadap progesteron.
REGULATION OF HORMONE SECRETION
 Sensing and signaling: a biological need is
sensed, the endocrine system sends out a
signal to a target cell whose action
addresses the biological need.
 Key features of this stimulus response
system are:
 receipt of stimulus
 synthesis and secretion of hormone
 delivery of hormone to target cell
 evoking target cell response
 degradation of hormone
CONTROL OF ENDOCRINE ACTIVITY
•The physiologic effects of hormones
depend largely on their
concentration in blood and
extracellular fluid.

•Almost inevitably, disease results

when hormone concentrations are
either too high or too low, and
precise (tepat) control over
circulating concentrations of
hormones is therefore crucial.
CONTROL OF ENDOCRINE ACTIVITY

The concentration of hormone as seen by

target cells is determined by three
factors:

•Rate of production
•Rate of delivery
•Rate of degradation and elimination
 CONTROL OF ENDOCRINE ACTIVITY

Rate of production:
Synthesis and secretion of hormones are the
most highly regulated aspect of endocrine
control. Such control is mediated by positive
and negative feedback circuits, as
described below in more detail.
CONTROL OF ENDOCRINE ACTIVITY

Rate of delivery:
An example of this effect is blood flow to a
target organ or group of target cells - high
blood flow delivers more hormone than low
blood flow.
CONTROL OF ENDOCRINE ACTIVITY
Rate of degradation and elimination:
Hormones, like all biomolecules, have
characteristic rates of decay
(kekurangan/kerusakan), and are metabolized
and excreted from the body through several
routes.

Shutting off secretion of a hormone that has a

very short half-life causes circulating hormone
concentration to plummet (rendah), but if a
hormone's biological half-life is long, effective
concentrations persist for some time after
secretion ceases (berhenti).
FEEDBACK CONTROL OF HORMONE
PRODUCTION
 Feedback loops are
used extensively to
regulate secretion
of hormones in the
hypothalamic-
pituitary axis. An
important example of
a negative feedback
loop is seen in control
of thyroid hormone
secretion.
INPUTS TO ENDOCRINE
CELLS
NEURAL CONTROL
Neural input to hypothalamus
stimulates synthesis and secretion of
releasing factors which stimulate
pituitary hormone production and
release.
MEKANISME KONTROL FEED BACK
 Mekanisme kontrol feed back merupakan aspek penting
dalam menjamin fungsi fisiologis berjalan dengan
normal.
 Dua sistem feed back hormon :

1. Sistem Feed Back Positif

2. Sistem Feed Back Negatif
 Kontrol feed back yang paling penting bagi hormon
adalah sistem feed back negatif, yaitu konsentrasi
hormon yang tinggi di dalam plasma akan menyebabkan
produksi hormon tersebut berkurang, demikian
sebaiknya melalui sistem feed back positif.
FEEDBACK CONTROL
Negative feedback is most common:
for example, LH from pituitary
stimulates the testis to produce
testosterone which in turn feeds back
and inhibits LH secretion.

Positive feedback is less common:

examples include LH stimulation of
estrogen which stimulates LH surge
at ovulation.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK EFFECTS OF
CORTISOL
SUBSTRATE-HORMONE
CONTROL

Glucose and insulin:

as glucose increases it
stimulates the pancreas to
secrete insulin
FEEDBACK CONTROL OF INSULIN BY
GLUCOSE CONCENTRATIONS
HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY
 The hypothalamus-pituitary unit is the most
dominant portion of the entire endocrine system.

 The output of the hypothalamus-pituitary unit

regulates the function of the thyroid, adrenal and
reproductive glands and also controls somatic
growth, lactation, milk secretion and water
metabolism.
HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY GLAND
HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY
 Pituitary function depends on the
hypothalamus and the anatomical
organization of the hypothalamus-
pituitary unit reflects this relationship.

 The pituitary gland lies in a pocket of

bone at the base of the brain, just below
the hypothalamus to which it is connected
by a stalk containing nerve fibers and
blood vessels. The pituitary is composed
to two lobes : anterior and posterior.
HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY GLAND
HYPOTHALAMUS AND PITUITARY GLAND
POSTERIOR PITUITARY: NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
 Posterior pituitary: an outgrowth of the
hypothalamus composed of neural tissue.

 Hypothalamic neurons pass through the neural

stalk and end in the posterior pituitary.

 The upper portion of the neural stalk extends

into the hypothalamus and is called the median
eminence.
HYPOTHALAMUS AND
POSTERIOR PITUITARY

Midsagital view
illustrates that
magnocellular
neurons
paraventricular and
supraoptic nuclei
secrete oxytocin and
vasopressin directly
into capillaries in the
posterior lobe
ANTERIOR PITUITARY: ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
 Anterior pituitary: connected to the
hypothalamus by the superior
hypophyseal artery.

 The anterior pituitary is an amalgam

(campuran) of hormone producing
glandular cells.
HYPOTHALAMUS AND
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
Midsagital view
illustrates
parvicellular
neurosecretory cells
secrete releasing
factors into
capillaries of the
pituitary portal
system at the median
eminence which are
then transported to
the anterior pituitary
gland to regulate the
secretion of pituitary
hormones.
HYPOTHALAMUS/
PITUITARY AXIS
HYPOTHALAMIC RELEASING FACTORS
FOR ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

 Travel to adenohypophysis via

hypophyseal-portal circulation.

 Travel to specific cells in anterior

pituitary to stimulate synthesis and
secretion of trophic hormones.
 HYPOTHALAMIC RELEASING HORMONES
Hypothalamic releasing
hormone
Corticotropin releasing hormone
(CRH)
Thyrotropin releasing hormone
(TRH)
Growth hormone releasing
hormone (GHRH)
Somatostatin
Gonadotropin releasing hormone
(GnRH) a.k.a LHRH
Prolactin releasing hormone
(PRH)
Prolactin inhibiting hormone
(dopamine)
Effect on anterior pituitary
Stimulates ACTH secretion
Stimulates TSH and Prolactin
secretion
Stimulates GH secretion
Inhibits GH (and other
hormone) secretion
Stimulates LH and FSH
secretion
Stimulates PRL secretion
Inhibits PRL secretion
ANTERIOR PITUITARY: ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
The anterior pituitary produces six peptide
hormones:

 prolactin,
 growth hormone (GH),
 thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH),
 adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),
 follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and
 luteinizing hormone (LH).
POSTERIOR PITUITARY :
NEUROHYPOPHYSIS

The posterior pituitary produces two peptide

hormones:

 oxytocin,
 antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin,
ANTERIOR PITUITARY CELLS AND
HORMONES
Cell type Pituitary Product Target
population
Corticotroph 15-20% ACTH Adrenal gland
b-lipotropin Adipocytes
Melanocytes
Thyrotroph 3-5% TSH Thyroid gland
Gonadotroph 10-15% LH, FSH Gonads
Somatotroph 40-50% GH All tissues,
liver
Lactotroph 10-15% PRL Breasts
gonads
ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES
 GROWTH HORMONE (GH)

 Growth hormone (GH) is a peptide anterior pituitary hormone

essential for growth.
 GH-releasing hormone stimulates release of GH.
 GH-inhibiting hormone suppresses the release of GH.
 The hypothalamus maintains homeostatic levels of GH.
 Cells under the action of GH increase in size (hypertrophy) and
number (hyperplasia).
 GH also causes increase in bone length and thickness by
deposition of cartilage at the ends of bones. During adolescence,
sex hormones cause replacement of cartilage by bone, halting
(menghentikan) further bone growth even though GH is still
present.
 Too little or too much GH can cause dwarfism or gigantism
(acromegaly) , respectively.
THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH)
 Hypothalamus receptors monitor blood levels of
thyroid hormones.
 Low blood levels of Thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH) cause the release of TSH-releasing
hormone from the hypothalamus, which in turn
causes the release of TSH from the anterior
pituitary.
 TSH travels to the thyroid where it promotes
production of thyroid hormones, which in turn
regulate metabolic rates and body temperatures.
POSTERIOR PITUITARY :
NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
 Oxytocin stimulates powerful uterine
contractions which trigger (cepat) labor and
delivery of infant and milk ejection. Also
promotes sexual arousal and nurturing. Positive
feedback.

 ADH stimulates kidney tubules to reabsorb and

conserve water. It is released in response to high
solute concentration in the blood and inhibited by
low solute concentration.
 Hyposecretion of ADH results in diabetes
insipidus.