PROFESSOR. DUNCAN · '"''' ~~"'.

Seepag~'.·:1~h~ough-. ~ SoiJ s; \ •• '1'

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 Virginia Tech The Charles E. Via, Jr.
Department of Civil Engineering
.·;.";-:%.<"Ir:~:•.

CE 4564 Seepage Through Soils

-·~-

Reference Materials

.~·.

Prepared by J. M. Duncan

August, 1989
Virginia Polytechnie.Institute and State
Department of Civil Engineering;,
.. 104 Patton Hall · ·:
Blacksbur~.- Virginia 24061

I
Virginia Tech The Charles E. Via, Jr.
Department of Civil Engineering

CE 4564 Seepage Through Soils

Section Contents

1 References

2 "Seepage Through Dams," by Arthur Casagrande

3 Data on Hell Hole Dam and the flood that washed it away

4 Example flow nets

5 Notes on the permeability of soils

6 Line of seepage at boundaries between zones of differing

permeability

7 Notes on free surface flow nets

8 Carstens and May's chart

9 Notes on flow toward wells

10 Notes on multiple well systems

11 Erosion and piping

12 Sherard and Dunnigan's filter criteria

13 Seepage control
Section 1 References
Virginia Tech Department of Civil Engineering

CE 4564

SEEPAGE THROUGH SOILS

Recommended References

Flow Nets

Casagrande, A. "Seepage through Dams," in Contributions to Soil Mechanics,

1925-1940, Boston Society of Civil Engineers, Boston, 1940.

Cedergren, H. R. (1967) Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets, John Wiley & Sons,
New York.

Numerical Techniques

Scarborough, J. B. Numerical Mathematical Analysis, John Hopkins Press,

Baltimore, MD, 4th Edition, 1958.

Nielsen, K. L., Methods in Numerical Analysis, McMillan Co., New York,

1956.

Salvadori, M. G. and Baron, M. L., Numerical Methods in Engineering, Prentice-

Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1961.

Zienkiewicz, O. C., Meyer, P. and Cheung, Y. K., "Solution of Anisotropic

Seepage by Finite Elements,_" Journal of the Engineering Mechanics
Division, ASCE, Vol. 92, No. EMl, Proc. Paper 4676, February, 1966,
pp. 111-120.

Analogue Techniques

Selim, M.A., "Dams on Porous Media," Transacations, ASCE, Vol. 112, 1947.

Vreedenburgh, C. G. R. and Stevens, 0., "Electric Investigations of Underground

Water Flow Nets," Proceedings of the First International Conference
on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1936.

Rel'tov, B. F., "Study of Seepage in Spatial Problems by Electrical Analogues,"

Transactions of the Second Congress on Large Dams, Washington, Vol. 5,
1936 (Models using graphite, water and sand).

Duncan, J.M., "Three-Dimensional Electrical Analogy Seepage Model Studies,"

Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, Technical Report,
No. 3-619, 1963. (models using copper sulfate solution).

Javandel, I., Verification of Analytic Solutions for Partial Penetration

Wells by Mathematical nad Heat Transfer Models, M. Sc. Thesis, University
of California, 1965, (Models using heat flow in steel plate).

I- I
 CE 4564, Recommended References, page 2

{ Mathematical Analysis

Harr, M. E. and Dean, R. C., ''Analysis of Seepage Problems, Journal of the

Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, October, 1961.

Harr, M. E., Groundwater and Seepage, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.

Muskat, M., The Flow of Homogeneous Fluids through Porous Media, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1937; reprinted by J. W. Edwards, Publisher, Inc., Ann
Arbor, 1946.

Scheidegger, A. E., The Physics of Flow through Porous Media, McMillan & Co.,
New York, 1957.

Carshaw, H. S. and Jaeger, J.C •. , Conduction of Heat in Soils, Oxford Press,

Second Edition, 1959.

Erosion and Piping

Cedergren, H. R. (1967), Seepage, Drainage and Flow Nets, John Wiley & Sons,
New York.

Sowers, G. F., (1979), Introductory Soil Mechanics and Foundations: Geotechnical.

Engineering, Fourth Edition, McMillan Publishing Co. Inc., New York.

Sherard, J. L., Woodward, R. J., Gizienski, S. F., and Clevenger, W. A. (1967),

Earth and Earth-Rock Dams, John Wiley & Sons.

U.S.B.R. (1965), Design of Small Dams, U. S. Bureau of Reclamation, U. S.

Government Printing Office.

Volpe, R. C. and Kelly, W. E. (1985), Seepage and Leakage from Dams and
Impoundments, Proceedings of Symposium, Geotechnical Division, ASCE.

Sherard, J. L., Dunnigan, L. P. and Decker, R. S. (1976), "Identification

and Nature of Dispersive Soils," Journal of the Geotechnical Division,
ASCE, Vol. 102, No. GT4, pp. 287-301.

ASTM (1977), Dispersive Clays, Related Piping and Erosion in ~eotechnical

Projects, ASTM STP No. 623, edited by Sherard and Decker.

1-2
 Section 2

"Seepage Through Dams," by Arthur Casagrande

This paper is one of the classics of the soil mechanics literature.·

Casagrande was a master teacher, and the course on seepage through
dams that he taught at Harvard in the 1930's, 40's, and SO's has
been emulated in many departments of civil engineering throughout
the world. CE 4564 is a third-generation adaptation of Casagrande's
course, stemming from a course on seepage taught by Professor H. B. Seed
at the University of California, Berkeley. Professor Seed studied
under Professor Casagrande -at Harvard.
...

··-~··~-·-----·- ·-----.-------
.. ·---------
Originally puhlisltcd ;,,
Jo11r,.al of the N C'lll England Water Works Associatio,.,
June, 1937

New England Water Works Association

ORQANIZED 1882.

Vol. LI. June, 1937. No. 2

SEEPAGE THROUGH DAMS.

BY ARTHUR CASAGRANDE.•
IR*,...,.,., u. 19!6.J
CO)l"TE~TS •
.\. Introduction.
B. Darcy's Law for the Flow of Water through Soils.
C. General DitTerential Equation for the Flow of Wat.er through Homogeneous Soil.
D. Forchheimer'11 Graphical Solution.
E. Seepage through Daml!; General Con11idern.tion11.
F. Set-page through Homogeneoua Uiotropic Earth. Dams.
a. Approximate Solution for or <30".
b. Approximate Solution for a>30".
c. Solution for a Hori&ontal Discharge Surface (•·- 180").
d. Approximate Solut.ions for Ove'rhan,;ing Discharge Surfaces(!)()"<• <180°).
G. Set-page through Anisotropic Soils.
H. Hemaru on the Design of Earth Dams and Levees.
1. Seepage through Composite Sections.
J. Comparison between Forchheimer's Graphical :\lethod, Hydraulic :\Jo<lel Tests f\nd
the Fleetric Analogy ;\(ethotl•
.\ppenuix 1.
a. Defteetion o( Flow Linesuue to Change in Permeability.
h. Trani;fer Conditiona for Line of Seef>8.ll;e at llounda.ries; General Remarks.
c. Dischargv into an Overha.nging Slope.
J. Transfer Conditions for Line of Seepage at Boundary between Soils of Ditierent
Permeability .
. e. Singular l'oints in a Flow )<let.
Appendix II.
a. Graphical Procedure for Determining Interaect.ion between Discharge Slope and
Huie l'arahola. ·
b. Comparilon between Hamel's Theoret.ica.I Solution and the Propoeed Approiti•
mate Methoda. ·
c. Graphical Solution by Meam of the Hodograpb.
Bibliography.
•.u.iauin& Prol-0t u1 CiYil J::ngineerina, U"nard GradU&te Sc:bool al Enaineerina, C~mbricip, 1'1-.
295

2.-)
 A. INTRODUCTION.

l1ntil about ten years ago, the design of earth dams and dikes wu
based almost exclusively on empirical knowledge and consisted largely
of ndoptinit the cro..'IS-S('clion of successful dnm~, with little regnrd to diller-
cnrl'l! in rlui.mcter of 110il and foundntion condition!!. At prc!lcnt, we are
in a p<'riod in which the behavior of dams, particularly those which have
failed, is analysed in the light ol modern soil mechanics. The understanding
and knowledge thus accumulating is being used as the basis for a more
scientific approach to the design of such earth structures.
1. '
The most outstanding progress in thi; subject relates to the question of C-11filtj "'s-~ j

ettpage beneath dams and dikes and to the effert of seepage on the stability D1l<:ht:ltye lirloclf'J
of these structures. F'ltmdation failures due to seepage, commonly known Hydm.Pt<: {;f'tltd!flnf
as "piping," were, for the first time, correctly explained by Terzaghi (I)•
who developed what may be termed the "mechanics of piping." Later, 17,._ d' S:rrnple
Terzaghi (2, 3 and 4), called attention to the importance of the forces nm•
created within earth dams and concrete dams, due to the percolation of
N "·ater. The practical application of this information has lagged behind our
understanding of these forces partly because of theoreticnl difficulties of
N an11.lyzing problems of seepage. It is only in recent years that substantial
Fco. I.- DAacr's LAW roa Fl

progress has been made in the solution of problems of seepage and ground
water flow with free or open surface, of the flow through anisotropic ma-
terials, and of the conditions or flow through joint planes of different
materials.

B. 1
DARCT 8 LAW FOR THE f"LOW O.' WATER THROUGH 8011..s.

The flow or water through soils, so far as it affects the question of

IM'Cpage through dams, follows Darcy's empirical 11\w, which states that the
amount of flow i1 directly proportional lo the h11,fra11lic gmdient. Thi:i lRw
ran be expressed either in the form:
V 0 "" k j
or {l)
Q=kiAI
in which the symuols have the following meaning:
v0 = disd11\rge velocityt
k =coefficient of pPrn1Pahility
i = hydrnulir grnrlicnt
0 =quantity of w:1kr
A =area
I= time furr:!l 's l.o.v : lJ • k. •
In Figure I the meaning of Darcy's law is illustrated in simple form.
A prismatic or eylindriC'Rl ~oil sample is exi 'd ou the ldt side to I\ l11•1nl
r~Jm (t) ;:. .,. !
iJ 1 n ;•t
•Numtnl• reftr to hibhoeraph)' at the Htd of thi! 1 For three dimt!n;,ion:1 ;I;' ,. ;i-:;;
tTbia un.\tt z:.ot bl- contu.d "itb the lttPAltt'! veliW"if r ·. rt wt1irh e- rat In or volwne of v()idi
';~;,.;~;nA'L !J1Fn:11.-
lo •olumf of aolid malt~r. 1·11• avtort1~·_. w11t-;.:y throuivh t11~ :i"" ~prneotttl h 1 th~ u.-piuce 'ftlO<"it)',
•bit. the dJsehu&e ulocily d~ttrminl"a the 'i1u.rntH.y of ftow. THROU<'H J'
of water h1, and on the right side to a smaller head h1• As a result, water By substituting Equation (3) in E
will flow through the sample at a rate directly proportional to the hydraulic general differential equation for the stead:
soils. This has the Corm of a Laplace diffe
gradient, i =hi -hi. Jf, for example, the diffrrenee in head (h1 -h1) in Fig-
l a'h a2h i
uro I is douhlrrl, the quantity of ~eepnge will nlso he doubled. This linear -+-+·
ox' oy' •
rrlntionship suggests thnt the flow of wnter through the voids of most In our problem of seepage through c
soils po~scssrs the charncteristirs of laminar flow. the two-dimensional cnse which is sntisfiec
Darcy's law is frcq11ently attacked as being incorrect. In general these
a'h a'h
atta<'ks are hascrl on misinterpretation of test results or improper tcrhnique -
ax'+oy'
-
of testing. In many cases they are due to loss of internal stability of the
soil under the action of flowing water. This equation represents two families oft
The rrndcr may be assured that this law is valid for the study of (See Reference 5, p. 24 and 25.) In h3
seepage through dams. known respectively as the flow 1i11es and I
equal head).
c. GENERAL Dff'FERESTIAL EQUATION FOR TllE FLOW
D. FoRCHHEtMER's GR.A
OF WATER Tt1nouo11 Uot.t:oGENEous So1L.
Although the general differential eq
If water is percolating through a homogeneous mass of soil in such a
for few and simple cnses of se<'page, we r1
manner that the voids of the soil are completely filled with water and no
change in the size of the voids takes place, the quantity entering from one
or several directions into a small element of volume of the soil (as shown
in Figure 2) must be equal to the amount of water Rowing out on the other
faces of this element of volume during any giv!'!n ell'me11t of time. This
c~ndition, which is a statement of the fact that both water and soil are
incompressible, can be expressed for the three-dimensional cnse by the
following equation:
au av aw 0
-+-+-= (2)
ax iJy iJz
This is known IL'.! the equation of continuity. (See Reference 5.) In this
equation, u, 11 and w are the three components of the discharge velocity u.,.
- represents t t1e hy(I rau 1·1c grad'ient .m tie
Jf dh . o r fl ow an d -
I d'1rcction dh, -'lh
di dx dy
dh
and are its three components, then Darcy's law:
di
dh
11.,=k-
dl
ran also be expressed hy the following eq11ntions: FIG. 3.- FLOW NET BENEATll

14 ,, .Jh '1
iJ.;r, pro1wrtie,; of flow lines and rq11ipntmtial
tio11~ for pmc!itally nil two-dinwnsionnl
II= k cih
iJy
~ (3) wus dt•\·isPd hy Forrhhcinwr (.1), twt>nty-1
To •·xplnin this p;raphicnl rrn'thPd,
\
w = k ilh set>p:i:• '":lth a sl11••·t pile wall, shmni i
surf:..- line of <'qua! heat! Pr "" i•rp
 equnl to the height of water standing above the ground surface, which is h
on the left side, and iero on the right side or the wall. The bottom of the
pt'rvious soil stratum is a flow line; incidentally the longest flow line. The
sidrs of the sheet pile wall and the short width at the bottom of the wall
or•· till' ~hortc~t now line.
If, from the infinite number of flow lines' possible within the given
area, we choose only a few in such 11. manner that the llll.me fraction Aq of the
totnl seepage is passing between any pair of neighboring flow lines, and, ' approximately etraight e.nd parallel lim~•. The flow cha
similarly, if we choose from the infinite number of possible equipotential
lin•~s 011?y a few in such a manner that the drop in head Ah between any
p11ir of neighboring equip<>tential lines is equnl to a co~stnnt fraction of the
totnl loss in head h, then the resulting "flow net," Figure 3, possesses the
proJX'rty that the ratio of the sides of each rectangle, bordered by two flow
line~ 11nd two equipotential lines, is constant. (See Reference 5, p. 82.) If
a!I sides of one such rectangle arc equal, then the entire flow net must con-
sist of squares. Conversely, it can be proved that if one succeeds in plotting
two sets of curves so that they intersect at right angl<'.'I, forming sq11ares
and fulfilling the boundary conditions, Uwn one has solved, graphically,
equation ( 4a) for this problem. With t'Xp<'rience, this method c!\n be applied
surcessfully to the most complicatt'd problems of seepage and ground water
NI flow in two.dimensions, including se<'p!\ge with a free surface.
_c Aft<'rliavingplotted a flow net thnt fulfills satisfactorily these necessary
ronditions, one can derive therefrom, by simple computations, any desired
information on quantity of seepn11:e, s<'epap;e pressures, and hydrostatic
uplift. For examplP, the total seepage per unit of length und per unit of
time is determined from the followin11: formula, which is simple to derive
from Darcy's law:
in which 11 1 is the number of 11qu1tres h1•tween two nei~hhoring flow lines,
and 11 2 the number of sq11nres betw1·m two nrighhoring equipotentiftl lines.
The maximum hydm11lic gmdirnt on the disch:tr11:e surface, which
infh1t'nces the safety llfl:uinst "piping" or "!>lows," i,; equl\I to:
i, = Ah
a,
in which a, is the lcngt h of the smalkit sq111\re on the dischnrge surface, as
irnlicntcd in Figure 3, and Ah =}}..., the drop in hrnd hetw<'cn two adjacent
111,.
eqnipotcnlin1 lin<'s.
To 11s,;ist the bei.:innrr in lrar:1ing the gmphical method, the following
s11i;g1·stions ar<' made:
!. l'"" ~very opportunity to stut!y the app<'anw w~tl ·C~matructed flow
wh..-n the picture is sufficiently e.h~nrl..-.' in your wi' lo tlrnw th1~ same !low net
..I
without looking &t the e.v&ilahle eolution; repe&L Lhi1 un
flow net in a satiafactory manner.
2. Four or five flow channels are usually sufficient
of too many flow channels may 1li1tracL the attention fro
exe.mplH t1efl Figures lRb e.nd cJ
:t. Always watch the appearance of the entire ftow m
brfnre the entire flow net is approximately correct.
4. Frequently there are portions of a flow net In 1
width, and the equaree are therefore uniform in eize. Dy
1uch an area, 1U111uming it to coneiat of etraip;ht linee, one
5. The flow net in confined aree.s, limite1l by par
aymmetrical, conaioling of curves of elliptical shape. ( Foi
6. The b<>ginner usually makes the mistake of dra
tween etraight and curved sections of flow linea or equi
that all transitions are smooth, of elliptical or paraholie •
in each channel will change gradually.
7. In general, the first 1U111umption of flow channel
consisting throullhout of equarea. The drop in head betw
, linea corrl'spontling to the arbitrary number of flow ch
int.e~r or the total drop in head. Thus, where the flow n
will remain. For URual purposee this haa no disadvant1
into con@ideration in computatione hy estimating the rati
If, lor the sake or appearance, it is deaired to reaolve th•
it becomes necessary to change the number of flow chan
by a new start. One should not attempt to force the chan
in the neighbouring arc.a, unless the nece88ary correction
8. lloundary conditions may· introduce singularitie
diacusaetl more in detail in Appendix I, e.
\I, A •lischarge face, in contact with air, is neither 1
line. Therefore, the squares alonl( such a boundary ane
boun•lary must fulfill the same condition u the line of 8'
ht>a•I between the points where the equipotential lines in IA
(5)
10. When constructing a flow net containing e. fl'
allllllming: th•• dischMge fare and the dis~harge point 1md
fa,.e until th!' corr<'rt rel11tive poHitions of entrance point
Hen<'e, the scale to whi<'h n flow net with a free surface is
a large portion of the flow net iR finished. For seepal(e fl
practically impo,sible to construct n flow net to a pred
len11th of time.
(6)
E. St=:t.:PAGE TllHOUGll DAMS; GENERAi
ln n!most all prol>kms concerning secpnge
through the foundation of a darn, all bourulnry c,
ev~r. i1: the seepage tlmJ11r;li an eiulh dam or d
upp•~rmn~t flow line is 1101 known, but must first
a eomplicntion. This u•"wr boundary is a frei
referrer! to A.l! the line u_, ·page.
1
net~; Au10111! tlw 1wnil11 11•orcticnl solutiof'
s11rf;11:e t lii·re is one r.. · .. IJ is of partieuln
with 011r prohlr·rn. l '';:;vu, t 1<,11 lti) o
 impervioui1 stratum thnt continues nt a given point into a horizontal
pen·ious stratum, thus repr~enting un open horizontal discharge surface
as shown in Figure 9d. In this case, nil flow lines, including the line of
srepng1', nud nll !'f1Uipotcntinl lines n.re eonfocnl pnrnbolns with point A
ns tlw focu:<.
Fur tlw more common problem of se!'pnge through cross·scctions in
whil·h the di~('harge slope forms an angle with the horizontnl between 0°
am! 180°, su<'h as the open discharge on the downstream face of I\ dam or
dis1·h:1rgc into nn overhanging slope of n very pervious toe, such as a rock

F'm. 5.- DEFLEC'TION or FLow Nr

.(,
"l:
oF SotLs oF D1FftRENT PtRM

)I Conditlo1t1 ,/W'- A:J,,r,1 of ~'f.,Na/'ldfl o.' !..,•

rc:io• r•fltJ'

~I I

(;(1r>t!ro/ Cono'dion for

rl"'tlte Surflx;<i:1
(L- ofJi11poy• or ~>i l'hwl.lhe)
-------~,-~~
o)
T ,
II}
·---·-----·--
.

C6t/IW'lldlllM'f1 j'or A:J..,f ~ Onolw,.,,. of' ln

""' T f ""'.I. l"-.,; ~ ~-~

llt>t:...._.,,, ,"bt-4
,,.,. NI r' :ao•
Fm. 4.-- GENERAL CONDITION FOR LINE OF SEEPAGE,

fill tor, one hlls to use f'ithcr a graphical solution based on tlu' construction
oft he flow 1wt, or some npproximate 11111.! hem at iclll solution. In either casf'
om· n111st introduee certain conditions that the free wn,ter surface or line,
of ,;1•1•1i:1gr. must alwnys fulfill.
Thr fir~! condition is that the elevntion of the point of intersection
.t'r ) t.,
of 1rny equipotPntial line with the line of St'('JlllJ!:P represrnts the head nlong
tlii.;; rquipotcntial line. Ir we construct a flow net consisting of ;'qllurt':;<,
thf'n it follows thnt 1111 int<'rscctions of rqt1ipot•·11tinl lines with the lilH'! of
srl'p:li!,<' must be <'qniclistant in the vcrliCl\l dirrdion. These distances.
h
illw.:tratl'd in FigurP 4, rrprcsent the actual drop in head Ah= - between
.. ·fl .... ... • /J • 0
1111y two neighboring cquipotl'ntial lin<':<. 1)
Tl1e ~t·('o!ld <'OtHlitiun rrfers to tilt' ~!opt'. of the line of $Cepngc 11!. the
Fto. 6.- ENTRANCE, DtsCllARGE ANO TRANS'
point of intn,;1•etion with nny bonndnr.\', " · for rxnmplc nl the points of ScEPi\GE.
eutr:rnre tllld disrhnrge nml Rt i la· l>o1mc_. ;nc lwtwet•n dilTPrPnl loils

--·
 (See fij!;ure 5). By considl'rations biv;ed on the general properties of a With this e..~umption and the conditio11
flow net, one ran arrive at the conditions which must be fulfilled at such !towing through any cross-section per unit of
points of transfer. Jn App;;ndix I are assembled derivations for typical can derive the differential equation for the lir
1·11..~1·11. If, for f'Xnmpl<', the downstrmm fnrr is inclin('(l lrs.~ than or <'q1Jal dy
to 110°, 011<' finil~ thnt thr line of l'll'f'llflp;e must he tnngrnt to that face at the
q - ky-
dx
disrh11rp:1• point. Howcvl'r, for all overhn11ging slopes, the tnllll:l'llt at the The ~olution of equntion (7-) yields the equat
11iS1·hargr. point must be vertiral. A summary of the possible rombinntions that the quantities h, d, and a, in Figure 7, ar
is assembled in Figure 6. dary conditions y=h for X""d, and dyjdz=um
integration leads to the following formula for
F. SEEPAGE THROUGH HoMOGENEous hmTllOPIC EAllTll DAMS. mines the discharge point C of the line of see1
of the dam:
a. Approximate Solution for a<.~0°. The first approximate mathe-
matical solution fur determining the quantity of se<'page nn<I the line of
1wt•p11ge through a homogeneous earth section on an impervious base WM
a = d- - -
· ws a
g.a--·
cos'

(o)
q = k a sin a tan a
These equations differ from their origine
~ Cb)
tance a, instrad of its vertical projection, a cha1
I
u basis for all theoretical developments in this

....__ _ _ d

:!sl!g({'""". ,,.,,.,,., ,,.,,.,

"'--"""' ' .... ~ lf,...,..............-

~~.vfr, a•cf..~Y~ .. £ .... (A)
For Oc a c JO"

~ (lfJt)
'4.u._,,,.,,, '. lry·~
. & ...,,,. .. • -.-y.-,• - .;~·.... ... (8)
,,.,. 0 • • .. 60.
~ - - - fil•«I ,,,,,.,,, l"'flO#fll»l>I•
NCt.ll"WCY '°fD to ti • f'O*_
/tor 1/i/111f1'-' ~. ii '' wFlicirnt
t• • f ~ .. (ht ~ ti' tn •quofron ftl}
.F10. 8.- METHOD or LoeATING Poun
Oroph!c.1 :Jo/ufl"" °' !'".,,.,,.,/,, (IJJ

FIG. 7.- GRAPHICAL DETERMINATION OF. D1st"HAROlt POINT J'OR a<oo·. of this change resides in the pos.'libility of
distance a by means of a simJlle construction•
proposed indrpendently in 1916 by Schafft>rnak (7) in Austria, and Herson The ordinate through the known point B or t
(8), in Holland. It is balled un Dup11it's (9) /\Ssumption• thnt in every point to its intcrsertion 1 with the discharge slo
of 11 verticnl line rhe hydrnulic gradient i!i <'nnstnnt l\llll equnl to the slope through the points I and A, with its center oi
horizontnl line through Bis intersected with,
t!J of the line of seepage at its intcrsf'rtion with that v<'rticnl !inf'. This and the dishrnce f-A projected onto the circl
d.c
step is to project. the distance 1-3 onto the di:
a. <sumption represents a gootl approxim11tio11 for the average hydraulic
:lesiml di,;ehargc point C. The proof for t
gnulicnt in such a vertical line providing the slope of the line of S<'<'puge is
readily found !Jy compnring this constructio
rt•l11t iw!y tint.
·----------------- not he discussrd i1n!1·tail.
-On tl11a u.me ... umptioa a.rt bated \he commvn lu4tthud:1 (•f cumputifl& ar(1ut1d water How toward
...i...
 ':',

ot • IPO•

c:x. • 1so•
f',fJJQ f ion of
lint! of Set!P"'Jle
a. • t. f(fd'.f.'-.
'1 • r.1:·a. ;.1:..y.
c) ~ •0.14
4.,.434
a)
Fie. 9.- C'oMPARtsoN BrrwnN BASIC P11.11.Aaou. u11> Fww NJ;TS FOR VAR1oue D1!1CHAROE SLOPEit.
 For the solution of many problems it is suffirient to know the discharge
point of the line of seepagr. If it is desired to draw the entire line of seepage,
from the known point R to the dischllrge point C, one can make use of the
~rnphirnl mrt hod, llhown in Figmc 8, for t.hr. rnpid construction of any
n11111l11•r of point~ on R pnrnholn for whieh nrr known two point~, the tnngent
to the pnrnhPln nt one of thr~t' points, nnd the direction of the llxis.
Thro1111:h point R, Figure 8, one draws a line purnllrl to the nxis and
drtrrmines its intersection T with the t1U1grnt. Then one dividrs the
distanr1·s R-T nnd C-T into nn arbitrnry n11mhrr of <'qunl parts, such as
four pllrts. Points/, fl anti Ill are thrn rnnnrctrd with point C, and
throu11:h points /, i and 3 one draw~ linrs pamll<'I to tlw axis. The points
where the liurs through 1 and /, f and //, etc., intrrsrct, llre points of
the pamhola.
b. Approximate Solution for a>S0°. The approximate solution by
mrnns of rquation (8), or the corresponding grnphical method shown in
Figme 7h, gi\·rs sntisfactory rrsults for slope~ of a <30°. For steeper slopes
tl11• d1•viation from the correct valurs inrren.'lf'S rapidly beyond tolerahle
limit~. · ky'
The causes for this de\'iation become apparent from a study of the
Row net for a slope of a-= 60°, shown in Figure 9a. One ean see that in the
\'icinity of the discharge point the size of the squarrs along the vertical line
throllgh the discharge point decrra.'l<'S only slightly towards the ba.'le. The
average hydrf\ulic gradient along this \'ertical line is larger than the
hydraulic gradient dy along the line of srepnge by less than IO per cent.
ds
lfowr\•rr, the sine of 60°, whid1 is the true hydraulic 11:radient for ti~ line
of serpage RI thr dischargr point, is only about one-hulf of the tangent of
60° usrd according to Dup11it's assumption. Henre the sef'page cari he
annly~rd with a satisfnctory d1·grl'e or accuracy by means of the following
P<JllAtion:
(IO)
This improvement wa~ propo~rd by Lf'o ('asa11:mrnle (tO).
Tl11• Jiffer!'nre hetwern th<' 11sr of thr tnnµ;Pnt nnd the sine of the slope
of tl11• linr of s!'rpaµ;e is hP~t ill11stmt1·d hy tlll' following 1111m1•riral rom-
p:uison for \'nrio11s an~lrs:
s1.,..
:m•
,..
0 57i
sin
0.500
1i0° 1.7;1'.! O.'\tili
~I()" OJ 1.000
Hem·t•, for slopl·s <30° hoth mrthods 11111y l1r 11sPd for pm1'lienl purposes
with rrpml 1ul\'ant11µ;<'. For slopr~ > :l0° thr dr\·intion hy using diy h<'romeli
<I
-
intolerably large, while the use of ~ is very satis
ds
60°; and if deviations of 25 per cent. are permitted,
to 90°, thllt is, for a vertical dischllrge face.
Gilboy (12) succeeded in finding nn implicit I!
whirh is recommended where 11:reater !lccuracy ii
obtained by means of the graphical solution. Th
po~ition of the discharge point, as obtained by 01
from equation (10), were investigllted by G. ~·Re)
Using the symbols shown in Figure 7a, llnd
vertical the hydraulic gradient is equal to dv, eqt
ds
ential equation for the line of seepage. The solutior
readily be expressed by rectangular coordinates :r
12 and 13.) However, the use of sands., measured 1
does not represent any practical difficulty in the a
method. The quantity a, which determines the dis
or seepage, is found by a simple integration:
qa -= - + constant
2
Boundary 11 .. a, y • a ain a, q - kll
Conditions { /J ... s., y - h
a_ _. / -,-_--h-,-
11
0 V.11 0
sin1 a
q - k a 11in1 a
Again, the quantities employed in these eq
original form as presented in References IO and
graphical solution. This graphical solution of equ
in Figure 7c, and can be eruiily verified. It requirei
the discharge point. The length (11 0 -a) is sim1
straight line from B to C1, shown as a dotted line i
error which is introduced when (s 0 -a) is replaced
negligible effect on the positions of the discharge p
a <60°, it is entirely tolcmble to replace the lei
distance from AU= Vh 1 +d1, thus eliminating ti
construction is very similar to that shown in Figur<
-- --
is found by rotating distance C 1ll, or AR, around p
Ir deviations up to 25 per cent. are permitt•
11 0 - v' h1 +r1 2 = A fl may be used 1tlso for slopes UJ
slope the formula for u is reduced to the following•
a= v'h 1 +<P-d
In other words, for a vertical discharge face the
 point for th<' line of sel'fll\l!;C Cl\n be llpproximntNI by the differl"nce bet ween tests by rn<'nns of grarihical solutions, of wliir.h a f1
the distllnre A!/= V~ and its horizontal projrction d. show11 in Figure 9. Thcisc solutions check well with
just referred to, and nrc illustrated for one exnm!
c. SuT111ion for a /lorizonlal Discharge Surface (a 180°). In 1931, stmlies ronvincf'd the author thnt Forchhrimcr'a g
Prnf1·s.~or l\ozi·ny (6) p11bfo:hrd 11. rigorous solution for the two--<limrn- drtl'rminntion or the flow lll't rnn he utilizf'<l for
~ionnl prohlt•m of ground wnter flow over n horizontal imperviou." ~urface problrms with a free surfar<•. The application of I
which continue;; at n given point into a horizon till discharge fll.rr, fl« ;:;hown such problems rrquires "onsidcrablc skill. Thil:I e:
in Figure 9d. Kozt>ny's theorrticRI solution yields, for the flow linl's nnd exten~ive use of this method. Solutions such as t
(·qui·potentinl linC'5, two familit•s of confocal parabolas, with point A, where
1he impervious and p<>rvious sections meet, Rs the focus.
The eq\llltion for the line of seepll.ge Cl\n .be conveniently exprei:;ied in
th<' following form:
y'-yo•
x-=--- (14)
2y.
in which x and y are the coordinates with the focus as origin, and y0 the
N ordinate at the focus x = 0.
r If the line of seepage is determined by the coordinates d and h of one
__D known point, then the focal distance ao and the ordinate y0 fl.re computed
from the following equation:
y J --
Oo"" ~ - - (vd'+h'-d) (15)
!t f
for \\·hich a graphical solution is recommended. (St>e Figure llc.) The
quantity y0 is simply equal to the difference brtween the distnnce V d"+h1
from thr given point (d, h) to the focus of the parnboln, and the ahsrissa d.
The focal distance a., is equal to one-half the ordinatr y.,.
Jn addition to these simple relationships it is of advantage to remember
that the tangent to the line of seepage at x = 0 arid y-= y. i!S inclinf'd at 45°.
The quantity of seepage per unit of width is, 1tccording to l.;:ozeny's Fm. 10.- MODEL TEST OH 0ITAWA fiTAHDARD fiAHt
solution: Dl8CHAROE SLOPE.
q • 2ka 0 = ky 0 (Hi) :Xole tone or r .. 11itlary saturation above line of 11eepn
It is indeed fortunate that tlie problem of sPt•page with a horizontal Afltr /,, CaJagrandt (10).
discharge face has such a simple solution, not only berRuse of the fact that
in modnn earth dam 1rnd levee design horizontal drainage blanket>' in the required many hours of work; som<'times several
clownstream section are assuming considerable importnnc1>, hut aliso ht>ca1111e CR.Se,- bcemtse of the complirntions that thC' un
this solution permits fairly n•liable and simple estimates for the po:<ition introduces into such serpng1• prolJl<'tnS.
of the line of sttpage for overh1rnging diseharge slopes. Aflt>r sufficil'lll grnplii<'nl solutions to permi1
d. Approximate Sol11tian1J for Overhanging Discharge Surfaces or the line of set'flllgC for 1111y slop1•:; G0°<a<t80°,
(90°<a<t80°). Although the determination of the linr of seepage and its
the author's nt t1•11tio11 was cnlll'd to l\m.t•ny's (G)
a• 180°. This proved a spll'ndid opportunity fo
point of exit for an OVl'rlmnging clischn.rge fnce, SlWh ns a rock fill tof', is
of importan"e in the design of earth dams, littl<' attention has been p11i1l to of a purely grnphical imlution of n srrpnge prol
this 11roblPm. Expcrim<'ntnl results were puhlished hy L<'o Casagrande surface. Figure !ld repr1•srnts the origi1rn.I grnphirnl
(IO and 11), which permit a rc1lsonably 11.ccurnte dl'lerminntion of the line
betwrrn this solution and the theoretical solution
of seepage. Later, in 1933, the a•1•hor rlll'rkcd the results of thl'se model cent. for nny point on the line of srepagP. Thl'rcfo1
to i ncludc the tlll'oret i<'nl solution ~11 : :.,u rt• 9d. T
 of the graphical method Rhould convince critics that the method iR not a
countered in earth dams, are about ± 5 per cent
plaything but hn.s great merit and that the time spent on acquiring sufficient
was determined for a relatively short distance
skill in this method is well invested.
discharge point of the line of seepage, in consid1
To simplify the application of the graphical solution for very i;teep and
of stratification in earth dams which is discussed i
ovt'rl111n11:in11: disclmrRe slopc!l such n.s nrc 11hown in Figurrs 9, n, b and c,
Having plotted the b!l.~ic parabola and deter
th<'Se flow nets were compared with Kozcny's theoretical solution for a
by means of the c-a relation, Figure 11, and kr
horizontal discharge face. For the sake of simplicity, the line of ~eepage
seepage line at the discharge point, it is an ell.Sy 1
for a= 180°, which is represented by equations (14) and (15), and Figure 9d,
degree of approximation the entire line of seepag
will be referred to as the "basic parabola."
cases in Figure 9.
In Figure 9, the be.sic parabola is plotted into every case illustrated.
The basic parabola and the actual line of seepage approach each other very TOii acw
quickly and for practical purposes may be 11.SSumed to be identical for
points whose ordinates h are less than their horizontal distanct's from the ,,
(()#/lf/1f ()II " " ' ' " ' " "
a• .t·,/~'- --11!_'
~
1'

discharge point C. By comparing the actual line of seepage for a given ,.. """"•""'°" '" "' re
discharge slope with the basic parabola, we find that the intersection of this

. . ...\.,.
.
~~
parabola with the discharge face is a distance M above thP discharge point
of the line of seepage. The ratio c - ~ (see Figure 9) gradually de-
,
\'--> a+ t.11
creases 111·ith increasing angle a. The ratio C is equal to 0.32 for a"' 60°;
" _;__
•. '··/(..pr;jr-~}
for a vertical surface (a -90°) it is 0.26; and for a -180° the ratio C is, • fOll '0"<•<~ '"" ....... fOll 4111"t•
0 of course, equal to 1ero. FIG. II a
Jn order to utilize these relationships for determining the line of
seepage and the discharge point for steep vertical and overhanging slope.~,
there has been plotted in Figure 11 the relationships between the ratio
~ and the angle a. The quantity a+11a is found by interse~ting the
a+M
basic parabola with the discharge slope, an operation that can be perfom1ed
either graphically or mathematically. In both cases one computes or
constnicts first y."" v'di+hr-d, for the known or estimated starting point
of the line of seepage. The graphical dcterminRtion of the intt'n:t'ction C0
is usually prdt'rrrd, since the basic parabola is needrd for the detPrmination
of the line of seepage. The constniction of the parabola is best prrformed Jo' 111" f!I" 110· 110•
a • JlDN Of OIK-l fllCl
in the manner illustrated in Figure 8. For tangent CT, either thl' tangent llOTl: /IOl1iTJ ...._ W{Rl fOIJND llY llNIPriKllL ltr(IH
at the \'ertex of the parnbola, or the tangent under 45° at x = 0 and y = y0
un he used. FIG.//IJ
The points on the curve represl'nting the relation betwt'en a and
c- ~.in Figure llb, are derived from the graphical solutions. Note ,--·-···
I COIYS TRUC T/011
a+M FOJ1 ""•110•
·~
how close to a smooth curve thc~w point~ fir. This is anotlwr demo1H ration ',,''.hi!.
" ,. ,
of the degree of accuracy that can be obtnined by nwans of the graphical _,_...._--+---· ..... !..
mrthod. -·•''
Tht> quantity c is not only a function of the angle a hut it abo varies f/(j JI~

somewhat with the rrltttive position of point~ JI,, or 11 2 , and (' (Fiiturr I Id).
0

The nrnximum variations inc, ~o~ •'. · ~imits that would normally hP en-
Fw. 11.- APPLl<"ATION OF nASIC PARABOLA.,..
]J1sn1.•Ri;E l'o!NT OF LtNi: or~
 e. Correction for Upstream Slope; Quantity of Seepage. Due to the
entrance condition for the line of seepage and due to the fact. that Dupuit's
assumption is not valid for the upstream wedge of a dam, the line of
IM't'pn!!;t' d1•Yi:1trs from thr parnholic shape. For the usual shape of I\ dam,
thrn• i~ nn intlt·l·tiun poi11t. with 11 shnrp curvnturc in the first section of the
li11e uf SC'l'Jlll!/:l', while for a vrrtirnl entrance fnC'e there is only an increase
in rurrnturc without rever:;al of direction.
Fur an accurate srrpage analysis, thrse deviations should be taken into
consideration. Referring to Figure lld, it would be necessary to know in
a1h·nncr the position of one point of the parabolic curve in the vicinity
of tlu• rntrnnre point B. L. Casagrande ha~ chosen the intersection B 1 of
the ordinate throu~h the entrance point with the continuation of the para-
boli1· li11t• or srrpage and has exprrssed the correction BB,= Ai as a function
of d, Ii nnd thr slope of the rntranre fare. A graphical presentation (11)
furilitates the finding or the nrcrssary correct.ion A 1.
Somewhat simpler is the following approach. Instead of selecting
point JJ, for the start of the throrPtiral line of seepage, we choose its intrr-
t\ s!'etion Rz with the upstream water ll'vel. The corresponding correction At
is about ~1 to r~ '.'f the horizontal pr.oj~ction m or the upstream slope, or
for an·rngc rond1hons J.1 ~ 0.3m. Tins HI easy to remember and dispenses
~·ith thr rwerssity for tnhles orgrnph8 for the correction. The determination
of thr line of serpage is then earriPd out with point R1 as the starting point.
The 11rtual shnpl' of the first portion or thl' line of spe1mgr, starting at
point ll, cun en~ily hP skctchrcl in, so that it npprourhes gradually the
p:iraholic t•un·e, ns shown in Figure I Id.
The quantity of srrpage q per unit of lrngth can be cornputrd either
from rquntioll!I (12) or (16). If we suhstitutr in these rquntions the known
q11n11titirs, tlwy nppPnr in the following form:
q- J.:(v'1r 1 +t1 2 - vt1 2 -h 2 colan 2 a) sin'a (17)
nnd q=k(~-d) (18)
Fur the gn'at majority of casrs encountered in earth dnrn design, both
1·q1111t ion:-1 gi\'e practically the same result, sot hnt the simpl(•r equation (18)
~hould he usrd for genrrnl purposrs. In other words, the quantity of serpngr
is prnl'lirnlly indepe11tll'nt of the discharge slopr, nnd is equal to the qunnt it r
that 1·orn•sponds to the hnsic parnhola. Only in those rasrs in which the
stRrti11g point of t hr line of serpage is \'NY 1wnr t 111' di:;rl1nrJ!:l' face will the
ttiIT1·rt·11('t' IJPt Wl'<'ll t lw two equnt inns warrant the use of equal ion (17).
For tht• comp:iratin·ly rarl' l":\se in whil'h the prPsrrwc of tail watrr
must lw C"o11sidl'rt•d in the <il'sign, the dctPrminntion of the line of st•rpngr
und of thl' q11antity cnn hr pPrformPd hy di,·iding the dam horizontally nt
rail \ratt·r ll'\"l'l into an 11ppPr nnd lowt'r "1·1·tion. Tht· line of scrpngr is
dt'!Pm1i11Pd for the 11pp<'r st'l'fion in thP :;:11ne mann(•r ns if the dividinp; line
Wt'rt' an inqu•ryio11S boundary. Thr ~t'<'Jl!IJ!:l' tlirough the lo1\·1·r St't·tiun i~
determined by means of Darcy's law, using the 1
head over the average length of path of perco
gradient. The total quantity of seepage is the sum
through the upper section and the lower section.
this rnther crude approximation agree rcmarkab
obtained from an accurate graphical solution.
Those readers who are interested in data sh<
eeepage tests agree with the computed line of seepa
using the methods described in this chapter, shou
and 11.
G. SEEPAGE THROUGH ANISOTROP]
By a combination of the various methods of 1
outlined, and with proper consideration of boum
marized in Figure 6 and discussed more in detail
arrive at a reliable determination of the line of s1
most complicated cross-sections of earth dam9.
consist of portions with widely different penne
homogeneous section in itself is &S9umed to be isot
the same permeability in all directions. Unfortm
never the ca.se. Even a uniform clean sand, consist
irregular shape, when placed in a glass flume for
up a model darn section, does not produce an iso
orientate themselves in such a manner that the coe
not uniform in all directions but larger in a more or
As a consequence, the entire fl.ow net is markedli
coll8iderable deviations from the theoretical fl<
material.
Only by using a very uniform sand consistinf
by making tests on a sufficiently large scale, to
turbance, can one arrive at test results that are
theory. For this reason most of the tests describec
were carried out on Ottawa standard sand.
Soils, in their natural, undisturbed conditior
in regard to permeability even if they convey to t
being entirely uniform in character. If signs of
then the permeability in the direction of stratifi1
tirnrs greater than that normal to stratification.
soils this rntio can be very much larger than ten.
When soils are artificially drpositcd, a.s in tl
or dike, stratifico.tion develops to a greater or less d
has always been recognized hy engineers as being
rea.son special com1truction methods have been
destroy it. The hydraulic-fill core, during its c<
stirred with long rods in order to break uµ .suatific
 Shcrp~foot rolle~ 11rr effrrti.ve in compncting e11rt.h fills without creating
distinct ~tratification. However, in ~pile of such prer11Utionary 11\l'BSUres,
a .,r111in amount of st.ratification rrmaimi. In addition, it. is practically
imf':S;;ihlf' to pfiminatP 1·on~ic!Pmhlr vnrintions in thr p:rneral rhnrn<•tl!r of
th1• m11tl'ri11l in the horrow pit; p;;p1•1·i1dly vnrintion~ in pPrrtlf'nhility, which
will rl'~trll in sub~tantial vnriations in thr prrmrnbility of the dnm from
layer to layrr. These cannot be rliminatcd by thorough rolling. Evrn the
most carrfully constructed rolled earth dams possess a considerably greater
avernJW permeability in a horizontal than in a vertical direction. Therefore,
thorough investigation of variations in the character of the borrow pit
matrri:ils forms an important part of prrliminnry studies. Taking into
con~iderntion the uncertainties that are always encountered in dealing with
soil deposits and cannot be completely eliminated by the most elaborate
Investigations, it is es.~cnti11l that we should be conservative in the assump-
tions on which the design of an earth dnm is based. This requires sprrial
attention to the possible degree of anisotropy in the dam.
The qurstion of secpnge through anisotropic soils was investigated for
N the first time and solved by Samsioe (14) in 1930. Fortunately the solution
is simple and lends itself readily to practical application. The flow net of
an anisotropic soil docs not pos.~ess the usual characteristics of a flow net.
llowc\•er, it can be reduced, by the application of an appropriate geometric
tr1rnsformation, to an ordinnry flow net. Designating thr maximum and
minimum coefficient of permeability for an anisotropic soil a.~ km•• and
k.,;., it can be shown mathcmatirally (sec Reference 16) that by trnns-
forming the entire rros.<>-section in such a manner that all dimensions in the

direction of k. 0 are reduced by !the factor#. or that all dimensions

k ....

in the direction of k,.;~ are increflSed by the factor Vk"'~,

km;~
the p~oblem i8

again reduced to a solution of Laplarr's equation. Jn other words, the flow

net in the transformed section has the same rharacterist.ic flow lines and
equipotential lines as prrviously diRrussed in this paper. Among otl1ers.
Forchheimer's graphical method nnd all approxinmte method~ suggrRted
in this paper are applicable to the transfornwd ~ertiun. 1\ftPr luwing found
the line of seepage, or the rntire flow net, in the trnnsfnnnPd srction, it is a
simple matter to project this chnrnrtnistic flow net bark into the true
section, in which fluw Jines and cqnipotPntinl lirw~ will not gcncrnlly intrr-
scct at right angles. It should be noted that t Ill' hydrn11lir irrndient at any
point of the flow net and the magnitlllle of :,;er111111:<· prrssurr::i cnn only be
dctrrminecl in the true srction, while the distrih11tion 011f pore pressurr::i und
of hydrostntic uplift t·an he derivrd from eitll<'r srl'tion.
The quantity of seepngc ran be computed from thr trnn~formcd 8eclion
on the basis of the coefficient vf. !·-t·11:w11hility I= Vk,..;. k~-:; For proof
see Hcference 16.
 Further information on seepage through stratified soils, the transfor-
mation theory, and exnmples mny be found in References 15, 16 and 17.
The llpplication of the tTl\nsformntion method is illustrated by the ::!
1implc f'xnmple of n rolled enrtli dnm with n rock fill toe, shown in Figure 12. ~

1'he din11·n~iorn1 iuul Hlopt•s of this llnm nrc tJUch that if n suit1\ble 1mil is u11cd,
~ ~
•
hardly nny doubt would be raised regarding its stability. The rock fill toe ~
lo.
seems to represent ample provision for aafe discharge of seepf\ge water. \J

Indeed, the line of seepage, assuming isotropic soil, does fall well within the :!.
downstream face as shown in Vigure 12a, (coefficient of permeability in l!:
<:I
horizontal direction k,. equal to coefficient in vertical <lirectiun k.). How- t::
....~
~
ever, if this dam is carelessly built of various types of soils with widely
~
different permeabilities, a structure may well result that is many timP.S ~
more pervious in the horizontal direction than in the vertical direction. In ~
.,;;
the example shown in Figure 12, k,."" 9k. was chosen. On the right-hand t;'
side a new cross-section of the dflm is plotted in which all horizontal dimen-

sions are reduced by the factor Vlk.ki. - _!...

3
Then the line of seepage is

detennined in accordance with the methods outlined previously, and pro-

l ,) jecled back into the true cross section. As can be seen in Figure 12a, the
line of seepage for k11 .,. 9k. does intersect the downstream fare, which is an
undc>sirablc condition that mlly in the course of time lead to a pRrtial or
complete failure of the structure.

H. REMARKS ON THE DERION QF EARTH DAM8 AND LEVEES.

The question may arise of how to construct the downstream portion

of a simple rolled ellrth dam, so that the iine of seepage will remain a safe
distance inside the downstream face of the atructurc, when only small
quantities of coarse material are available. A simple solution is suggested
in Figure 12c, in which a pervious hlankct below the downstream portion
of the dAm is employed to control the position of the line of seepage to any
desired extent. Such a blanket should be built up as a graded filter, care-
fully designl'<l, to prevent erosion of any soil from the dam.
Whenever a dam or levee consists essentially of a uniform section of
relatively impervious soil, e.g., possessing an average coefficient of permea-
bility of les.'1 tlurn l x rn- 4 cm. per sec., the pervious blanket may well be
extMJded as far as the centerline of the strm;ture, as shown in Figure 13c.
Such a design would add much more to the stability of the entire down-
strc1\m portion, including th<' unrlf'rlying foundation, than could be accom-
plbhcd by n substantial Rattf'ning of thf' downstrrl\m slope. A levee buill
in tltf com·e11tiornil mnnner, with a down.~lream slope of 1 on 5, would possess
· lt&s slahi/ify than a u>el/-compacted lt11ee in which the downstream slope is made
a.11 slap a.~ 1 on ~. but whirh r.011lai1111 a .filter blanket of the type shown in
Figure 1.'k In the exnmplf' i]t,..,• .."'"d in Fil!;llff' 13c, it wns 11..'lsnmcd that a
pcrviou~ foundation stratum lir!'I beneath the levee and thnt the permea-
bilitiPs of the levee material and the underlying foundntion are the 1mme,
"·ith a ratio of k-Jk, = 3. The trans(urmntion which was required for
obtaining th.- flow net, ill illustrated by another example shown in Figures
13n and h. Th.- a~umptionll an• th.- llnme a;i in Figure l3c, excPpt thnt the
lilh'r hl1mk1•t is rt•dur.-d to a lon~itudi11nl drnimtgc strip with frequent
tritns\'Nse outlrts. A tile drain may !l.lso be embPdded within the core of
the longitudinal drainage filter to increase the rnpacity of the drainage
system if thr structure consists of relatively pervious soils. This type of
drainRge would be employed where the quantities of suitable material for
the drainage layer arc very limited. To obtain the flow net, the true section
was transformed into a llteepcr section, using as transforml\tion factor
.../I:~, k. = .../3. The flow net was then obtained by Forchheimer's graphical
method, by gradual approximation. Note the equi-distant horizontal lines
intersecting the line of seepage. These were plotted before Rtarting the
flow net. Jn this example the line of seepage is not identical with the bn.~ic
parn.boll\, becaulle the surface of the foundntion on which the structure
rests is not R flow line. Howe\'er, it is.ronvenient to use the basic parabola
as a general guide for the first plot of the flow net. Aftrr a satisfnctory
solution is found, the flow net is projeckd back into the true cross section,
Figure 13b.
;\o attempt is made in this paper to disru:ss in detail the important and
iT\tf'rt'sting relationships that exist between the stability.of earth <!ams or
dikes and the seepage through and beneath them. However, it ~hould be
emphRSized that the forces exerted by percolating water upon the soil can
be very appreciable, and are often a. maximum in critical points. These
seepage forces are readily determined from a well-constructed flow net,
and can then be combined with gravity forces for thr stnhility analysis.
Anyone who has made comparative studies of the seep11gc forces that may
exist in dams and their foundations, must he impress1•d by the parumount
importance of the de11ign of those features that control seepage. It.is not
surprising that on the basis of empirical knowledge levee3 have been con-
structed with flat slopes. A levee built in the conventional manner of sandy
soil, with slopes of 1 on 2 or 1 on 3, would be an unsafe structure. However,
substantial flattening of the slopes ill a very costly way of increasing its
safety. Besid•·~. even very tl.Rt slopes do not necessarily provide sufficient
safety against undermining, particularly when a levee rfllts on a stratified,
pervious foundation. In view of the large expenditures on levee construction
which the next decade will bring, inve:;tmcnt in rellcarch in this field would
pay rich dividends if new designs for lev.-es were developed that would not
only be much safer than those built in the pa.'lt, but considernbly les.<1
exprnsive. The widespread opinion among engineers that in earth dam and
ln1ee design "seclion makes f 01 safely" needs lo be revi.~ed.
!\Jany failures of levees are due to undermining carnied by seepage
through the foundation. Un!e!'l." clr,.inag!' provisiom1, ll'l shown for example
in Figure 13, are provided, the large"t eonrml ration of flow lines, both
through nnd bPneath the dam, oecurs at the
soil i::i nut confined. As statt>d before, flattenin1
improve this condition. In some cases, partic
soils nre porous nnd distinctly stratified, draim
mny nut be 1-1ufficient proh>rtion. In surh circ
ficial to drill frpqurnt holrs into the foundatic
tudinal drain, and to fill the:;e hole" with coan
wplls" have been employed already for another
pressure on an overflow dam (s1'e Reference J
constructed drainage wel111 would effect ivt>ly d·
eentrntinn at the tof' of the strueturt'. In otl
very pnvious, but rPlntively thin foundation :
pile cut-off may be the ideal solution.
I mprovementi1 in IPvec design, as suggesh
will not produce inll'rferenee with modern cons
wells, longitudinal and t ramiverse drains or dr
built bPfore con:;truction of a levee is started.
can thP11 procrl'd in tlw same manner 11..~ if the
exist, thus permitting full use of large drag lines
f. 8E£PAGf; THROUGH C'OMPO
For the purposr of controlling seepage an
best ach·antage, it is usually necessary to bui
with widely different corfficients of prrmcabil
requir1~ that the ratio in pf'rmrability hetwPen
be at least onf' to tt'n, it i!' rarely necessary to d<
entire dnm if a careful study is madt' of th<' lei
ever, in ~ome eases it may he nf'ressary to de
entire line of seepage. In Figure 14 is repro<
L. Casagrnndl' (12), showing the line of seepa1
l'ections, wil h thr downstream seetion built of
J.'w. 14.- LtNE oir SnrAoE rn11 A Cc
1'ht> computf'd result was verifil'd by n
Afltr L. Ciuagr<Jndt (I
 pervious than the central section. The line of seepagl' through such a
composite st>ction is found hy changing the l\Ssumed po-iition for the point
or intersection of the line of sccpnge with the boundary until the quantities
flowin~ throu!-(h both sections arc the same. After the correct position of
t lw line of s1·t•pn~e l111s b<'Pll dctcnnin<'cl, one c1m also develop any desired
port ions of tlic flow net.
J. COMPARISON BETWEEN F0Rc1111EIMER's GRAPHICAL METHOD,
HYDRAULIC MODEL T~:STS AND THE ELECT!l!C
ANALOGY METHOD.
The purpose of model tests for seepage studies can be twofold
(l) d!'termination of the flow net for a given cros1M1ection, assuming that
the soil is isotropic; (2) determination of the flow net if the model is build
up in such a manner that it resembles the prototype as to possible strati-
fication, character of the soils, etc.
For the first purpose it is essential ~hat the lJlllterial used shall consist
of grains as nearly spherical and as nearly of one size as possible. In addi-
I \
tion, the models must be large enough so that the height of cnpillary rise
will not distort the line of seepage, particularly in that portion of the flow
net near the discharge point of the line of seepage. (See Figure 10.) Use of
Ottawa Standard Sand has given good results. Since one should not go
ro'uch below the size of Ottawa Standard Sand on account of the distorting
effect of capillary rise, one is obliged to use artificinl spheres, such ns glM11
spheres, of appropriate sizes for models containing sections with different
coefficients of permeability. For such coarse mRterinls the validity of Darc~'s
law must be checked. The results of careful model tests eonductPtl with
such materials agree well with the solutions obtained by the grnphil'al
method, the electric analogy method, or rigorous theoretical solutions, i;o
far as the latter are available.
For the second purpose, the testing of models similar to the prototype,
one has to know first of all how the co(•ffiC'ient of permelluility viiri<'s in the
prototype, not only in its vRrious st>ction~, but particularly within each
sertion due to anisotropy. Then one mu~t build the mod<'I to imitak, on a
small seal!', these conditions. Jt is a waste of time and money to build a
model using the same soil aii in the prototype without ntt1>11tion to the
anisotropic conditions in the prototype. Such a model dot>s not represent
tlu' prototypt>; nor are the ri•sults compnrahle to the con<litiom1 for iso-
tropic mnt1·rinls, lwrnuse thr ine\•itnh!P irrl'gularitil's and stratifirntion due
to the mt>thoil of buildinl!; the nwdt>I ar<· rl'flcetNI in the resulting flow
nt>t to till<'h Rn extc•nt I lrnt the flow 1wt looks v<>ry much likr a be·
gi111wr's nt tt>mpt at employing the grnphi«11l nwthod. Th<· rc~ults of such
mod<·I trst~ will lie somewhere betwPl'll the con1litions ror nu isotropic
model and the actual 1·01Hlition~ in tlw prototype and will tell practically
not liing t hut can be of assistance in our prohlcm; 011 t l1t• cont rnry, such
-
results arc often very confusing, particularly wh
men inexperienced in theoretical and graphical
are unable to interpret properly the test results.
The electric amLlogy method, when used by
is a useful nnd nccurutc methml for direct determi:
gitien boundaries. Composite sections consistin
permeability cari also be investignted by this mel
method does not. permit the direct determination
those problems in which the upper surface is not a
disadva11tage of this method is that it requires a1
the con8truction of a Rpecinl t!'11ting model for eve
with graphical solutions, the electrical method
requires more time. It should nlso be mentioned t
tation of the n·sttlts ohtained hy means of the e
knowledge and application of the graphical meth<
amount of work rec1uired to transform the test re
flow net would havl' been enough to produce this
method without assistance of the electrical ap
method will serve as an excellent check on H
should be used whenever accurate solutions are so
Another important advantage of the grapl
proce~s of finding the flow net for a proposed !
suggr~lil changes in the dl'sign which would imf
strurture, and oftt>n its rconomy. With some ex:
graphi!'al method the effects of changes in one c
design can quickly be appraisl'd without the nece
plete flow net for a number of different cross-secl
t>xplorl'd in a short time many possibilities which
work with any of the other methods. Such studi
desirahl<' changes from the conventional design 4
some or which were briefly discussed in the preced
Fi1mlly, there should ue mentioned the I
graphical method. It Rradually develops a feelin@
flow whirh not only improves, in turn, the speed
flow nets can be determined, but also develops an
of the hy?romechanics of seepage and ground ~
vestigator who is trnin<'d only in the use of "
annly:;ing SC!'page problems can check his tests
tional trsts. He is mrely Rhlc to detect inaccurs
thr tr;;t results. In <'ontrast to this, the author I
evPn minor inncC'ura<'il's in the r('sults obtained fr
of th<' ~C'nse for sfr!'nmline flow dt•\'{'h11)('d by nppl
for Y"nrs.
111 rnnduding thi;i disrnssion, the author
nlmll'<t obvious point, whieh nert>rthele&; i~ freql'
 investigator should consider carehilly, before starting any model test.II, that the flow channels are wider in the materia
what information he desires to obtain from these tests. Jn nin<' re.see out of permeability.
of trn he will then come to the conrlusion thnt hr. could obtain the result.II It is probable that Forchheimer was the fi
without tt•st!I. Particulnrly in tho>ie C'll.'\Ctl whrre he attempts to <'Valuate ships. However, he never took the trouble to
tht> dTect of vnriation~ in the col'ffirient of 1wrnwahility, he will nrrivP at a romm1111icate<l tho:;e rel11tion8hips to Terzagh
better conreption of the probable limit.'! withi11 which the seepage eondi- of them in his foundation investigations of da1
tion~ in the prototype may vary by making a careful study of th!' pol!.'>ible his coutse in Soil Mechanics at the Massachu&
variations in the coefficient of permeability (e.g. from studies of the varia- during 1925-29.
tions in the borrow pit material) and then applying these values in graphical
$Ol11tion?1, utilizing the transformation method. A model test woultl yield (b) Transfer Conditions for Line of See'f.
only one re5ult, the relation of which to the prototype is often unknown. Remark.,. L. Casagrande (10) made use of the
Surh a test woul<I certainly not permit a conclusion in regard to the
probable limits within which the actual flow conditions will vary.
The practical application of the graphical method would be promoted
ir, for all typical conditions encountered in dam design, carefully con-
stnicted flow nets were published. The beginner in the .use or the graphical
('·J method in particular, would be great.ly a.'l!!isted and encouraged in his
efforts to acquire skill in the use or this valuable tool.
er
APPENDIX J.
(a) Deflet:tionof Plow UnesDuetoChangeitiPermeability. Flowlinesare
deflcetf'd at the boundary between isotropic soils of different permeability
in l'llCh a manner that the quantity 11.q flowing hetwecn two neighbouring
flow lines is the same on both sides of the boundary. lkferring to Figure 5,
in which the Row net is plotted on the ba.-;is of square" for the material on
the left of the boundary, and designating by t.h the drop in hend between
any two neighbouring equipotential linP~, the following n•lationship can
be set up:

FIG. 15.- DERIVATION or D1sCHAR

or INTO 0v£RHANCllNo St.01

(19)

b net to analyze the condition at the entrance

_a_ = _c_ and _a_ line of sf'epagP. Follo\\'ing tlie same genernl i
sin a sin IJ cos a co.~ /3
rnined the trnnsfrr 1·01111itions for other c!L"ic",
By eombining these relationships one arrives at: b~undary bctwPen soil~ of differrnt pt>rmeabilit
c fan tJ k1 in FigurP 6.
- -=-- = - (20)
b ta11 a k2 To acquaint. the readt>r with the mt>thod
present in the following the dPrirntion for two
Exprrs...,etl in words, the deflection of the flow lines oceurs such I hnl the
tangent of the interst'cting angles with the houndary is inversely propor- (c) DisduJrge i11iu <111 01•rrl11111r1ing Slope.
tional to the corffi('ient~ of )')('rmeability. Furthf'rmore, the squares on one Row net in the imnwdiatc vi1·inity of the 1
,:ide of the boundary chanf.!;!' '"' • 1,n nt.her ~idc into rectangles ,,·ith the enlurgi•d so that flow li1u•,; and t•quipotential
ral io of thrir siucs equal to the rut io of t!u~ co1~fficit'nts of prrnwahility, su<'h slope oft he line of Sf'!'J>!lf.!;e at the diseh1trl(c poit
is assumed arbitrarily; th('n the flow net if! plotted, starting with a series Since this condition does not contain the coeffi,
of equidistant horizontal lines which repre;;rnt the head of consecutive to be f~lfill.ed simultaneously with equation (21
equipotrntial linrs. One can see immediatPly that the nssumed discharge determme, for a given slope w of the boundary,
Rrndicnt in Fit.t;urr 15 cnnnot br correct, bcrnuse it is impossible to draw between the line of seepage and the boundary.
sqtrnn·~ iu t 111• lower portion of tlw flow net. By Rctling up the condition
thnt the sides a and b of the re!mlting rectn.ngles must become equal, one
can arrive at the necessary condition for the discharge wndient.
By projecting the sides a nnd b in the shaded trinnglt-s, Figure 15, one
11.rrins at the following equation;

_b_sin 'Y =a COB (a+ 'Y-90°) = Ah (a)

rosa
To fulfill the condition a"" b, the only possible solution is a= 90-'Y; that
means the line of seepage must have a vertical discharge slope.

(d) Transfer Conditions for LiM of Seepage at Boundary between Soila

of Different Permtability. To analyze the trnnsfer conditions for the c~s
illustrated in Figures 6k and m, we· stnrt from the conditions that the
hydraulic gradient at any point along the line of seepage is equal to the
sine of the slope of the line of seepage of that point; and that the quantity
flowing through a very thin flow channel along the line of seepage must be
t'qual on both sides of the boundary. RPferring to Figure Ula, we have the
fo11owing velocities along the line of seepage, on both sides but in the imme-
diate vicinity of the boundary;
v1 "' k1 1rin {a-c.i')
v,"" k, sin (P-w')
The quantity liq flowing through tf1e rhannel is;
liq= ak1 sin (a-w') = ck1 sin(/3-w')
wherein the quantities a and c represent the widths of the flow channel!1 1 in
arrordanee with Figure 16a. After replacing the qunntities a and c by (b)
their projection onto the boundary, and substituting k:ifk:1 = tan/3/tan a,one
arrives at the general condition:
cos a sin (P-w')
cos{3 sin(a-w') 0 ...--~--"--f-:-.L.
or
si11 (90-a) sin (13-w') p = 90°1' UJ 1 -~
sin (90- /3) = s111 (a -w') Fio. 16,- TR.\NSFER CoNDITION or L.
AT Ov1rnHANGtNO Bou11n~

Hence the only possible solution is:

90-a = 13-w' The solution of these two equations can
or
or
f3 = 90+w'-a
j; ~ :.:;<~ -a-w
0 } (21) the manner illustrated in Figure 16b. A circle
radius and the angle AOD is made equal to (90
through points 1 and D perpen<l11:u111r to th4
 probli>m i~ to draw another line through the renter u tsnown as aot-<1as11 ,..,.,...._'.'. 1nue 111ay oe cons1aert'a a porous ma
line) which rulfill:< thr condition that th1• ratio A UJCD = k2/k,. Such a line case I: igurc 16b yields fJ = 900. The same cor
ran br found quickly by trial. Tht' 11nk11own 1rngl<'s a and fJ are determinE>d equnt1on (21), rcmembrring that for this cas
hy the 1mJ!:lrs hrtwcrn the dot-dn:ih linr nml lim•s Ott nnd OD, respectively. that the line of St><' page enters pt>rp<>ndicularl·
P1•p,.111!ing 011 wlwtlwr 1.· 1 ii! l:tr;!;t'r or :-1mnller thn11 k1, w1• nrrive 1lt clnm, n.s shown in Fi11:urc 6r. ·
solutions in which (•ith<'r point R ur point C is nenrcr the center of the circle.
The corresponding deflection of the line of seepnge is illustrated in Figurei (~) Singular Points t'n a Flow Net. In tr
6k and m. graplucal mrthod, the l>t'gin1wr is frrquently r
While this theoretical solution for k1> ~· 1 can easily be verified by model
experimrnts, it is not generally true fork, <~· 1 • In this case, when the down-
stream i<<'ction is more perviou!'I, the boundary condition for the line of
Set'page is also infturnred hy nil other dimcnsiuns of the dam, especially by
the elevation of the discharge point and its di::itnncc from the boundary
under considt>ration. Only in speciul cnst•s, particularly for high tail water

I)
I

.
Fm. 17.- TRANSFER CoN1>1TtoN oF L1N1t OF SEEPAGE
"f 0VERHANOtNO BouNoARl'.
lr\·el, and coefficients of j1ermeabi!ity that do not differ greatly, does the ·
lint' of s<'t'pagc follow th~ throreticnl solution. Whenever the theoretical
solution has the apJWarnm'c "hown in Figure l7a, with the line of srcpage
deflected into an o\·erhanginp; slope, it rl'presents n condition thnt may he
ohserved on a small scult• in the lnhomtory but dors not occur on a large
srale. ln::itend of the continuous line of "cefH\gf' of Figure 17n, a discon- 8
tinuity develops, with the wntrr SPl'ping vertically into the more perviow1
soil, nnd only incompletr.ly filling its vvid:<. In ol her words, the quantity "''°· HI.- Iu.u~TR11T1011s oF S111ouun Poi!'IT
disrhar11;ing vertieally downward at the ho111ulnry i" immffieient to fill the
voids of the coarse malt>riaL 1'1wrl'fore, normal atmospheric prrssure will "squn.res" have no resemblance to real square~
ll<'I alonp; that section of thr boundary mul th1• laws for oprn dis<.:111.1.rge are flow Imes nnd <'quipotrnti1ll lines do not intr1
v11lid, fon·i1111; t!w line of sft'pngr to nssunw n verticnl disrhnrgc gradirnt example, in Figur!' 18u, tlit> full-drawn flrf'n.s 1
nt thr ho11ntlllry. That portion of thr c·oursl'r soil which is only partially llpf,ellr like "sq1mn's" to tltf' inrxpni<'nc<'d. Ho'.
!'llturntf'd, is illustrat"d in Fi11:mt> l 7h hy th!' shadf'tl an'a. llrl'ns hy cqunl m1111hPrs of nuxili:lry flow lini>>1 r
Tlw ~rnphicnl solution shmrn in Fi1?:1m• Hih nlso 1wrmits determination cnn r11s1ly ehrck wlwthcr th!' u1·igi11nl nren is n '
of tlw tran~ft•r <'<mtlitions for lhP 1>11tm1lf'r of the li1w of sf'f'pn~e for the n<'ts. l.ly surh s11h-di\·i~iou one 11111st arriv!' nt nr
speeial c·t1~!' illu,.;trati•d in Fi~un' 6e. Tlw Of\('!\ brnly of \\·Rter on the up-
more like real "ctl!nr!'s. Ilow!'ver, Ill 11.u:H e:i~t·~
the average distances lletween opposite sides, that is, e.g., the lengths 9-10 The first member. _l!!_, is equal to the distan
and 11-12, by means of a pllir of diviclers.
tan a
second member, under the square root, is eqtU}I
In Fi!"(ure 18n, the entire area to the right of points 2, 4, 7 must also be
ordinate h1 of the interaeetion is simply equal l
roni:i;lered 11. sciunre, in spite of the fact;i that tlw fourth point lie~ !\t infinity
a<90°, l\nd t>q11al to tht> difference (u-f) for
nn1I tli:1t tlu• 1111~lc• hc•twt'en th" flow line nntl 1•1111ipotl'11ti11I lin1~ nt thi>l point
tion!'ltip"' nrc t>Xprc~se<l by the construction
is zc•ro in~h·111l of 90°. It i:,i, indeed, possihlc to cuntimw subdividing this
needs 110 furth!'r explanation.
nrea, as shown by the dott!'d lines, always lellving a srmi-infinite strip ns
The di~charge point of the line of seepage i
the "last l<quare.'' By this proces.'! of subdivision the amount of water
entering into the "IRSt square" is continuously reduced and approaches ·Section F-d, with the help of Figure 11.
zero. In this way it is pos;;ible to reconcile the irregularity of the Fourth (b) Comparison between Hamel's Theoretic
corner by the fa<'t thllt there is no flow of water at thnt point. Approximate Methods. Hamel (19), has succee
Similar irrl'gulRritics in the shnpc of squares appear wherever a given mathematical ;:olution of the problem of sl'cp
bound1try of the soil, with water entering or discharging, and boundary
flow lines (impt>rvious ba..<;e or line of sePpngr) intersect at a predetermined
angle. If this angle is less than 90°, then the velocity of the water at the
point of intersection is zero. Such points arc the entrance point A of the
line of seepage in Figure l8b, anti points lJ 1rn<l C in Figure l8c. On the
other hand, if the intersecting angle t1-1 gr<'ntn than 90°, then the theor<!lical
velocity in that point is infinite. Sw·h points are rorncr A in Figure 9d,
comf.'rs Band C in Figt1r!' 18h, nnd point /) in Figure 18<'. The last, repre-
sentin11: the concentration of flow lin!'s at the elev!\tion of to.ii water level
l
is the cause for the well-known erosion which is ohserved on the downstrea~
slorw of homogf.'ncous dl\m sections at the line of wetting.
At point~ where the theoretical velocity is infinite, the actual vt>locity
I
-t
is inRut>nced by the facts that for larger velocities Darcy's law loses its
validity, and that <'hanges in velocity head bf'come so importl\nt that they
rannot be neglected. Hence, in the vicinity of such points the general FOR a. < 917•
differential equation (4) is not valid, 1\nd the flow net will deviate from the F10. 19.- GRAPHICAL MJ;THOD FOR Dn1:Rw1N1
BASIC PARABOLA AND Dl!ICHAI
thf'oretiral shape. Howe\·er, the o.rea..'! Rffected are so small that these
d.eviations may be disregarded.
dam section. Unfortunately, the theory is
APPENDIX II. present form, it is of little use to the engim
necessary to compute a sufficient number of t
Additions to the Original Paper. results in the form of tables or graphs, before e
(a) Graphical Procedure for Determining /1!tersectio11 betu•efll Discharge the advantages of this theoretical treatment
Slopt and Basic Parabola. The int!'rSl'etion lwtwPcn the discharge file<' and been computed by Muskat (20) for coffer dar
·the basic pambola, df'~ignat!'!l in Figure 9 hy point C0 , <'fin be determined These :-;olution~ presented an opportunity to :
by the following simple grnphirnl prm'<'1h1rr. spt>cinl cases, the arcuracy of the approxim1
paper. The results of this comparison were
The ordinnte h, of the intrrsection of tl1e ha:-;ic pl\mhola x = i/-y} present ell in the following paragraphs to pcrn
2y..
own !'onrlusions.
with the disrhnrgc slope y = ±x tan a is fouml as the solution of these two
Iu Figur<' 20 arc assembled three of the s
equations in the following form:
by l\luskat (20). In eitch l'l\Se the elevation c
Yo • / Yn2 puted from Hamel's thf'ory, is drsignated b~
hI = ± --·-
ta 11 a
J... V:--
krn 1 a
+Yo
2
 from tli<' tnil wnt<'r l<'\'l'l, or from the impi'rvious base in the absence or
tui! wntn, is dPsignat<•d <111.
,\n fipproxirnnte (•fr\·1ttion of the dischar1?;e point wns found by means
of the grnp!1irnl proecdure shown in FigurP ir. To facilitat.e the comparison
hPIW<'t'!l thPs1• fii.;nrf';, nil poin!s in Fii.:nrp 20 :tn• mntkc>d to corr<'~pond to
thtb<' in Ft,~lln' 7e. Th<' constrnction is !ihown with full liue:;. Thr r«~ult11nt
di,:l'haq~t' pnint is nrnrkt:d C, nm! its elevation from the ha~r, or the tail
watn Jt>\·rl, is mnrkcd 11.
I i
I
I '
'~)
The 1wxt cn,,;c, FiRure 20h, rorre::pomls to ~
idrntificd Ly- the rutio rl/h = 0.556. Thr the
q
qunntitit•s a11/h = 0.596, 1111(! 11 = 0.898 kh.
;;PPJlRl?;C, rnmput<'d from Dupuit':s formulR, as
<'!lliC, i~ q .. 0.900 Ni.
The third ruse, shown i11 Fi11:urc 201', i,; i1l1
No. 2. lt differ~ from the otlwr exnmpl<'s hy ti
tail \\'flier lt·vl'I, 11111! i~ idl'ntified by the qu
r//h 2 = 2.81. ·From the tl11•ory we p;et au/hi=
D11p11it's formula yi«lds q = O.fi95 kh,.
The eomparison lwtwecn tlw values for thr
poi11t obtained hy IIanwl's rigoro11::> solution nn<
nwthods shows that, for 1·ngin<'cring pnrpos!'s,
fl.re vi·ry sntisf:tctory. 1t is i11tcrPsti11g and of 11
th<" npproximute mcthrnis nf<q give sntisfnctory
;;id<'rahly smn!lPr thnn 1.0. l'on::>idrring thnt ti
1
flow 1wt difff'rs f'onsidnahly from Dup11it s
hydraulic grndiPnt in all nrticnls, this result is
rntios of d/fi<LO, it nppeRrs that Kozcny's I
ht>t tcr results than the formuln hy L. Casagrnnd
The rf'mnrknhlc ngrPf'llH'nt lwtwccn the th<'<
Dupuit's npproximutc ~o!ution dt·sPrves spcein.l 1

(c) <:ra11hic1J/ So/111iu11 by M cans of the lfo

nwthml for dc!"rmi11i11g tlie flow net Wll.S prupo
Fm. 20.- CouPAlllSON BETWEEN 1!10011011~ AND Arv11ox1MAT1t
D&TEHMINATlo:>is oF DiscHAHGE Po1NT.
(lO), in which the flow-net is determined gra11
pl1111e" nn<l then projertPd into the actual cross:
Th<.~ hodogmph of n flow line is the c11rv1
Jn addition to this construction, the ~implified proced11rc wns used in plotting from one origin velocity veetors for all
wliit·h 110 = V/1 2+i12. For a vNli<'nl <li~rhnrgc fitr.e the simpliffotl formula Tlwrl'forr, the sf might li111· rnnnccting the ori
for n h1•f'omrs a'= v'h'+ir--d ns prnpo~rd hy l\owny (ti). The corre- hodograph reprrsPn!s the magnitude uni! dirrc
~pondinR ronstrurtion i~ shown iu Figun~ 20 by dnsh lines 111HI the resulting rorrf'sponding point on the flow line.
di"·hargi> point nml l'l<·vrltion 11rr dc~ig1rntt•d hy (" n11d 11 ri>sp<'ctively.
1
~ill('e thr nlority nlonv; the frf'e wnter SUI
The rnse ill11strntcd in Fi~ure 20n, t'om·~ponding to '.\lusknt's ca.~e 1;i11P of the :slopr, the hoclogrnph for the liiu·
~o. (i, is idrntifo•d l1y the ratio d/h = 0.9:17. lfonwl's tll('ory yiC'lds the diametPr equal ttJ the eot'fii('it•nt Of (:Wrtneahil
quantities n 11 /h = 0.394, nnd for the rul0 of S<'<'IH\~e. Qu = 0.539 kh. strni(!;ht bo11nd11ry i,; u straight linr. ThnPfor<',
,\s wns shown hy !\hl:<knt (20) nn<l Dachl•~r (2:l), the rate !If seepage gm ph t hn t com•spond to f hr flow net of n h
h,,-hl :;!'rt ion nr<' known, nnd it i:< possible to s!'! up<'
rompulC'd by nwan~ of Dupuit's form11ln q = ---k, or without tnil
2d solution of the prolilrm in implit'it form. That
2 is rnthPr l'OmJllir11t1·d, <'\'1•11 for 1111' simplest <I
wnlrr q =- -li k, rcpre"<'nt,; nn rxcc 11 cnt 11ppro:rnnntm11.
. . I'•or tie
I case 1· 11 us-
2ti tiotl{'d lieforr in th<' tlisrns~iou of Hnmrl's t lwt
trntr.I in Fii.:ure '.?On, W<' hnve :mt! ShiP!ds follow tlw t Iwore·! ka! approarh, us
11 math<'mntics pPrmits t'011vr11if'11tly; tlwn thPy J
<J
l.h = 0.53!) /.:Ii and rquipotpnti:tl linrs iu t hi' hodogrnpli hy !l ~
21/
t•;;srnt ially similar to F1m•hht:inw"• · " thod.
 One advantage or the method by Weinig and Shields is the possibility
or determining numerirnlly correct values for the Vt'locity at certain points
along the boundaries. In comparison with Forchheimer's graphical method
the approach by Wcinig and Shields is much more complirated nnd requires
I\ thorOltJ.':h nrq111\intnnce with the hofloKrnph, which vrry few engineers
po.'\:it's..~. Further11111n', this method is limit rel to simple cross-sections, while
Forchheimrr's method can be applied to complicated dnm sectiorui and
foundation conditions.
Weinig and Shields (30) have solved a steep triangular dam section
by means of the grRphical solution of the hodograph. This cross-section i::i
Fro. 21.- D1sc11AROE PorNTS 0RTAINEO llY G11Ar11tcA1. ~<)f.UTION
or HoDOORAPH AND METHOD I Ll.U,.TIHTED IN Fw. 7.
illustrated in Figure 21. Point C.., represrnts the discharge point RS deter-
mined from tlw hodograph. nm! point C lhedisch:1rge point using the method
shown in Figure 7b. Tia• clevat ion of point C is 15 per rent. lower than that
of C,.. How much of this diff(•rencc is d1w to innrcurncy in one or the other
method i~ unc11>rtain. l'rolmhly th<' ltndogmph solution is more accurate
when the cnt ran re point 11f tlw line of srrpngr is very close to the discharge
fare. In Figure 20, as W!'ll ns in Figm<' 21, the disdmrge point~ obtained
by tlw simple j!;raphical prort'durr nre sit11at1•d lower than the other more
1w·ur11te sol11tions. This would indiPalc the ne!'!'ssity for applying a corr<'r-
tion in tho~e cnsr!>! whi'fc upstrP11111 nnd dowm;i rPnm fa<·e arc v<•ry cl08e.
BIDLIOGRAPHY.
(I) Ter~hi, K.v. Der Grundbruch 11.11 Staumau;
WM!lerkraft, 1922,
Terzaghi, K.v. Erdhaurnechanik. Vienna. 10215.
Terzaghi, Kv. Effect of MiMr Geologic Dcta.ile 01
of Min. and Metal. Engra., Technical Publication No. 2
(2) Terzaghi, K.v. Aultrieb und Kapitlarc\ruck a.n
grea des Grands Barrages, Stockholm, 1933.
(:I) Tenaghi, K.v. Beanspruchung von Gewicht.881
Siokerwasser. Die Bautechnik, 1934, No. 29.
(4) Terza.ghi, K.v. ~r Spannungszwrla.nd im I
koerper. Der Bauingenieur 1934, !\lo. 29/30.
(5) Forchheimer, Philipp. Hy•lraulik, third editic
(6) :Koieny, J. Grundwasserbewegung bei freie~
•ickerung. Wa1111erll.raft und Wasserwirtschaft, l!l:H, N
{7) Schailernak, F. l'eber die Standsicherheit durcl
Allgemeine Bauieitung, 1917.
(8) Iterson, }'. K. Th. van. r..enige theoretiache
lngenieur 1916 and 1919.
(9) Dupuit, J. Eludes theoretiquee et pratiques •
1863.
(10) Casagrande. Leo. ~aeherungsmethoden 1ur
der Sickerung durch geschuettete Daemme. Thesis,
July 1932.
This paper was translated into English for use in
the staff or the U.S. Waterways Experiment Station, 1
(I I) Casagrande, Lro. Naeherungsverfahren It
geachuettcten Daernrnen auf undurchlaessiger f!ohle. I
(12) Gilboy, Glennon. Hydraulic-Fill Dams. 1.
Stockholm, 1933.
Gilhoy, Glennon. Mechaniar of Hydraulic-FHI D:
of Civil Engrs., July, 1934.
(13) lleyntjiens, G. P. Model Experiment.a on th1
Soils. Thesis, M11.8s. Inst. of Technology, May, 1933.
(14) Sarnsioe, A. f·rey. EinflUSB von Rohrbrunn•
Wsssers. Zeitschrift fut'r angewandte Mathematik ur
(15) Dachlrr, Hobt'rt. t:ebcr Sickerwasserstroern
Die Wn,serwirt.,C'haft, 1933, No. 2.
(lfl) SchRfTemak, Friedrieh. ErfoF11Chungder phy
die Durd1sickeru11g des \V!lssers durch eine Talspe
stattfindet. Die W11S.Serwirtschaft, 1933, No. 30.
(17) Casagrande, Art\1ur. Discussion of E. W.
UnderAccp11ge," Procci-ding~ Arn. Soc. Civ. Engni., M
(18) Tenaghi, K.v. Discussion of L. F. Ilaria
undr.r DRms on Snnd," Proceedin~ Arn. Soc. Civ. En
(l':l) Hamel, G. l:chcr GrundwnS11erstrocrnung,
Mech., Vol. 14, ~'" 3, l!l:H.
Harnrl, G. and Gunther, E. Numerisehe Durchr
Gnmdwasserslroemung;. Zeitschrift f. angew. Math. I
 I mpotlan.1 ru,,!irafions. on t!1t Qut~tion of ~Sn}l•l(ll' (1fl(t lf.c: f:.1J1 ct mt ff/I"; ,',!fJl•lUty OJ .)(llj

l/,11/ luu"' Al'J""'"J Si11u thii1 I'a11cr ll'o.• ll'nll•tL \S1e .IPJ" 11.fi:t II).
(W) !If u<k11t, !II. The 8''.<'p!lge of Wnfrr tlm•ugh D:lfll$ "itli \'•crt i•·ol Far<'» Physics,
Vol. 6, Dec. 1935..
(21) Wyrkoff, R. D. and R<'t>d, D. W. F.li·!'!rirnl Con•ludion J\lo•lel• for tlw Solu-
tion of \\'at.er s.,,.p:t!{I.' ProhlMns. Phy,ics, Vol. 6, Di·c. 1!13.5..
(22) Knnpp••i1, T. T. and Philippe, R.H. f'1adiral Boil ::>lr·•·bnirs at '.\ftte~i11gum.
Eng'11:. N1·\\·s-Rt'<'or•i, April !l, 19:l6.
(23) Dachln, H. Gru1ulw1c'"T"lrormu11g. \'if'11nn, 1!136.
(24) Tnrnghi, K.v. Bin1ple Tests t-0 D«tNmi11e llydrostatk l'pli!t. F.11g'g ;\'cws-
Record, .lune l fl, 1\136.
(25) Tcrznghi, K.v. Criti ..al Ilright iind F11rlor of Bafcty of Blnpe' ng:iitl•t :·:Ji.ling.
Proc. Int. ConL <'ll Soil !lft>ch. and F<>1111d . Fog,. \'ol. I, No. <J-6.
('26) T.-rrnt:hi, l{s. Distriht1ti11n of thr Lnleral J'n-<-ure of Sand"" tlw Tirnhrring
of Cu!.s. Proc. Int. Con!. on ~>ii J\l('rh. 1111d Fnnnd. E11g., Vol. I, ~o . .J-3.
(27) \'rrr1knlmq,h, C. G. J. Elrrtric ln'""'tii;nlion of rnof.-1i;round Waln r1ow
Nels. Proc. Jot. Coul. on Soil J\ferh. and Found. Eng., Vol. I., No. K-1.
(28) Vn·<'<knlmri;h, C. G. J. On the ~l<'~•ly Flow of Wat.er P"n"•bl iug through Soils
with Jlomngf'neou~-Ani«Jlropic Pcrm.,nhility, Proc. Int. Conf. Soil f\1<-rli. and Found.
Eng., Vol. I., Ko. K-2.
(2!l) .Rrnhlt, J. II. A. Prr"11rrs due to Percolating Wnfrr anti Their Infhwn•" upon
Sti-F-'~C's in Hydrnnlic Strurtur<>s. f'ccond Congr•2'•S m1 Large D:tm!', \\'1~~hing!on, D. C.,
1936.
N (30) \\'<>ini11:, F, aml !-'hirltl•, A. Grnplii·-chr' \'1~rlalircn zur J'.rn1ittluui: der Sicker•
6(r(l(>mUng du1d1 Stamlaemmc. \\'a.'>nkraft uud \\'u""rwntsdtalt, 1'136, No. 18.
 Section 3

Data on Hell Hole Darn in California. Hell Hole Darn was washed away
by a flood in December, 1964. The river rose above the level of the
partially constructed impermeable core, flowed through the rockfill
downstream shell, and eroded it. Eventually so much of the shell was
eroded that it was breached. The flow overtopped the breached
3
embankment and eroded about 700,000 yd before the reservoir was emptied.
 '(Jitfw'A Tld.. .,,_.;........t" t..,.,,, '/ £..,i..M.A~
CE 4564 - Seepage Through Soils

FIJ/IN'JtNJduf 741,~ f' 1 ~ ~~

~l 4
'/l- -
·.
II
:!1ll!~ · H' »
tno,t(
»>
c~:~~ *"" . . ...- 22 1 lfH (NJ ~ ... .?4')

ldS1 d!Jt7 ~fl'

IA. 7t ~

3-\

30
 Section 4 Example Flow Nets

See also Casagrande's paper and Cedergren's book for good flow net
examples.

JI
 . . . L,_,
-.
-...- -'. -.- ...
'

l.

SHEET PILE COFFERDAM

y
- .• ·.*·c, !.·-:: . . _-;.·_.;. :····;.
'

MASONRY DAM

HOMOGENEOUS EARTH DAM

ZONED EARTII DAM WITil CLAY CORE

L-\ 1
 Section 5

Notes on the permeability of soils and methods for estimating and

measuring it.
Virginia Tech Department of Civil Engineering

CE 4564 Seepage Through Soils

Lecture Notes
"Permeability of Soils"

J. M. Duncan
September, 1987

-\
 I

Permeability of Soils

Darcy's Law, which governs the laminar flow of water through soils, can be
expressed as

Q- k i A (1)

where Q - seepage quantity (ft 3/sec)

i - hydraulic gradient (ft/ft)
A - gross area (ft 2 )
and k coefficient of permeability (ft/sec)

As used here, k applies only to the flow of water through soil, and the
viscosity of water is one of the factors which affect its value. K always
has units of velocity, and is often expressed in cm/sec, ft/sec, or
ft/year.

Values of Permeability

Values of coefficient of permeability depend primarily on the sizes of the

voids through which the water passes. Since opening size depends on soil
particle size, rough correlations exist between soil and coefficient of
permeability:

Soil Type Value of k (cm/sec)

Coarse sands, gravels > 10 -1

Fine sands 10 -1 to 10 -3
Silty sands 10 -3 to 10 -5
Silts 10 -5 to 10 -7
Clays < 10 -7
\,

For soils of the same type, the value of permeability may vary by a factor
of 100 or more, and the range of values between gravels and clays may be
more than 100 million.

5-2.
3S
 ~- ---------------------

2.

Thus values of permeability vary more than values of other physical

properties like shear strength and compressibility.

Methods of Measuring or Estimating Values of k

For some purposes it may be sufficiently accurate to estimate values of k

using correlations like those shown in the table above. Table 1, from
Terzaghi and Peck, shows a similar correlation between soil type and
permeability coefficient. Also shown in the table are the methods for
measuring or estimating values of k that are applicable to each type of
soil.

Estimating Values of k Based on Grain Size

Hazen (1930), who worked with uniformly graded filter sands, found a good
correlation between k and grain size for these materials

k "" c . (2)

where k - coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)

~10 - ten percent size (cm).

ten percent of the soil by weight is finer
than this size
C a coefficient whose value falls within the
range from 100 cm/sec per cm 2 to 150 cm/sec
per cm 2 .

Example. Consider a fine filter sand with 0 10 - 0.1 mm~ 0.01 cm

k (100 to 150 cm/sec per cm2 )(0.01 cm) 2

o::

k ~i.o x 10· 2 cm/sec to 1.5x10- 2 cm/sec

Powers and Burnett (1986) developed the chart shown in Fig. 1 for
estimating values of k based on grain size. These charts differ in two
ways from the correlation developed by Hazen (1930):
 Ta/Jle 11.l
Permeability a11tl Drainage Characteristics of Soils•
Cocfiicient of Permeability k in cm per sec (log scale)
10• 101 i.o io- 1 io-• io-a 10-• 10-' 10-• 10
I I I I I I I I I
Dre.in age Good
I Poor
I Prac

.
Clean gravel Clean sands, clean sand and Very fine sands, organic and in or-
gravel mixtures ganic silt.a, mixtures of sand silt and t
clay, glacial till, stratified clay de- 11
Soil posits, etc.
types
"Impervious" soils modified by effects of vege-
tation and weathering

Direct testing of soil in its original position-pumping

\j\ Direct tests. Reiiable if properly conducted. Considerable experi-
I deter- cnce required
_L mination
or k Constant-head permeametcr. Little experience
required

Falling-head permeameter. Falling-head permeameter. Falling•hea

Reliable. Little experience Unreliable. Much experi- reliable.
Indirect required ence required necessary
deter-
mi nation Computation from grain-size distribution. Appli-
of k cable only to clean cohesionless sands and
gravels

•After Casagrande and Fadum (1940).

R~ff(A "P ~f!/(,~.lr;~ll ~ M~fktJ;i4

TtM PRA~~i "14 ~/ s~r;,. r1i~ TVi/'1~·
1
 4

-- .
U.S. Std. Si•"

~~ "4 .,'
iO :!10 60 200
ll I
-·
t~

~~
.........

'-'
.,.. ~
SO% n -.ir e 41 Mity

~ 10-; • ~ ~ '~ ~ I\.

~
~
i
' ","\.'" " ' ' [\" [\.\\..\.q.<\.:i
~\ ' '\
--a
"'
4
\ \ \ \

~~
I \ \ \

\ \
\ \
~\
'
0\~~~;~
~\~~
.....___
'1.. \ \ \ 1

''· ' \\ ... \'' ' ""

\

..:::i..., \\
I 0-1.
\ \ I"\\
-~ 8 ' T'
I \
\ \ ''
4"' 'I\
-~ \1\ \a' \ \ \ \
.-~
·~
%. I
l
,,~

\ \
~,

I
\ \\ \\' \~\ I
:-~
~-
"'.\)
20 lO 0.5
°'° 025 0.1 Q05
Groin lite (mm)
QOI

'3 jGrt:itel !CoarH 541111 I Med.sondf F1M . . nd I Sill and clay

FIG.6~ PRUGH PERMEABILITY ESTIMATES 50%

RELATIVE'. DENSITY.

Ajp:.;;x~aje:. i' r~<i.•·'/A ;//1 A~!

/J~_,,,,,.u~i <£.. I i?~ J /,.~J C-11 • tj
(a/ffA rj.,,1,,._,.;.,:.A .1,,-~.-\ ~_gf/ J Jq'6&)
-5
 (1) they relate k to 0 50 rather than n10
(2) they include the uniformity coefficient, Cu, as a parameter.

Cu - D60/D10 is small for uniformly graded soils, and larger for

well-graded soils.

Example. Consider a uniformly graded fine filter sand with cu - D60/D10 -

1.5, and 0 50 - 0.15 mm. From the chart in Fig. 1:

for 0 50 - 0.15 mm and cu - 1.5

k 150 x 10- 4 cm/sec
k - 0.015 cm/sec - 1.5 x 10- 2 cm/sec.

This is about the same as for the previous example, where k was estimated
using Halzen's formula. Considering the large variations possible in
values of k, this agreement must be considered fortuitous. Estimated
values should not be considered precise.

The chart shown in Fig. l is applicable to soils at 50% relative density.

Powers and Burnett (1986) also give two other charts, for "dense" soils and
"loose" soils. These charts indicate that, all other factors being equal,
the permeability of "dense" soils is about half as large as 'for soils at
50% relative density, and the permeability of "loose" soils is about one
and one-half times as large as for soils at 50% relative density.

The most detailed method of correlating permeability and grain size is by

means of the Kozeny - Carman equation (Kozeny, 1927; Carman, 1956).

In a simplified form, this equation can be expressed as follows (Duncan, et

al., 1972):

k (3)

where k - coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)

r/J. - particle shape factor = 0.45 for very platy,angular
s
particles, - 1.00 for perfect spheres, (dimensionless)
n = porosity (dimensionless)
 and ~ - mean surface diameter (cm)

The mean surface diameter, dm, is an inverse weighted average that can be
calculated using the measured grain size distribution:

f
dm - (4)
i
'- .. ,
(><~/a·\
<.. )
where N - number of size groups used in calculating dm.
Usually about 10 groups are used.
xi = fraction of the total sample, by weight, in
size group i. (cm)

It can be seen from the form of the expression for dm that the value of dm
will tend to be dominated by the smaller particle sizes. This shows what
is confirmed by considerable experience -

The smallest particles in a soil tend to control its permeability.

Thus adding two or three percent of silty clay to a sand can reduce its
permeability by several orders of magnitude. The most important part of
the grain size curve with regard to determining soil permeability is the
"tail" of the curve - the sizes of the smallest particles in the soil.

In order that values of permeability estimated on the basis of grain size

are representative of field permeability, the grain size used must be
representative of the condition of the soil in the field.

Effects of Stratification
Many natural soils are stratified, with distinct layers of coarse and fine
particles. The permeability of these soils vary from stratum to stratum.
Sudicky (1986) used measurements on very closely spaced samples of sand to
develop the permeability profiles shown in Fig. 2. Although sands would be
expected to be among the most homogeneous soils with respect to
permeability, the values of permeability shown in Fig. 2 may be seen to
vary from 6 x 10- 4 cm/sec to 2 x 10- 2 cm/sec, or by a factor of 30. If

S-1
 1

-: 211.55!5

"'
"! 219.345
e
§ 218.1195
-'
..."'> 217 .6'15

w
217.55!5

217. )45

217 .119510..

Hydraulic Conductivity !cm/sl Hydraulic Conductivity !cm/s)

Fig. 5. Comparison of hydraulic conductivity profiles for cores separated by a l·m horizontal distance.

5 8

lff
 g

layers of silt or clay were present, the values of permeability could range
by a factor of a hundred, a thousand, or even more.

When samples of such soils are obtained for grain size analysis, the coarse
and fine layers should not be mixed, or the grain size distributions and
permeability values will not be representative of either the coarse or the
fine layers.

Laboratory Measurements of Permeability

Laboratory tests to measure permeability of soils directly are performed by
passing water through representative samples of soil with known head
boundary conditions, and measuring the rate of seepage. Tests can be
performed using constant head boundary conditions if the permeability of
the soil is larger than about 10" 3 cm/sec. If the permeability is lower it
may be difficult to measure the flow rate sufficiently accurately. Falling
head permeability tests are better suited for measurement of permeability
in these cases (see Table 1).

Constant - Head Permeability Tests

Constant head tests are usually performed using cylindrical samples of
soil. Samples contained in rigid plastic or metal tubes have been used.
Triaxial samples confined in rubber membranes have also been used.

As shown in Fig. 3, porous stones or screens are used to retain the sample
while allowing the water to pass. These elements, and the tubing used in
the apparatus, should have very large flow capacity compared to the sample,
because all of the head loss is assumed to occur in the sample, and none in
the apparatus.

Falling - Head Permeability Tests

Falling - head tests are also performed using cylindrical samples, as shown
in Fig. 4. The principal advantages of this test are that it is not
necessary to measure the volume of the overflowing water, and that the
accuracy of the measurement of permeabilities of finer-grained soils can be
increased by using a smaller diameter standpipe.
 q

Q
k. =- i. A
Q =- !WV~ <fr~ Nvl~ (~Y~ ')

)- ::.
'
"'1,&,_,,,.cv(u. rd,,.., &v...i e-1"'"')
(

),,, :::..
f."'/L. = h.uJ J;...,,_p
~r&- ~~f'-'.

rvMA dtR-M - ,udt~J

c1J'u.., 1 A~ (.:.., ._ )

l/J
 /0

{
-- --~·-·-- - k I 17<-f ~ ~ t I
A
~ ~ "'1.. ~ ~ =- -lt-
.. , ·s.:i~ - ~re.. :J./'v.._ ::::. a.. <av. i.)

::. A<~.,_)

v~ Vl ),.,.,,_,_ 11(,,.,.,,, . .:. . ~ Jt.

V ~ Q ·Jt :: k... i. A dt
AV. o V ::. ~ · d /,.,
TwM kA di :::
J-. A. .d""
~J... i ; h It.. ~?PA. t-.. }A //i,;'L,l,,U//£/ M ,,t.kJC-M---...
h '
I<... -
L-
A dt =- a. d t...,
~L
k. Jt :: A
a.L
'= -
A

- l\

4 L/
I
 I/

As in all measurements of small values of permeability, careful attention

needs to be paid to factors such as evaporation and leakage, which assume
increasing importance as the values of permeability decrease.

Determining Permeability Values from Consolidation Test Results

The permeability of compressible clays can be determined from the results
of consolidation tests. The coefficient of consolidation is related to
permeability, compressibility, and void ratio as follows:

k/(~ 't w> (5)

where CV coefficient of consolidation (cm 2/sec)

~ compressibility (cm2/gmf)
~ change in vertical strain + change in effective stress
'tw unit weight of water (gmf/cm 3 )
tw 1. 00 gmf/cm 3

This equation can be solved for the value of k when values of Cv and ~ are
known:

(6)

Both Cv and ~ can be determined for a load increment in a consolidation

test when the rate of compression with time is measured, and these data can
thus be used to calculate the permeability of the clay.

Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Laboratory Tests

The accuracy with which values of permeability can be measured in
laboratory tests is influenced by systematic errors, and by problems with
obtaining representative samples:
Air bubbles in incompletely saturated samples can interfere with water
flow and result in measured values of permeability that are lower than
the values for saturated samples.
Restrictions in flow through the apparatus can lead to erroneously low
measured values. The error is likely to be greatest for the highest
values of permeability.

5 12
Y.5
 12.

Evaporation and leakage can lead to erroneous results. The problems

are most severe for tests in soils with low permeability.
Leakage of water between the sample and the walls of the sample holder
can lead to erroneously high values of k.
Migration of fines and formation of a "filter skin" can lead to
erroneously low values of k.
Disturbance of soils - breakdown of the structural arrangement of
particles - can change their permeability.
Mixing of dissimilar strata to form remoulded samples for permeability
tests procedures samples that are unrepresentative of field conditions.
Most laboratory tests measure permeability to vertical flow unless
unusual sample preparation procedures are used.
Laboratory samples are small, and at best each test results in a value
of permeability at one point in the field, wheras what is important in
most practical problems is the effective average value of k over a
large volume of soil.

Field Measurements of Permeability

Some of the problems of laboratory measurement of permeability can be
overcome by measuring permeability in the field. One means of doing this
is to induce flow into or out of an exploratory borehole, and to measure
the rate of flow for a known change in head. Tests can be performed with
steady or non-steady flow. A second means of measuring permeability in the
field is through a field pumping test.

Borehole Flow Tests

The relationship between permeability and flow rate in a borehole depends
on the diameter of the borehole, the length of hole from which the flow
occurs, and the ratio of horizontal to vertical permeability in the ground.
Formulas that can be used to calculate values of permeability for a variety
of conditions are given by NAVFAC P-418, and by Lambe and Whitman (1979).

One of the conditions considered in NAVFAC P-418 and Lambe and Whitman is
shown in Fig. 5. The water level within a cased borehole is raised (or
lowered), and the variation in water level with time is measured as the
water level returns toward its original undisturbed position. In
 13

- K

/MM.tU ~ltA
1J ~t=d
Uvtl a,,f t :. t'L _..,.. f-

uvd .,_; t -= t. --.. % ______._

1

;.,.~~.· ~· b;·~t fk "f

T
_!_
6v--.-e M.U = L

-\

.•.
 14

(
principle, only two measurements, at two different times are needed to
calculate kh. In practice, it is a good idea to observe the water level at
several different times, and to calculate values of permeability using
several pairs of observations. If all of the observations result in the
same value of permeability, that is an indication that the test is good and
the data are reliable. If the calculated values of permeability decrease
with time, that is an indication of plugging in the system. If the
calculated values of permeability increase with time, erosion may be taking
place, or some blockade in the system may be being washed out.

Borehole permeability tests measure the permeability of a larger volume of

soil than do laboratory tests. The measurements reflect mainly the
permeability of the soil in the immediate vicinity of the borehole,
however, and it is desirable to make measurements on several boreholes at
different locations to obtain an average value and some information about
the variation from place to place.

Although flow occurs both horizontally and vertically, horizontal flow

tends to dominate because of the geometry and because kh is larger than kv·
In order to calculate the value of kh, it is necessary to assume the value
of the ratio kh/ky. This value is usually assumed to be in the range of 4
to 16, corresponding to values of m ... 2 to 4.

Values of kh calculated from borehole tests can be influenced by air

bubbles entrapped in the soil, clogging (formation of a filter skin of fine
particles) in inflow tests, erosion in outflow tests with high hydraulic
gradients, water leakage around the casing, and imperfect knowledge of the
position of the static water level, from which heads are measured.

In order to derive fully useful information, it is important that the

boreholes are logged carefully, so that the tests can be performed at
suitable locations and the measured values of permeability can be
associated with the appropriate soil horizons.
 I~

Field Pumping Tests

The most reliable, and most expensive, method of measuring the permeability
of soils in situ is the field pumping test. The test involves construction
of a well with filters, screens and submersible pump. As water is pumped
from the well, often over a period of weeks, the water levels around the
well are observed at various locations using observation wells or
piezometers. Well flow theory is used to reduce the data. Pumping tests
measure the permeability of a very large volume of soil around the well,
and for this reason are considered to be the most effective means of
permeability evaluation. Field pumping tests are expensive (ten thousand
to half a million dollars) and are usually directed by engineers who
specialize in designing the tests and evaluating the results.

Tests involve construction of full-size wells, continuous running of pumps

over a considerable period of time, and obtaining permits to dispose of the
pumped water. The pumps are noisy and continuous pumping close to
populated areas has resulted in disturbance and complaints. Backup power
supply and backup pumps are needed in case of breakdown. Because of their
high cost, field pumping tests are usually used only for large projects
where the cost of the project, and the importance of accurate values of
permeability, justifies the cost of the tests.

5-1~
References

Carman, P. C. (1956) "Flow of Gases Through Porous Media," Academic, New

York.

Cedergren, H. R. (1967) Seepage. Drainage and Flow Nets, John Wiley &
Sons, New York.

Duncan, J.M., Witherspoon, P.A., Mitchell, J. K., Watkins, J.,

Hardcastle, J. H., and Chen, J. C., (1972) "Seepage and
Groundwater Effects Associated with Explosive Cratering," Report
No. TE-72-2, University of California, Berkeley, 191 pages.

Hazen, A. (1930) "Water Supply," in American Civil Engineers Handbook,

John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Hvorslev, M. J. (1962) Subsurface Exploration and Sampling of Soils for

Civil Engineering Purposes, Engineering Foundation, New York.

Kozeny, J. (1927) "Ueber Kapillare Leitung des Wassers im Boden," Wien,

Akad. Wiss., Vol. 136, Pt. 2A, p. 271.

Lambe, W. T., and Whitman, R. V. (1977) Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and
Sons, New York.

NAVFAC P-418 (1971) "Dewatering and Groundwater Control for Deep

Excavations," Department of the Navy, Washington, DC.

Powers, J. P. and Burnett, R. G. (1986) "Permeability and the Field

Pumping Test," Proceedings of IN SITU '86, ASCE Specialty
Conference, Blacksburg, Virginia.

Sudicky, E. A. (1986) "A Natural Gradient Experiment on Solute Transport

in a Sand Agnizer: Special Variability of Hydraulic Conductivity
and Its Role in the Dispersion Process," Water Resources Research,
Vol. 22, No. 13, December, pp. 2069-2802.

Terzaghi, K., and Peck, R. B. (1968) Soil Mechanics in Engineering

Practice, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

C:.:-\1
J

So
 Section 6

Conditions controlling the way the orientation of a line of seepage

changes at the boundary between zones of differing values of permeability.
 ------------~~-----------------------------------

DEFLEGrION OF LINE OF SEEPAGE AT BOUNDARY

BETWEEN SOILS OF DIFFERENT PERMEABILITY

Case! G.se2

,. 7

Cas:e 3 le < k..i

~I.~ //

o1-;~7TTT77777777:.
(3 =:> ?r'-.x- tv
£X"ceplr,::,-,fl/ ra.::-E

·"·~""""" ,, -
p == 2 70" - .)( - ~
 Section 7

Notes on free surface flow nets

53
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G7
 Section 8

Carstens and May's chart for estimating the position of the free
surface in homogeneous embankment dams wi.th blanket drains.
I
• ENGINEERS' NOTEBOOK

Graphs for locating the line

of seepage in an earth dam
M. I. CAaSntCS, M. ASCI, Prof•uor, ond OIGaOI D. MAY, A.M. AICI, Aui11011t Prof-,
Sdiool of Civil E119i-ri119, GHr9ia l111titvt9 of TH1!110lou, Atlonto

la avertical cross section of an eanh the upstream end of the drainage blan-
dun. the seepage line is the line of low· ket, and h is the pool elevation above
at elevation at which the pressure is the base. Ordinates of the graphs are in
lbDOSpheric. If the dam is composed khlq units, where k is the coefficient
of material so coarse that capillary rise of permeability and q is the seepage
' is negligible, the seepage line and the flow discharge per unit width of dam.
line of saturation are nearly coincident. The separate curves are drawn for var-
Por a dam composed of fine material, ious upstream slopes. Separate graphs
a capillary fringe may extend consider· have been prepared for various ratios
ably, higher than. the seepage line. but of y I h, y being the elevation of the
low through this fringe is ordinarily seepage line above the impervious base
M:glected. In other words, the seepage of the embankment.
- is taken as the uppermost stream-
£sample
- of seepage flow.
Laplace's equation is a good mathe· An eanh dam is to be constructed as
matical model for steady flow through shown in Fig. I, with an upstream em-
a homogeneous. isotropic soil. In addi·
lion., transformations have been de·
bankment slope of l(v) on 2.S(ff).
The pool elevation, h, is 40.0 ft above
med so that the equation presents a the base. The drainage blanket termi·
l'JOd mathematical model for steady nates 30.0 ft downstream from the in·
low through a homogeneous, aniso- tersection of the pool water surface
• tropic soil. The solution of Laplace's and the upstream face. The coefficient
equation with boundary conditions de-
of permeability of the embankment is
lcnnined from the physical conditions
of I.be prototype is cenainly an accept·
able engineering solution for the seep-
• Bow pattern to be expected through TABLE I. 5Hpap llne coordinates
an earth dam. y/h )', ft FIG. No. kh/q xlh
Numerical methods can be readily
1.0 40.0 2 (I) l.56 -0.7'
utilized to obtain solutions of Laplace's
0.1 32.0 2 (b) 2.,6 -0.54
equation for many engineering prob· 0.6 24.0 2 (C) 2.$6 -0.2"
lems for which explicit mathematical O.f 16.0 l (d) 2.56 -0.01
solutions either cannot be found or in- 0.2 8.0 2 (e) l.$6 0.1•
volve mathematical operations unfa· o.o 0.0 2(f) l.$6 0.19
miliar to engineen. Numerical methods
were used to obtain flow patterns for
seepage flow through the dam shown
in Fig. 1. The embankment material is
mu.med to be homogeneous and iso-
tropic. The upstream face of the dam
is a plane with a slope of 1 (V) on
m(H). The embankment is drained by
FIG. I. S..po.. flow ,..n.ni 9 .......
estimated to be 3.0 (10"') cm per sec
or 9.8 ( 10·1 ) fps.
Prucedun
Estimate the discharge. Tabulate the
coordinates of the seepage line.
Soludon
The coordinates of the intersection
of the pool water surface with the up-
stream embankment are JC = -30.0 ft
and y = 40.0 ft. This point of known
coordinates is also the beginning of the
seepage line. Fig. 2(a). At this point
the value of xlh is -30.0/40.0 or
-:0.75. From Fig.. 2(a), the value khlq
is 2.56 for xlh = -0.75 and form=
2.5. Hence,
kh 9.8 (1041 ) (40) 1.S (1()-4)
q= 2.56 2.S6
cfs per fool of width.
Using the values 2.56 and 2.S, for
khl q and m, respectively. the coordi·
nate x I h can be found from Fig. 2 at
selected values of ylh. Coordinates of
lt. ft the seepage line are given in Table I.
The results shown in Fig. 2 were
-~o.o
obtained as pan of a research study
-21.6
-10.0 sponsored by the U.S. Depanment of
- O.f Interior, Office of Water Resources Re·
"6 search, and by the School of Civil En·
1.6 gineering, Georgia Institute of Tech·
nology. A complete description of the
numerical method of solution is con·
tained in the publication, Seepage Flow
through an Earth Dam, WRC 0466,
Water Resources Center of the Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Geor-
"°"'· gia, July 1966.. 0

a horimntal drainage blanket. The

base, upon which the embankment is
placed, is impervious.
The flow characteristic of principal
interest is the location of the seepage
line. From numerical solutions over a
ranee of physical variables, graphs
have been prepared from which the
coordinates of the seepage line can be
determined. See Fig. 2. Abscissas of the
graphs are in JC I h units, in which x is
the horizontal distance measured from
aVIL ENGINEERING-ASCE • .,..., 1961
8-\
 'f
/\

- .. --- - -~

L - 4o~I f
. ---- - -" -- "" -- J~

<A.~L-.. ·k. )
~
'
v~ =- 1.00

'f./Vi::. - 0.75

\ .o - 0.1~

o.i - o.S4
0.0 -o.t{

0.4 - o.O\

0.t
oo

8-
 Section 9

Notes on flow toward wells

7/
 -
I

- - - - - - - - - - __.... --- --,.

_____ .,
, ......~

1 /---~+
s_\/ '' I
l

I i
I.. 1-r
I 1. i

II I
l! t

~"'f ?:~- - _. j-:.. __kt... A

l i
''
--~~- -----a e. ·
. __ --P-~ _k..__ .-;;-~--~rr_r · D _

_________ ________________
..
 2.
-·
, I •

_:::y.,.~z. .,; 11 ...............

y-._ r, /
l ~ 'l ,
r-::- r't. I
~ -= =t;.1.

l. z. - 21 -::;. _::/;-- ~ (r'!)

1-TT 14./) r-,

k =- ~ Y:.
~ z
t77 D (lr.-T.1) r,

~ ; IU?':l fl' I'

:l 'Sa::»
12 ~ Za:o fl·

.l ...

z TT 1:..JJ ( 11 - z~)
~ (R/r'41)

··----------

73
 -
3

- -- - - - - - .~,,,..,.,.--

I
I --~- --· ~
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.......... /----·
htI

t·0 .,;"~';( \ ~
1-...c:::........--------- -- 7<. -~> 1/""f- rw \
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@ ,(., =- w~/~f ~--- V'1h-/w,f~.

,
iM/=-~t~ A
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dz
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~
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- ..•

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 4

r-;;;. r 1
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r: -:o- t:.1.

r~ R.. J i ~ H
,.,. __
r:::. rw ) t. ~

~ ~---··-
''

7T I::.. (II t'-_2 w~-} · ·..

:j h.. ( .e/j-~)
----- .. - -~-~--·.,·-·----·· -

·-- .- -·------ -·-------- ···-----~-------

- - · · - - - - - · · ····--tt----

·---------------
 Section 10

Notes on multiple well systems.

 -
/4

10-1
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6
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 Second Sttig~ ot Exc.avation
) Fil"'$t S+ttg~ of flfcovatlon

i _ _,_ __..::.-::._'=~=-..::
L
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looe IV CJoi..s _ - - - - - - - - - -
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- -
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'
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- - - - - - - - - - 200 - - - - - -

- - - - - - - - - - - - :1SO - - - - - -

Zonev Sands
300 --
3S'O ·--
400

4So

500

:S!SO

fl 1ri f•et of we·

r=1c,, 68. CONTOURS or: lNJTZAL PORE PRESSURE
 ~ec.ond $toge of Eicc.a11otion
F'ir!t ~ge of El(c.o11ction

Z011e IV Cloy!

0
l
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Flu. 71. (.ONTOURS oi: FlN"L PO~E PRE.5SUP.E DUE TO DEWATERlWCr

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A
 Section 11

Erosion and Piping

Virginia Tech
CE 4564 - Seepage Thro1J8h Soils
TABLE L 1 Examples of the Consequences of Uncontrolled Seepage
Category l
Failures caused by migration of
particles to free exits or into
coarse openings
l. Piping failures of dams, levees, and
reservoirs, caused by:
a. Lack of filter protection
b. Poor compaction along conduits,
in foundation trenches, etc.
c. Gopher holes, rotted roots,
rotted wood, etc.
d. Filters or drains with pores so
large soil can wash through
e. Open seams or joints in rocks in
dam foundations or abutments
f. Open-work gravel and other
coarse strata in foundations or
abutments
g. Cracks in rigid drains, reservoir
linings, dam cores, etc. caused
by earth movements or other
causes
h. Miscellaneous man-made or
natural imperfections
2. Clogging of coarse drains, includ-
ing French drains
From Cedergren, H.R. (1967) Seepage. Drainage and Flow Nets, John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
\\-
The Charles E. Via, Jr.
Department of Civil Engineering
Category 2
Failures caused by uncontrolled
saturation and seepage forces
1. Most landslides, including those in
highway or other cut slopes, reservoir
slopes, etc., caused by saturation
2. Deterioration and failure of road-
beds caused by insufficient structural
drainage
3. Highway and other fill foundation
failures caused by trapped ground-
water
4. Earth embankment and founda-
tion failures caused by excess pore
pressures
5. Retairiing wall failures caused by
unrelieved hydrostatic pressures
6. Canal linings, basement and
spillway slabs uplifted by unrelieved
pressures
7. D~ydock failures caused by
unrelieved uplift pressures
8. Dam and slope failures caused by
excessh·e seepage forces or uplift
pressures
9. Most liquefaction failures of
dams and slopes caused by earthquake
shocks
'
 Section 12

Sherard and Dunnigan's filter criteria

IU DAMS AND IMPOUNDMENTS FILTERS AND

Gioup 3). For soils with 9ravels a new particle size distribution 200 sieve, the allowable filter
curve should be calculated for the portion of the soil that is finer related linearly with the fine c
than the No. 4 sieve and this reconstructed Qradation curve should be line interpalation. As an examF
used to apply the filter criteria. The criteria recolllOlend below ·al- 30\ of silty or clayey fines and
ready include a conservative safety factor. desi9n is in between the value c
and 0 15 • 4 (2) s 8mm (for soils
(l) Impervious Soil Group l (Fine Silts and Clays) 1 For fine
silts and clays that have more than 85\ by wei9ht of particles finer (8 - 0. 7)
than the No. 200 sieve, the allowable filter for desi9n should have
015 f 9 d95 (where d95 is the sin of the ·silt or clay for which 85\
is Cint!rl.
10
(2) Im ervious Soil Grou 2 (Sand Silts and Clays and Silty
and Clayey Sands): For sandy (and 9ravelly impervioue soils with 40
to ij5\ by wei9ht (of the partion finer than the No. 4 sieve) finer than
]
IO
the No. 200 sieve, the allowable filter for desiqn should have 015 ~
O. 7mm. For these impervious soils, the influence of the fines Q
duminates in the filter test and the results are not influenced by the ~ ·5
existence of the sand particles. ~
~
The recoavnended criteria for this 9roup of soils is different from ...
.A
ttiat prt!sented in our earlier paper (13). Research carried out after
completion of the earlier manuscript showed that the difference be-
••
.!l
t~"cn results of the No Erosion Filter Test and the previously used ;( 0
slot and slurry tests was increasinQly qreat for sandv imoervious soils 15 20 ~
~ith increasin9 d95 size. Usina the slot and slurry tests the criter- Content
ion o 15 ;dij 5 ~ 5 appeared to be conservative., for soil a in ran9e of d95 <Fine
from O.l to 0.5 mm (lJ). Usin9 the No Erosion Filter Test, it has now
b0comc apparent that for soils in this ran9e of 9radation it is de- Example of Detenninati<
sirable to use a filter with 015 not exceedinQ about 0,7. mm as the Impervious Earth of Cl•
s'11!lple erosion for these soils becomes lar9e before sealin9 with and d • 2.0 mm.
coar~er filters. 85
Fi9. 21 Determination
The recommended 0 15 size criteria for Groups l and 2 (0 15 always for lmperviou•
~ o. 7 mni apply to filters composed wholly of sand or 9ravelly sand in
15\ and 40\ fi
~hi~h the sand fraction predominates and there is not a sufficient con-
tent of coarse 9ravel to cause excessive se9re9ation durin9 construction.
As discussed in more detail elsewhere (lJ), it is considered reasonable
and appropriate to require that the coar9est allowable 9ravelly sand
filters for f ine-9rained soil• should have more than 40\ sand sizes Soil Groups l throu9h 4 in
(smaller than the No. 4 sieve) and maximum 9ravel aize not exceedin9 sections of embankment dams. T
about 50mm. all so;ls in Groups l and 2 re9
size distribution curve. For s
(3) Im ervious Soil Grou J (Sands and Sand Gravels with Small apply to reasonably well-9raded
content of Fines 1 For silty and clayey sands and 9ravel11 with 15\ or which are hi9hly 9ap-9raded it
less by wei9ht (of the portion finer than the No. 4 eieve) finer than finer portion of the 9ap-9raded
the No. 200 sieve the allowable filter for desi9n should have in the laboratory to select tho
of5 "- 4 d95, where d95 can be the 85\ size of the entire material in-
c udinq 9ravels. For soil• in this cate9ory we have teated filters Comparison with current C1
only up to about D15b • JOmm, but we believe that the rule is applicable
for coarser base-filter combinations. Soil Group li For fl
criterion 0 15 • 9 des 11ives atx
(4) Impervious Soil Group 4i For coarse impervious aoils inter- is, sand (or 9ravelly aand) fil
m.,diate between Groups 2 and 3 above, with 15 to 40\ pasainq the No. there ia no 9eneral rule wideli
 Section 13

Seepage Control
 Virginia Tech The Charles E. Via, Jr.
Department of Civil Engineering

CE 4564 - Seept14le Throuah Soila

TABLE 6.1 Cutoff Methods for Seepage Control.

Method Applicability Characteristics and requirements

8hcet pile cutoff Ruited e!!pedally for 11tr11.tified 110il11 withStP<'l 11h~tinp; m111<t be carefully driv<'n to maintAin
wall high horisontal and low vertical permea- interlock!! tight. l:iteel H-pile 11oldier bce.11111 may be used
bility or pervious hydraulic fill materials. to minimize deviation of sheeting in driving. Some devia-
May be easily damaged by boulders or tion of sheeting from plumb toward the side with lea.st
lmrioo obiltniction11. Tongim and groove horizontal prc!l.'lure should he r.i.pcclcd. R«'<'PllKC throuKh
wood sheeting utilized for shallow excava- interlocks is minimized where tensile force acts across
tion in soft to medium soils. Interlocking interlocks. For straight wall sheeting an appreciable
steel sheet piling is utilized for deeper flow may pass through interlocks. Decrease interlock
cutoff. leakage by filling locks with sawdust, bentonite, cement
grout, or similar material.
Compacted barrier Formed by compacted backfill in a cut- Layers or streaks of pervious material in the imper-
of impcrviou~ ~oil off trench carrit..J down to impcrviouii viou11 zone mu11t be avoid(,'<.! l>y cardul sclcctiu11 and mix-
material or as a core section in earth de.ms. ing of borrow materials, scarifying lifts, aided by sheeps-
foot rolling. A drainage zone downstream of an impervious
section of the embankment is necessary where the com•
pacted cutoff may be imperfect or era.eking of cutoJJ
material is likely. ·
Grouted or injected Applicable where depth or character of A complete positive grouted cutoff is often difficult
cutoff foundation materials make sheet pile wall and costly to attain, requiring a pattern of holes staggered
or cutoff trench impractical. Utilized exten- in rows with carefully planned injection sequence and
~ivcly in major hydraulic 11truct11rc."· May be prcAAurc control. RC?c T11.hl11 fi.2 and fi.3 for rnntcrial'I
used as a supplement below cutoff sheeting and methods.·
or trenches.

Hlurry Lrnuch SuiLc<l for com1truction of imperviou~ V!!rlic11.I 11it!e<l trench i11 !!xc11.v11.tt.'t.1 by below ground
method cutoff trench below ground water or for sta- water as slurry with specific gravity. generally between 1.2
bilizing trench excavation in connection and l.8 is pumped back into the trench. Slurry may be
wit.h trcmir. placr.mcnt of fournfo.tfon wall11. formcrl hy mixt.urr. of pnwtforrd lwntnnit.c with lino
graincu material rcmovcd from the e"c11.vation. l"or a per-
manent cutoff trench, well-graded backfill material is
dropped through the slurry in the trench to form a dense
mbrturc which iH c!l.><elltially i11cumprc11.'<iblc 11.fl.cr l>ackfill
i11 complete. Foundation wall is formed by concrete
trcmit.'t.I to bottom of trench, di11µlacing the 11lurry upward.
Impervious wall of Method may be suitable to form coffcr- For o. <'offerno.m surrounninp; o.n llX<'&vR.tion, a line of
mixed in-pla(oc pile" d11111 wull where ~hccL pile co!Tcnlam is overlapping mixed in-µlu.ce pilc:1 urc forme<l by 11. hollow
cxpenRive or cannot be driven to suitable shaft &URer or mixing head rotated into the soil while
depths, or has inRuflicient rigidity, or re- cement grout is pumped through the 11hu.ft. Where piles
quirr" r.xc!'itRiVI' hrn~inic. l'.l\llllOI, ho nclvanCt'fl il('CtUIHl1 of oh><l,fllcl.itllU< nr ho11l1ll'nl,
supµlcmcn t.u.ry grouting or injection may be 11ccc1:1t111.ry.

(U. S. Navy, Bureau of Yard11 and Docks.)

From Cedergren, H.R. (1967) Seepa.ge, Draina.ge and Flow Neta, John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
Virginia Tech The Charles E. Via, Jr.
Department of Civil Engineering

CE 4564 - Seepage Through Soila

METAL WELL GUARO -

PLASTIC STANOPIPE ~

VARIABLE - TO TOP OF
MINIMUM WATER TABLE

SAND BACKFILL

TOP OF

....
•••
••• .••..•••
•: •.o
GRAVEL. FILTER

TOP OF
••• WEL.L. SCREEN

..
....L ••••
: ···1-~~~~~~~~~~

...•••....
•••
••••
•••
BLANK PIPE
•••
••• THROUGH VERY
•••
•••
•••••
. FINE SANO STRATA

• •• •
••• .. GRAVEL FILTER

...•....•....•.
•••

...... .
...
.
• • •
..•••••• PE RFORA Teo OR

....-~~~
+
..
••••
:0.:0 0• 0•0••,.•
·~·0
SLOTTEO SCREEN

;. • 0 • • .. • •
0 6
f : : • • • •r# • . : o•

~23"MIN~
Figure 5-7. Typical relief well

From Design and Construction of Levees, Department of the Army, 1978.

Virginia Tech The Charles E. Via, Jr.
Department of Civil Engineering

CE 4564 - Seepage Throu,gh Soils

v, ••••••••• ··~ Origin el

ground 111rlace

-------
perforated

"
.e
.2/oralnage min
blanket
Foundation
grad•

("" .......... __::::i

.!/There ua many 1ullable drain PIP•• on the market.
The requiremenll are adequar. durability and auength.
Pipe laid wlltl open jolnta 1hould not be uaed. Sloll
or perforation• illlould meet crll•rla given in aeclion I. 1 O(I)•

.als11ould meet litter criteria, gl••n In ••clion 1.10(1),

with adjacanl material.

From U.S.B.R. (1965) Design of Small Dams, US Bureau of Reclamation,

U.S. Government Printing Office.

13-5
Virginia Tech The Charles E. Via, Jr.
Department of Civil Engineering

CE 4564 - Seepage Through Soils

-R-IV_E_R_S_IO-£----~· .'..»...::....
. ___ L_A_N_o_s_'_o_E

a. Horizontal drainage layer

-IV-tRS-10£--~'
R
LANOSIO[

b. lncll.ned dral.nage layer-homogeneous embankment

RIVtRStOE:

LANDSIOt

c. lncll.ned dral.nage layer-zoned embankment

Figure 5-9. Use of horizontal and inclined drainage layers

to control seepage through an embankment

From Design and Construction of Levees, Department of the Army, 1978.

13-3
 Virginia Tech The Charles E. Via, Jr.
) Department of Civil Engineering

CB 4564 - Seepaf:e Through Soils

limit ol •••P•G•

Figure 6-4.-Seepoge through a completely homogeneous dam. 288-0-2479.

Reservoir Upper limit of seepage

Fiiter

.... -1mpervioua foundation-...._

(A) WITH ROCKFILL TOE

limit of seepage

Horizontal
drainage blanket

....__ Impervious foundation--...

(B) WITH HORIZONTAL DRAINAGE BLANKET

- Inclined blanket
or chimney drain

drain

....----_Impervious foundation/'

(C) WITH CHIMNEY DRAIN

Figure 6-5. Snpa911 through modl6M homosJew dams. 103-0-1827.

From U.S.B.R. (1965) Design of Small Dams, US Bureau of Reclamation,

U.S. Government Printing Office. _Z
13
77
r
I
PROFESSOR DUNCAN

Seepage Through So 11 s

CE 4564

•2

kinko'se copies
p r o f e s s o r p u b I i s h i n g"

PRICE$ 1.50 DRILL .45 TAX $.09

TOTAL $2.04

KINKO'S
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 (

·1
\

(
·,
 Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
L The Charles E. Via, Jr.
Department of Civil Engineering -

GEOTECHNICAL
r ENGINEERING

[
SEEP: A COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR SEEPAGE ANALYSIS
OF SATURATED FREE SURFACE OR CONFINED STEADY
- ~-FLOW

!
(_

MICROCOMPUTER VERSION

BY KAI SIN WONG

ANDJ.M.DUNCAN

I --

VIRGINIA TECH
BLACKSBURG
 VIRGINIA TECH DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
l'. l
'
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
r

.•·
.
SEEP: A COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR SEEPAGE ANALYSIS
OF SATURATED FREE SURFACE OR CONFINED STEADY FLOW
r
i Microcomputer Version

r
r
by Kai Sin Wong and J. M. Duncan
I

.
First edition April, 1984

Second edition February, 1985

"
L.

Department of Civil Engineering

104 Patton Hall
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, VA 24061
 SEEP: A COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR SEEPAGE ANALYSIS OF SATURATED
FREE SURFACE OR CONFINED STEADY FLOW

I. INTRODUCTION

SEEP is a computer program written in FORTRAN IV that utilizes a finite

element numerical method for solving steady state problems of free surface or
confined flow of groundwater, in a two-dimensional or axisymm.etric porous
region.
SEEP is derived from the Program FREESURF I, initially coded bys. P.
Neuman and P. A. Witherspoon. Major modifications involving the reorganization
of the input data was coded by P. Florentin in 1975. This microcomputer
version waa coded by Kai Wong in December 1983.
II. SYSTEM REQUIREMENT

This program has been modified to run under CP/M-80, CP/M-68K, PC-DOS and
HS-DOS. :S.asic requirements include 64 kilobytes of RAM memoey for the CPIM-80
system and 128 kilobytes for other systems and at least one disk drive with a
minimum of 160 kilobytes of storage capacity. Details for various sytems are .
included in the appendices.
It is not necessary for the user to have a copy of the FORTRAN compiler in
order to execute this program. A FORTRAN compiler would be needed only to
modify the program. _
The accompanying diskette contains the following files:

Content !!.!!. Size (Kilobytes)

Source file 57
Executable file 145
Data file for Example l 2
Data file for Example 2 l
The file sizes shown above are baaed on CP/M-80 operating system and Microsoft
FORTRAN-80 compiler. File sizes vary with other systems.
The user should make a backup copy of the program diskette and store the
original. It ia not.necessary to copy the source file, if the program is not
to be modified.
The accompanying diskette does not contain the operating system. To
operate the program, the user must have a system disk for the computer being
used (CP/M-80, CP/M-68X, PC-DOS or MS-DOS).

III. PROGRAM EXECUTION

The user has an option co route the output to the screen or to the printer.
If the printer option is used, the printer must be turned on and set up to
print 132 columns. The following procedure can be used to run the program:

1. Create a data file on the program disk or on a DATA disk using a text
editor or word processor.

2. Place the PROGRAM disk in Drive A. If a DATA disk is used, place the
DATA disk in Drive B.

3. Reset the computer. When the "A>" prompt appears, type "SEEP" and
follow by a carriage return, <CR> i.e. A>SEEP <CR>

4. The user will be prompted with a series of questions. Execution will

begin after all questions have been answered.
S. After execution is completed, the user is prompted with five options:
(a) Continue execution -- user can increase the number of iterations
allowed, change the convergence criteria, change the output option
(printer or screen) and continue the execution.
(b) Save data to disk -- the results of the last iteration will be
saved on disk on a file name SEEPXXX.DAT. The user can later use
the "RESTART" option to continue the execution.
(c) Print results of last iteration -- if the output was routed to the
screen initially, this option will route the results from the last
iteration to the printer.
(d) Return to main menu. ·-
(e) Exit to the operating system.

These options are only applicable to free surface problems.

IV. PROGRAM OPERATION

The program. consists of four modules a main program (SEEP) and 3

sub-programs (SEEPl, SEEP2, and SEEP3). Figure l shows the interaction between
the four modules.
Program SEEP reads the control parameters, calls subroutines CONF and AUTO
to read the material properties, nodal point and element information. It also
calls subroutine FREE to read data for free surface problems. All input data
are written on a temporary disk file named "SEEPXXX.DAT". The program then
links SEEPl to continue the execution.
Subprogram SEEPl reads data from file "SEEPXXX.DAT" and calls subroutines
"TRANS" and "EL.EM" to form the transmissibility matrix. The results are saved
on a temporary file named "DUMMY.DAT" and SEEPl calls subroutines CONST, GAUSS,
FLOW and STEP. Subroutine CONST modifies the boundary conditions for nodal
points with fixed hydraulic head. Subroutine GAUSS performs Gaussian
elimination. Subroutine FLOW computes flow at nodes for free surface problems.
For confined flow problems, the execution will terminate after the ~esults are
 SEE.Pt

SEE.P2.

S6EP3

FIGURE 1 FLOW DIAGRAM OF PROGRAM "SEEP"

<
printed. For free surface problems, the program saves the data on a temporary
file named "SEEPXXX.DAT" and links SEEP3 to continue execution.

Sub-program SEEP3 reads data from file "SEEPXXX.DAT" and subroutine SURF to
shift the free surface and subroutine MESH to reset new mesh. Results are
saved on disk file "SEEPXXX.DAT". If the convergence criteria is not met and
the current iteration is less than the maximum. number allowed, the program
saves the data on disk file 11 SEEPXXX.DAT 11 and links SEEP! to continue
execution; otherwise, execution will be terminated.
V. CONSTRUCTION OF THE FINITE ELEMENT MESH
~ ~- ~

For a confined flow problem, there is practically no restriction in the

design of the mesh. Any combination of triangular and quadrangular elements
can be used.
In numbering the nodal points, one should try to minimize the band-width of
the system which is equal to one plus the maximum difference of the numbers of
the nodal points connected to the same element.
For a free surface flow problem, the mesh con~ains a moveable part
(adjusted to the free surface after each iteration) and a fixed part. Several
restrictions are imposed in the design of the moveable part of the mesh.
The moveable elements must be quadrangular and of the same material in each
section. The moveable nodal points must be arranged on non-intersecting lines
oriented transversely to the free surface, which are referred to as "transverse
lines 11 , along which the shifting will take place. To avoid problems in the
shifting, no transverse line should be defined horizontal, and a minimum slight
slope of l to 100 is recommended. Nodal points and elements must be numbered
sequentially from bottom to top along the transverse lines.
The free surface may consist of several sections, numbered sequentially.
Each section of the free surface is shifted independently of the others, and
the number of moveable nodal points on all transverse lines within a particular
section must be the same. The portion of transverse line connecting two
adjacent sections is referred to as internal seepage face.
Figure 2 shows an example of the parameters used to define a free surface
flow problem. The moveable part of the mesh contains 6 transverse lines (nodal
points 13 to 20, 24 to 31, 35 to 42, 46 to SO, 54 to S8 and 62 to 66
respectively). The nodal points 62 through 66 are actually on a slight slope
(1/100), as recommended above. The free surface consists of 2 sections (nodal
points 20 to 42 and 39 to 66 respectively). Moveable elements in Section I (10
to 16, 20 to 26) are of the material of the upstream face, and in Section II
(30 to 33, 37 to 40, 44 to 47) of the material of the downstream part. The
third transverse line is an internal seepage face between the two sections, and
the flow at nodal points 39 to 42 is evenly distributed to nodal points 39 and
SO on the free surface section vertically below.
o moveable nodal point

• fixed nodal point

3
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FIGURE .?
 VI
-
DESCRIPTION OF INPUT DATA
J The SEEP computer program uses free format for the input of data, which
makes it unnecessary to type the data with specified formats. Numbers are
typed one after the other, separated by a comma. More than one line can be
used for each group of numbers, if necessary. Decimal points need only be
typed for numbers having fractional parts. Blanks are not interpreted as
zeroes, and zeroes must be typed.
The data input is arranged in nine groups, groups c, G, H, and I are needed
only for a free surface problem. The data can be given in any system of
consistent units.

Group !
NAME Title of the problem (1 line of 72 columns only)
Group ! - General parameters
ICAT Type of problem
NUMMAT Number of materials
NUMNP Number of nodal points
NUMEL Number of elements
!CHECK Execution control parameter
KAT can take the values 1 to 4, which define the problem as follows:

ICAT=l: two dimensionat confined flow

KAT=2: axisymmetric confined flow
KAT•3: two dimensional free surface flow
ICAT=4: axisymmetric free surface flow
ICHECK can take 3 different values which control the amount of output
to be routed to the screen or the printer.
ICHECK•l Print only results of the last iteration if the problem
converges.
ICHECK•2 Print input data plus results of iteration if the problem.
converges.
tCHECK•3 Print input data plus results of all iterations.
Group £- Additional general parameters
IF ICAT = 1 or 2, skip this group and go to Group D.

ITMAX maximum number of iterations allowed

NLINE number of transverse lines in the moveable part of the mesh
NSECT number of sections of the free surface
NISFA number of internal seepage faces, dischage distributed
vertically
NISFl number of internal seepage faces, discharge added to only
one nodal point
 EPSLON maximum vertical error allowed '(in units of height) in the
position of the free surface.
Group D - Material properties (NUMMAT groups)
N number of the material
PERMl(N) lst principal permeabilty
PERM2(N) 2nd principal permeability
ANG(N) angle between Ox axis and 1st principal direction
Group ! - Nodal points information
1st Data Line:
NNRPD number of nodal points for which information is to be read

Following Data Lines: (A total of NNPRD data lines)

N nodal point number

ICODE(N) boundary code; can take the value O, 1 or 2
if KODE(N)•O, the value of the flow at nodal point N, (Q(N) J,
is specified in Q(N) below (sign convention:
entering flow > 0)
if KODE(N)=l, the value of the hydraulic head at nodal point N
is constant, and this value [HO(N)] is specified
in Q(N) below · ·
if KODE(N)•2, the value. of the hydraulic head at nodel point N
is equal to the elevation Y(N). The value
[HO(N)] • Y(N) may be specified in Q(N) below, o~
if any other value, the program will set HO(N) •
Y(N)
X(N) horizontal coordinate
Y(N) vertical coordinate
Q(N) boundary value (See KODE(N)). If KODE (N) • z, a dummy
value may be typed.
Nodal points information should be given in sequence. The first and
last given nodal points must be N•l, and N = NUMNP respectively.
All missing nodal points will be generated at equal intervals along
the line connecting the two nodal points specified before and after
them.. Values of KODE, and accordingly, values of Q (if KODE = 0), HO
(if KODE • l) or the difference HO - Y • 0 (if KODE • 2 ) , are set
equal to the values at the last nodal point specified before the
missing points.
Group ! - Elements information
lst Data Line:
NELB.D number of elements for which information is to lie read
 Following Data Lines: (A total of NELR.D data lines)

N element number
ICX(N,l) number of nodal point I connected to the element
IOC(N,2) II
J II

ICX(N,3) II
K II

IOC(N,4) II
L II

MTYPE(N) number of material within the element

The 4 nodal points I, J, K, L of a quadrangular element must be

defined in the trigonometric positive direction of rotation (X-axis
towards Y-axis), in order to have positive area.
For triangular elements, IOC(N,4) should be equal to IOC(N,3), or can
be given the value O.
Element information should be given in sequence. The first and last
given elements must be N • l and N • NUMEL respectively.
All missing elements are generated by incrementing by 1 the numbers
of the nodal points of the previous element. Values of MTYPE are set
equal to the value for the last specified eleme~t.
Group g_ - Internal seepage faces information

-the discharge is d;stributed evenly to the nodal points of the free

.
surface section vertically below
Omit these data if NISFA • 0
Give NISFA values in l group if NISFA > 0:

ISFA(N) number of the transverse lines which are internal seepage

faces
-the discharge is added to only one nodal point below

Omit these data if NISFl • 0

Give NISFl values in l group if NISFL > 0:
ISFl(N) number of the tranverse lines which are internal seepage
faces

Group .! - !.!.!.!. surface sections information (A total of NSECT data lines)

N number of the free surface section

NTL(N) number of the transverse line on the left side of the free
surface section
NTR(N) number of the transverse line on the right side of the free
surface section
NTRl(N) number of the transverse line on the left side of the
initial guess of the free surface section (see below)
 ------------------------·----------- -

NTRl(N) number of the transverse line on the right side of the

initial guess of the fr.ee surface section (see below)
r NPL(N) number of the nodal point on the left edge of the free
surface section
NPR(N) number of the nodal point on the right edge of the free
surface section
IFXL(N) = 0 if the left point is moveable,
= l if the left point is fixed.
IFXR(N) • 0 if the right point is moveable,
• 1 if the right point is fixed.
IFXB(N) = 0 if the value of BETA(N) is allowed to vary during
execution, decreasing proportionately with maximum error.
= 1 if BETA(N) remains constant throughout the iterative
solution
BETA(N) factor to prevent inversion of a nearby vertical free
surface (see published paper by S. P. Neuman and P. A.
Witherspoon, "Finite Element Method of Analyzing Steady
Seepage with a Free Surface" in Water Resources Research,
pp. 889-897, June 1970)
-if the free surface will not be close to vertical, specify
BETA(N) "" 0
-if the free surface may become nearly vertical, the
recommended value of BETA depends on the inclination of the
transverse lines:
BETA(N) = 0.2to 0.3, if the transverse lines are close to
horizontal
BETA(N) = 0.6 to 0.8, if the transverse lines are inclined
at mo'"re than 45° over the horizontal.
RINF(N) Rate of infiltration per unit of horizontal length of the
free surface section (sign convention; flow entering into
the system positive).
The "left" and "right" directions in the definitions above refer to
the negative and positive X-direction respectively.
Figure 3 shows an example of the need of an initial guess of the free
surface section. Some transverse lines intersect the seepage face on .
the downstream slope of the dam, and the exit point is unknown. As
an initial guess, its position is assumed to occur at nodal point 25.
After one iteration, it may be shifted either upward to nodal point
20 or downward to nodal point 30 or 35, The nodal point 35 is fixed,
and it is assumed that the exit point will not fall below this point.
The free surface section extends from transverse line 1 (NTL) to 7
(NTR.), and the initial guess from transverse line l (NTLl) to 5
(NTR.l). The nodal points at the left and right edges are 1 and 35
(NPL and NPR. respectbrely). They are both fixed (IFXL • t., IFXR •
1). This example also shows the need to define the intersection of
the transverse lines with the physical boundary of the flow region,
on which the position of the exit point may occur (e.g. point 20).
Group 1- Transverse lines information (A total of NLINE data lines)
N number of the transverse line

II
o moveable nodal point

• fixed nodal point

FIGURE .3
 NPBOT(N) number of the uppermost fixed nodal point on this transverse
line
NPTOP(N) number of the.uppermost moveable nodal point on this
transverse line. If there is no moveable point on this
transverse line, NPTOP(N) should be equal to NPBOT(N) or can
be given the value O.
YLIM(N) vertical coordinate of the intersection of the··t~ansverse~·
line with the physical boundary of the flow region. YLIM{N)
can be given the value 0 if the uppermost moveable nodal
point is already on the physical boundary of the flow region
at the beginning.

VII. EXAMPLE PROBLEMS

Two sample problems are included. Lists of the input data and a partial
listing of the output for each example are included. The first problem is a
confined flow problem (Figure 4). The second problem is an earth dam with
chimney drain (Figure 5).

13
 (J /lllOAf

.,, , . , .. --- .., :.

2 ID 1j '' U. tS :Z'I ,,
S II

I i

FIGURE 4 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1 -- CO~FINED FLOW

LISTING OF INPUT DATA •• EXAMPLE PROBLEM I

EJAllPLE Pft08L.EI OF 2-D COllFtfllED Fl.Oii

l,3;48,35,2
1,0.000001,0.000001,0
2,0.000001,0.000001,0
1,0,0,0 35
34 1,J,4,5,2,J
1,0,0,0,0 2,2,S,6,3,2
3,1,0,100,200 3,4,7,8,S,1
4,0,75,o,o 4,5,8,9,6,2
6,1,75,100,200 5,1,10,11,a,1
7,0,150,0,0 6,8,11,12,9,2
9,1,150,100,200 7,10,13,14,14,1
10,0,200,0,0 8,10,14,11,11,J
12;1,200,100,200 9' 14, 15, 11, 11, 1
ll,0,2'0,0,0 10,11,15,16,12,2
15,0,250,50,0 11,Jl,17,18,14, J
16,1,250,100,200 12,14,18,19,15,1
11,0,215,o,o ll,15,19,20 1 16,2
19,0,275,50,0 14, 17,21,22, 18, 1
20,1,215,100,200
21,0,299,0,0
·- 15,18,22,23,19,J
16,19,23,24,20,2
23,0,299,50,0 17,21,25,26,22,J
24,J,299,100,200 18,22,26,27,23,1
25,0,301,0,0 19,23,27,28,24,3
27,0,301,50,0 20,25,29,30,26,1
28, 1,301, JOO, 1.00 21,26,30,31,27,1
29,0,325,0,0 22,27,31,32,28,2
31,0,325,50,0 23,29,33,34,30,1
32,1,325,100,100 24,30,34,35,31,1
33,01 350,0,0 2',31,35,36,32,2
35,0,350,50,0 26,33,37,34,34,J
361 1,350,JOO,JOO 27,37,38,34,34,1
37,o,400,o,o 28,34,38,35,35,1
39,1,400,100,100 29,35,38,39,36,2
4o,o,4so,o,o l0,37,40,41,38,1
42,1,450,100,100 ll,38,41,42,39,2
43,o,m,o,o 32,40,43,44,41,1
45,1,525,100,100 33,41,44,45,42,2
46,0,600,0,0 34,43,46,47,44,J
48, 1, 600,.100; 100 35,44,47,48,45,2
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12 200.00 100.000 200.00 100.000
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27 301.00 50.000 11..SO ••.800
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38 400.00 50.000 108.3' 58.3'2
39 4CIO,OO 100.000 I 100,000 0.0000
40 150.00 o.oooe IOS.28 105.28
u 450.00 50.000 103.13 s:i.m
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IY
O moveable nodal point

• fixed nodal point

,··

7 Ii
11

FIGURE 5. EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2

 LISTING OF INPUT DATA -- EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2

EIMPU 2 FOR SEEP - SWA6£ THROU6H Alt EARTH DAN lllTH ACHilllEY DIAilt
3,1,20,12,2
4,S,1,0,0,1
1,3.28£-9,3.28£-9,0
10
1,1,0,0,90
4,1,225,90,90
s,0,100,0,0
~,2,247.41,74.48,0
9,0,200,0,0
12,2,269.83,58.97,0
13,0,260,0,0
16,2,283.28,49.66,0
17,2,290,0,0
20,2,290,45,0
s
1, 1,5,6,2, 1
4,5,9,10,6,1
7,9,13,14,10,1
10,13,17,18,14,1 .._
12,15,19,20,16,1
1,1,s,1,s,4,20,1,0,o,o,o
1,1,4,0
2,5,8,0
3,9,12,0
4, 13, 16, 0
s,11,20,0

;:}0
a1a111111111111111111111••••••••••1111111111111•••1•••111111•••••1•••••••••••••1111111111a1111a11111a111aaa11111a111•••·····
11111a11111111111aa111••• •1•••1•••••••1111111•••••
ISlllllllllllllllllllllll EXAllPLE 2 FOR SEEP -- SEEPAGE THROUGH All EARTH DAii WITH ACHIIUIEY DRAIN lllllllllllllllllllllSlll
········••11111111a111111 1111111111111a111111a111r
••••111111111a1111111111a11111a11111•••••11••••••••1111••••••1•••••••1••••••••••1•1111111111111111111111111111•••••1••••1111

TWO DillEISIOllAI. FREE SURFACE FLOll

NUftBER OF "ATERIALS -------~~-~- 1

NU"BER OF NODAL POINTS --------~----- 20
NUMBER OF ELE"ENTS --------------------- 12
9AHOllIDTH OF THE "ATRil ·---~~ 6
"ATERIAL PROPERTIES
111a1111111111a11111111111111111a111111111111111111111a
I "AltRIAL I PRINCIPAL PERNEABILITIES I AH6l.E OF I
r llU"BER I Kl K2 lkl »ITH OJI
111111111111a111111111111111111111aa11111111111111111a1
I 1 I .32800£-08 I .32800£-08 I .OOD+ol I
1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
..._
NODAL POINTS IIFOR"ATIOlt
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111•1•••1••1•111111111111111111111
S fffJDAL PT I MODAL POINTS COORDINATES I I HYDRAULIC I FLOll RATE I
I NU"BER I XOR R YOR Z I CODE I HEAD I I
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
•
I
1 I 0.0000
2 I 75.000 I
• 0.0000
30.000
I
I
1 I 90.000
1 I 90.000
I 0.0000
I 0.0000
I
I
• l I 150.00 I 60.000 I 1 I 90.000 I 0.0000
•
I
I
4 I 225.00
5 • 100.000
I
••
90.000
0.0000
I
•
1
0 I
•
90.000
0.0000
I 0.0000
•
0.0000
I
I
I
I
6
1
• 149.14
I 198.27
24.827
I 49.653 I
I 0 I 0.0000
0 I 0.0000
I 0.0000
I 0.0000
I
I

•
I
8 I 247.41
9 I 200.00
•
74.480
I 0.0000 I
• 2 I 74.480
0
•
0.0000 I
I 0.0000
0.0000
•
•
I 10 I 223.28 I 19.657 I 0 I 0.0000 I 0.0000 I
I
I
11
12
I
I
246.55
269.83
I
I
39.313
58.970
I
I
0 I 0.0000
2 I 58.970
I 0.0000
I 0.0000 I
•
'
I
- 1l
14 I
• 260.00
267.76
I
I
0.0000
16.553 I
• O· I 0.0000
0 I 0.0000
I 0.0000
I 0.0000 I
•
15
••275.52 I 33.107 • 0
•
0.0000
•
0.0000
•
l 16 283.28 I 49.660
• 2
•
49.660 I 0.0000 I
I
I
17
18
I
I
290.00
290.00
I
I
0.0000
15.000 I
• 2 I 0.0000
2 I 15.000 ••
0.0000
0.0000
••
•
19
20 I
• 290.00
290.00
I 30.000
•
45.000 I
• 2 I 30.000
2 I 45.000
I 0.0000
•
0.0000
•
•
1111a1i111111sa1111s1a11111s1a111111aa11111as111a1a1s1111a1s1111111•••••••••11111111111
 ELEJIEITS IIFORMTION
.,I .....................................................
El.£11£MT a CONNECTED NODAL POINTS a MTERIAL I

..................................... ,.,...............
S NUffBER I I J L lll.llfBER I
K S

• 1
• 2 5• 6• 2•
1 •
• 1
2
3
• •
•' 4 • • • 10 • 4 • 1 •• 3
• 6
7
• 7
8
3 • 1

• • • • • 1 •
••
5 9 6 1

•
5
• • 10
•
6
•• 1311 • • 11
'• 1412 a • 7
•
••
6
•
7
•
7
a • 10
9
• 1514 •• 15 •• 10 ••
1
•
• • •• 17
11 l
• 18 •• 1214 • •
9
• 1110 • 1413
11 16 1
•
a• • •
1
•• 12 •• 15 •• 1819
19
•l15
••
.....................................................,.•
• 20 • 16 •
1

FREE SURFACE SECTIONS INFO~ATION

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
IFS SECTIONITRANSVERSE LINEITL FIRST GUESSINODE llafIXEJ,OafREE>a INFILTRATION IBETA COEFFI
NURBER· I LEFT RIGHT I LEFT RIGHT a LEFT RIGHT IPER HORII. UNITl!l=FIXED> a
I
.......................................
I 1 I 1 5 I 1 5 t
.,...,
.................................................
4 Ill 20 1011 0.0000 I 0.000 IOU
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
TRANSVERSE LINES INFOR"ATION

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
ITRANSVERSEIUPPERMOST NDDEIVERTICAL CODRD.I
s LINE NO. I FIXED FREE IPHYSICAL BOUND.I
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• 1 • 1 4 • 90.000 •
• 2 • 5 8 • 74. 480 •
• 3 • 9 12 • 51.970 •
• 4 • 13 lf• • 49.600 •
• 5 • 17 20 • 45.000 •
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
I ITERATION "Al. VERTICAL ERROR = 15.0 ALLDMED ERROR = 1.000

t ITERATION 2 llAX. VERTICAL ERROR = 3.76 ALLDMED ERROR = 1.000

I ITERATIOll 3 MX. VERTICAL ERROR = 2.01 ALLOMED ERROR • 1.000

a ITERATION 4 llAI. VERTICAL ERROR = •737 ALLDMED ERROR = 1.000
 aaaaasssaaassaaaaaasaaasaasaaassaassssasaasssaasssasssssssssssssssrissssssssssasssssssssssssassssssssssassssags1sa11a111sss
••••saassssssssssaasssssss ssssssssassrs1a1ss11111aa
raa1111ss1sssssssasssassss ElAllPLE 2 FOR SEEP -- SEEPA6E THROU&H AN EARTH DAii WITH ACHllllEY DRAIN sss1sssssas1sa1sas1a1aas
aaassssassssassssaassasssg a1ssssssssssssassasss1aaa
as1sasaasaasssasssaaasasassssssssassssass1sssassssssasssssssssasssssssssssssssssssssssassssssasssassssssssasssassssssa111aa

••••sssassasssasssssssasssssssasasasssaassaa assssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
a NODAL PT S NODAL POINTS COORDINATES s
a NUllBER s I OR R • HYDRAULIC I PORE PRESSURE S
••••••sassaassaaasasssssssssssssasssaasaaasa•
Y OR l
•ssssssassssssssssssssssssssssssss
HEAD SIN UNIT OF HEADS
• 12 ss 0.0000 s 0.0000
• s 90.000
75.000 s 30.000 •s 90.000 s
s•
s 90.000
••
3 s 150.00 s &0.000 s 90.000
&0.000
s 30.000
s
s
4
• 225.00 s• 0.0000 90,000
• • 89.722
90.000
s• 89.722
• iis ss 100.000 0.0000 s
• •s
s• 7 s 196.39
148.20 s 24.351
s 48.703 • 86.033
s•
61.&82 s
• 8 s 244.59 s 73.054 • •s 80.844 3~.141

s•
72.942 s
• 109 ss 200.00 s 0.0000 s 75.225 s
-.11227

g• 11
75.225
s• 37.116
221.98 18.558 s s
s 243.9' 67.931 s 49.373
s 60.453 s
• 1312 s 260.00 265.93 s 55.675 23.337
s•
s 55.765 s
• 14 •s 266.62 •s 0.0000 • 44.751 s
.90740E-01
• 44.751
s•
14.130
• 1516 s 273.25 • 28.260 • 39.473 25.343
• •s 39.458 s 11.198
• 1718 ss• 290.00
279.87 s 42.391 s 42.&18
s 0.0000 s
• • .22726
• 290.00
• 20.282
10. 141 s
•
.23126
10.345 •s .23126
.20422
• 19
• 290,00 •
20
• 290,00 s 30.423 •s
'assasssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssassssssss
:>-_.• 20.445
30.423
•
s .16310
0.0000
•••sssssssssssssssassssssssssssss
FLOW RATE AT NODAL POINTS MITH FIXED HEAD
••ssasssasssssssssssssssssss
i NODAL PT S FLOW RATE s
NUllBER s
•••••ssaaassasssasssasasassss •
• 12 ss -.18785E-09 s
• 3 s .S4580E-07 ss
,.J4112E-08
• 4 s .7~577E-07 s
•
' 128 ss .85265E-13
.17764E-14 s
s
• 1617 ss -.71054E-14 s
• 18 s -.39877E-07
-.60410E-07 s
• 19 s -.29416E-07 ss
• 20 s -.36770E-08 s
'
. rsssssaassasssasssaasssssssa
a 9UANTlTY OF SE£PA6E FlOWIN& Ill = , 133S7E-06
I QUANTITY DF SEEPA6E FLOIIN& OUT = -.133S7E-G6'

,;23.
 Appendix A

Z80 Computers ~ CP/M-80 Operating System

SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

This program is executable in a Z80 based computer with CP/M-80 and 64K RAM
memory. It requires at leat one disk drive with a minimum of 160 kilobytes of
disk storage. FORTRAN-SO by Microsoft was used in the compilation of this
program. However; the user does not need to use the FORTRAN compiler to run
the program. The compiler is needed only if the program is to be modified.
The following files are contained on the disk(s):

ill! !!!!!! ill.!~ (Kilobytes) Comment

SEEP.FOR 18 Source File

SEEPl.FOR 7 Source File
SEEP2.FOR 15 "
II
SEEP3.FOR 17
SEEP.COM 37 Executable File
II
SEEPl.COM 30
II
SEEP2.COM 38
SEEP3.COM 40 "
EXAMPLEl.DAT ;>-_
2 Data file for Example l
EXAMPLE2.DAT 1 Data file for Example 2
Only the ".COM" files (SEEP .COM, SEEPl.COM, SEEP2.COM, SEEPJ.COM) are used
in execution. Copy these four files plus the two data files onto a new
diskette and store away the original diskette(s). Do not "write-protect" the
work disk. A small file used to identify the location of the data and
temporary files will be written to the program disk during execution.
 ........................,,,,,,,,.............
''• SEEP Yer!ion 12.83 ICP/"·80> ''
)
~

a Finite Ele1ent Analysis of Free

a Surhce and Confined Flow Probl11s. '•
'
',,,,,,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,...................,,,,,•

I = CHECK INPUT DATA

2 = SDLYE NEV PRDBLE"
3 = RESTART OLD PROBLE"

4 : EXIT TO CP/"

. Please select 1,2,3 OR 4 --> l.

)
OUTPUT DESTINATION

2 =PRINTER <132 COLU"NSl

3 = SCREEN

Pl ease specify 1 or 2 ---->l.

File nate 1ust be 11 characters long .

e.g. •1MPUTl DAT'

Enter na1e of input file --> SEEPDt DAT

LOCATION OF FILE
1 : DRIVE A

• 2 = DRIVE B
Please specify l or 2 ---->~
 I
I

I
II

Appendix: B

8088/8086 Computers with PC-DOS ~ MS-DOS Operating Systems

I
~-)

SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

The program is executable in an 8088 or 8086 based computer with or without

the 8087 co-processor. It requires a minimum of 192 RAM and at least 1 disk
drive with a minimum of 160 kilobyte storage capacity. Microsoft FORTRAN was
used in the compilation of this program; however it is not necessary for the
user to have a copy of the compiler in order to run the program. The compiler
is needed to modify the program.

The program disk contains the following files:

r
I File Names File Size (Kilobytes) Content
I
SEEP.FOR 18 Source File
r· SEEPl.FOR 7 Source File
SEEP2.FOR 15 Source File
S!!P3.FOR 18 Source File
SEEP.EXE 117 Executable File
SEEPl .DAT 1 Data file for Example 1
SEEP2.DAT 1 Data file for Example 2

Only the executable file (SEEP-.EXE) is needed in the execution. Copy this
file plus the two data files onto a new diskette and store away the original.

F
L
 ..
.. -

·---·- ··- --·-··- ~-~-

••
t++t++++•+t++tt+++tttt++•+++++++++t++++ttt++
+
+
•t SEEF -- Version :.94 !l!S-CQS: +
'
.
·c

t -·
F:n: te t•Eli!fi' Ar:al y:i s of F:-ee
+
t
Sc::-f a:£ anc Ccr.f:r.ed Flow cf t
~=ter Th:-c:.g~ Fo:-~~s l'ed: a.
t
t
t
+t+•++++•••tttt+++t+tttttttttt+t++++ttt+ttt+

r
L
1 = CHE~K INPUT D~TA

: = SC:. VE NEW PROB!.E.Pl

3 = RESTA~T Ot~ PROBLEM

4 = El IT Tfr- DOS

Please select 1,2,3 or 4 --> ~

OUTPUT DESTINATION
0 = SCREEN
1 = PRINTER 1132 calusnsl
Pleae specify 1 or 2 ---->

NAnE OF INPUT FILE

!e.g. B:lYZ.DATi ~> SEEPDJ.DAT
 Appendix C

Motorola 68000 Computer with CP/M-68K Operating System

SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

The program is executable in a Motorola 68000 based computer with the

CP/M-68K operating system. It requires a minimum of 256 kilobytes of RAM and
at least one disk drive with a minimum of 160 kilobytes of storage capacity.
The FORTRAN com~iler by Silicon Valley Software was used in the compilation of
this program.
The program diskette contains the following files:

!i!! Size (Kilobytes) Content

SEEP.FOR 56 Source file

SEEP.681C 86 Executable file
SEEPl.DAT 2 Data file for Example 1
SEEP2.DAT 2 Data file for Example 2
Only the executable file (SEEP.68K) is needed in the execution. Copy this
file plus the two data files onto a new diskette and store away the original •

.
:

L
 ..

11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

f
I
I SE? - llenion 3. M 1c:in1-6SKl
•I
+
+ Finite ElNlni ANlysis of Fl"ee
•
I
t SurfiC'e and Confined F'°" ~l'Obll!lll I
+ t
11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111

1 = OEK INPUT DATQ

i > 3 =iESTART ~ PROBf..e)I

•• ElIT ?-_ro DOS

j • '
, I.

CIJTPUT DESTINATtl:r.
.; .

PlMt SDICi fy 1 <>r' Z -:""'! >

- 1
~
fl
.
.NllE OF INPUT FIL.£ ... . ..
<e. t• Br XYZ. DATL -> SE£PD2.~T

..
~.
~
t:
•
~!
•.