.

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'

GEOLOGIC
INTERPRETATION
FROM WELL LOGS

STANDARD OIL COMPANY OF CALIFORNIA

SAN FRANC I SCO

1967

1"'
). .,
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~ .

'--~-- .- ----.-- - --- ... - ' . . . •. "- - - .. _ .. ' -' I

 GEOLOGIC INTERPHETATION FHOM WELL LOGS

_INTHODUCTION

The purpose of this manual is to compile under one cover the principles of
well log correlation, together with examples of lithologic interpretation
and expressions of stratigraphic and structural features which can sometimes
be recognized on well logs.

For the past 35 years, geologists and engineers have correlated electric and
radioactivity logs. During the first 20 years, this correlation consisted
of a comparison of log curves checked by paleontologic dating and lithologic
infonnation from cores and cuttings. Very little consideration was given to
the electrochemical and petrophysical fundamentals and relationships that
determine the amplitudes and shapes of the various curves. Quantitative
analysis was relegated to the log analyst, usually an engineer, whose pri-
mary interests \~ere porosity and hydrocarbon saturation.

Advancing technology during the last 15 years has provided a multiplicity of

electric, acoustic, and radioactivity logs which have greatly enhanced both
qualitative and quantitative interpretation, but for all except the expert
log analyst, correlation and geologic interpretation seem to be more diffi-
cult than with the simpler appearing logs of the past. Modern drilling
fluids and drilling practices have also contributed to the confusion.
Geologists and petroleum engineers must therefore acquire a basic under-
standing of petrophysics and quantitative log interpretation. These
subjects are now well covered by Company manuals by Mr. J. E. Walstrom, by
Chevron Research reports, and by several published texts. Geologic
interpretation and correlation of modern logs are not adequately covered;
hence the need for a supplemental manual designed primari1y for the
exploration geologist.

About half of the log examples and accompanying descriptions for this
compilation were taken from the 1959 W.O.I. manual, "Stratigraphic and
Structural Interpretations from Hell Logs," the 1959 Chevron West manual,
"Qualitative Use of Well Logs," Chevron Research memoranda and reports, and
Schlumberger Interpretation Techniques. The balance of the examples were
contributed by the editor and the following individuals from the Standard of
California family:

C. A. Bengston Chevron Research

F. L. Campbell Chevron Research
L. R. Litsey Chevron Calco
C. D. Jones Chevron Exploration
B. B. Cooley Chevron Sotex
C. F. Lamb Chevron Sotex
C. V. Moore Chevron Sotex
R. E. Murphy Chevron Sotex
H. L. Turner Chevron Sotex
J. R. Lishman Chevron Standard
D. H. Organ Chevron Standard
E. C. Bowman Chevron West
F J. E. Dryden lYestern Operations, Inc.
D. N. Helmuth lYestern Operations, Inc.
R. R. Johnston lYestern Operations, Inc.
R. L. Manly lYestern Operations, Inc.
H. E. Nagle lYestern Operations, Inc.

Many other examples were not included because, in the editors' judgment, the
interpretation was unclear or ambiguous, or a better example of the same
feature was available. Because of the differences in background and exper-
ience in local areas of the various contributors, some may prefer local
examples to those selected for the compilation. The manual is in loose-leaf
form for that reason and also so that additional material may be added in
each section.

As research progresses in computer applications to well log analysis and

lithologie interpretation, computer logs and plots should be included in
this manual. The experimental logs now available were not included at this
time, because they could be misleading. At the present state of the art,
the geologist should be working toward a better understanding of the influ-
ence of various rock properties on the basic measurements made by logging
tools. He will then be better equipped to interpret and analyze the computer
logs derived from these measurements.

J. C. lYells
Editor
May 1967
 CONTENTS

PART 1. CORRELATION

Types of Logs Most Suitable for Correlation

Lithological Correlation
Time Line Correlation
Adverse Physical and Chemical Effects
Logarithmic versus Linear Scales

PART 2. INTERPRETATION OF DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT FROM LOGS

Interpretation of Marine Sand Environments from Electric Logs

Regressive Beach Sand Pattern
Transgressive Beach Sand Pattern
Sand Bar Pattern
Channel Sand Pattern
Lagoonal Depositional Pattern
Continental Cycles
Type of Clay in Clayey Sands
Stream Channel Cut and Fill
Salt Solution and Sand Infill
Carbonate Patterns
Recognition of Depositional Environments in Carbonates
Reef Carbonate
Direction of Sediment Transport

PART 3. LITHOLOGY FROM LOGS

Conglomerates
Siliceous Shales
Diatomite
Opaline Shale
Fractured Shale Reservoirs
Siltstone
Bentonites
Sandwich Beds
Glauconitic Sands
Organic Shales
Nodular Shale
Carbonaceous Shale
Coal Beds
Sandstone Reef
Carbonates and Evaporites
Limestone versus Dolomite
Dolomite Cavern
Vertical Fractures
Anhydrite
Salt and Anhydrite
Salt (NaCI) Identification
Potash
Volcanics
Tar Sands and Volcanics
Shallow, Unconsolidated Tar and Gas Sands
Mineralized Zones
Basement Rocks
I
PART 4. STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION FROM LOGS

Steep Dips
Unconformities
Normal Faults
Reverse Faulting and Overturning
Structural Interpretations from Dipmeter Data

PART 5. HYDRODYNAMICS AND ABNORMAL PRESSURE EFFECTS

Transition from Fresh Water to Salt Water

Hydrodynamic Effects
Abnormal Pressure Effects on Well Logs
 - - - - ------ - ----~- ----

PART 1

CORRELATION

I
I
, '"

)
 . srlllUEml mt SI,I,I,£l1H fllPII1TI1I
1.
~tOHU.HfOUS fOHNlfAl , RESISTIVITY S~OHl.lHfOu~ rO!fMllu ~ R[~ISIlYln
I,)~ mitlivolh i ohml. mtlm
I,~ millivolt, j ohml m'lm ELECTRIC LOG
h' ........ " IN FRESH
'" , WATER MUD
Rm-I.IOI17-

,- ... "

1,.- COMPARED
., WITH
F-'
V
~. LATEROLOG
cc IN SALT MUD
i i_
i- i-
( REDRILL)

.. i
11 .1

Note positive
! S. P. opposite
sands in salt mUd.

+ -tt,: • \_ i
I',~ .:
I i
\

KERN
r, COUNTY,

, :
r> CALIFORNIA
.'
" .. . . -
- ---,- ',-

.
i

-
"" -'--- I
/I Figure 1-1

-_ .. ,-,....-.-
 COMPARISON OF

ELECTRIC LOG
WITH

INTERVAL VELOCITY LOG

GRAPEVINE AREA CALIFORNIA

VElOCITY IN F t 11 PER HeDNO

~DOO--E:ffiillJj L'LLU:tj

_-----1

1QOO---H

- ,

lSQII--

Figure 1-2
 LITHOLOGIC CORRELATION

The first step in sny correlstion problem is to assemble all the electric
logs, core and cuttings descriptions, and paleontological data that are
available. In some areas, radioactivity logs and velocity logs may also be
quite helpful. Then, before attempting any correlation, the logs should be
studied critically and compared with the lithology, as shown in the descrip-
tions of cores and cuttings. If the geologist is not familiar with the
section, core samples where available should also be examined and compared
with the written descriptions and electric logs because descriptions of the
same type of material by different geologists often vary considerably.

After the geologist has become familiar with the material available, the
regional perspective should be established. This is usually done by choos-
ing the most complete core records, and in some cases measured outcrop
sections, as starting points in several parts of the area and comparing
paleontological data to establish time relations. The geologist is then
ready to begin correlating logs.

Regional correlation is usually best accomplished by first comparing large

stratigraphic units and correlating by general over-all character because
individual marker beds may not be continuous and facies changes and struc-
tural complications may cause confusion if smaller units are used. Confusion
may also result from using electric logs which do not properly reflect the
lithology or which were recorded under different conditions. (See Figures
1-3 to 1-11.)

Large stratigraphic units which can be correlated over broad areas may be
predominantly sand, or shale, or carbonates, or they may be quite variable
with one or more persistent beds that are easily recognizable. The S.P.
curve is normally used for correlating sand and silicous shale intervals
although sometimes the resistivity curves must be used in conjunction.
Large shale intervals usually show more detail on the conductivity curve
or amplified short normal of the induction-electric or standard electric
logs, and the Laterolog-8 on the logarithmic scale of the DIL system also
shows excellent detail in low resistivity intervals. In SOme areas, the
ohm-meter value of shale resistivity in a particular interval or a sequence
of intervals may be correlated. When sttempting to correlate shale resis-
tivities quantitatively it may be necessary to correct the short normal
curve for the size of the hole and the mud resistivity. In carbonate
sections, the gsmma ray curve is used for detailed correlation because the
high resistivity effect on the S.P. produces a rounded and sluggish-looking
curve. (See Figure 2-110).

When the broad regional stratigraphic correlations have been established,

the next problem becomes one of breaking down the larger stratigraphic units
into environment of deposition as illustrated in Part 2 of this manual. The
S.P. curve can be very helpful for this purpose in sand-shale sections
because its pattern normally reflects ratios of shale or argillaceous mater-
ial to clean sands. This does not mean a decrease in self-potential is
necessarily a measure of decreased permeability. It means a decrease in
self-potential indicates an increase in argillaceous material provided there

2
-.,
is no chsnge in formation water salinity. Dipmeter plots used with electric
logs may indicate the direction of sand transport snd may help to identify
individual sands. This strstigraphic applicstion of the dipmeter has proven
to be very helpful in California and South Louisiana.

Some specific rock types or groups show more or less definite character-
istics or log patterns as illuatrated in Part 3 of this manual. In most
casea, however, these patterns are not sufficiently diagnostic to be used
without corroborating evidence from cuttings, cores, or sidewall samples.

3
.•
 CORRELATION

Formations to Advantages and

Type of Log Which Aop1icable Type of Mud Special Merits Limitations Precautions

SP
If
Any except those Any conductive* mud Sharply defines contacts be- Affected by lateral changes Proper scale must be chosen to
of very high resis- so long as Rmf is tween shales and porous in formation water salinity. provide desired definition.
tivity. not equal to Rv. nonsha1es. loses character as Rmf/Rw
approaches unity, as e/d.
becomes quite small and as f
Rt/Rm and Rs/Rm become quite r
large.

Short Normal Lov and moderate Any conductive* mud wide selection of scales Reflects variations in Rmf, Care must be taken in selecting
resistivities. except saturated or provides adequate corre- ROS and Di and extremely proper scale for correlation
nearly saturated lation character over wide sensitive to e/spacing as e realizing that this generally
salt muds. range of resistivities. approaches spacing; reverses is not the same as the desired
but has characteristic shape scale for formation evalUation
when e equals or is less WOrk. Amplified scale best
~~an the spacing. in long shale sections.

Lateral Any Same Always gives marked "kicks"
in right direction for ~~ln
resistive streaks with
characteristic shadow zone
and false peak below.
Induct lon Lov and mod.era te Same Conductivity curVe is par-
reslstivlties~ ticularly useful through
long intervals of low
resi.stivity.
Poor definition of thin Effect of adjacent beds on !
conductive beds surrounded shape of curve must always I
by thick reSistiVe forma- be cons idered.
tions. • I
Does not always indicate Care must be taken in
!i
thin resistive streaks. selecting proper scale.

Laterologs Any Any conductive* mud Sharp bed delineation. Hyperbolic scale generally
(Guard but best with muds best for correlation work.
electrode) of lower resistivity.

Microlog Any Any conductive* mud Extremely detailed.

except saturated or Excellent supplement to
nearly saturated amplified short normal
salt muds. through long intervals of
negligible resistivity
contrast and substitute for
long lateral for delineating
thin resistive markers.

Gamma Ray Any Any Reflects only natural radio- Low radioactivity contrasts Quality of log severely
activity which for most cannot always be overcome affected by choice of logging
formations e~'ibits less simply by changing scale as speed, time constant, instru-
lateral variation than do can low electrical contrasts. ment sensitivity and scale.
electrical char' -istiCS.
Not affected by ) hole
______
cond:tions CT :or:natton
_____ . _ _ ._._. __ . _ _ _ _ .
.c~·_~

.-------- - - - - - --------- - - ._--

Sonic Any Any. (Res ponse in Measures a basic charac- Gives abnormal readings 1n Optimum blas setting must be
(Interval empty holes unknown) teristic of the formations. high porosity, unconsolidated, selected to avoid excessive
Velocity) It is not materially af- non invaded gas (and some- cycle skipping or electrical
(Acoustic) fected by changes in Rm, Rw, times oil) bearing sands and noise.
Sw, or (within limits) d. through zones of extreme
fracturing.

Dens i ty Any Any Records basic parameter,

(Camma - density, of the formations.
Cammal Two receiver, compensated
log effective through
casing.

LITHOLOGY

SP Any except those Any conductive mud Distinguishes between shales Same as for correlation work. Same as for correlation work.
of extreme resis- so long as Rmf is and nonshales.
tivity. not equal to Rw.

Gamma. Ray Any Any Not affected by bore hole Local relationship be~~een Same as for correlation work.
condition:i. radioactivity and lithology
must be known. Always same
limitation as for correlation
work.
.~
Sonic Consoltdated Any fluid Records basic par&me~er, Same as for correlation work. Same as for correlation work.
velocity, of the formations.
Where adequate knowledge of
porosity and fluid content
1s available, formation
velocity can be related to
Lithology.

Density Any Any Records basic parameter,
density, of the formations.
Where porosity and fluid
content are known, rock type
may be identified.
Sensitive to sharp irregu- Proper calibration essential.
larities in the bore wall. Should be checked against core
analysis if possible.

*Cond.uctive is used under ~ of~, in the

general sense and does not refer to degree:
Includes all drilling fluids with a continuous
water phase.

.,
,.

TIME LINE CORRELATION

The electric log markers most frequently used as time lines are bentonite
beds because of their distinctive pattern, as shown on Figures 3-8 to 3-10,
and their widespread occurrence. In some areas where volcanic activity was
restricted to short time intervals, dense basalt flows which usually show a
distinctive pattern (Figure 3-29) may be used. Basalts are particularly
useful in continental sequences where bentonites might suffer more from
differential erosion.

Sedimentary deposits often cross time lines, but there are some blanket type
deposits thst may be recognized, particularly on gamma ray logs. Glauconitic
sands, often associated with rapid transgression following'a perIod of
erosion, are quite distinctive particularly in aress where the sediments
ordinarily show low radioactivity (Figure 3-13). Thin radioactive shales may
be good time markers particularly in pre-tertiary rocks. Potash beds may be
correlatable in saline basins (Figure 3-28), and coal beds in continental
basins (Figure 3-16).

In some areas easily recognizable necks or shoulders have been observed on

both the S.P. and short spacing resistivity curves at formation boundaries
and sometimes within a particular formation. The lithologic differences
reflected by these distinctive changes in electrical characteristics are
not always apparent and may be immaterial provided they check with
paleontological data.

4
 ADVEIlSE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL EFFECTS

The following examples (Figure 1-3 to 1-11) show some of the correlation and
interpretation problems caused by the drilling fluid and the electrical cir-
cuitry. Fortunately, effects as severe as those illustrated are rare in most
areas, but geologists should be alert for unusual appearing logs.

Despite quality control checks, poorly calibrated logs and mechanical effects
which could have been corrected do slip by occasionally. These effects may
be severe enough to hamper correlation as well as quantitative interpretation.
All questions regarding log quality should be brought to the attention of an
experienced development geologist or a Company log anslyst.

5
 S.P. AND WATER SALINITY

The SP log is a good indicator

of sands. However, the SP
deflection is dependent on the
contrast between the mud and
formation water salinity and
may not always show sands.
Other factors such as streaming
potential and Ca or Mg ion can
affect SP deflection.

'-_. Typical SP deflection when mud

~ is much fresher than formation
_.:> water •

I- . r.-,- "~_I-_:
--H- - "-F-'I;- ...
. ·t-h

.I .
,~, :
"... ..
L. .... Formation water and mud have
. S::;;. ." " approximately the same salini-
ty. resulting in almost no SP
deflection. The mud salinity
is approximately the same as
the upper example; therefore.
the formation water is much
.. " fresher than above •
- ,.
- -
•
I

I .. ,

<.
.. .. .. Reversed SP resulting from the
formation water being fresher
- I- ..
.. - ..
than the mud filtrate •
.1 -
I
LL..l.... .. -

NORTH PARK BASIN

Figure 1-3
 RELATIONSHIP OF MUD TYPE
TO IDENTIFICATION AND CORRELATION
OF SANDS

LIGHT RED (CHEMICAL-GEL) GYP BASE

8 '~-~~~'~-~~~'~~'.~.~U~~~ .1- - .. -
-.~~: 1:- 1-- --~. 1-...
1-·
f..- . . h - .
.- 1--1- -I- I- -1-->-
:1-::: =:t:-tit:1~1 ":-'_::.
, PIERRE. FM. r.: L- __ _
---I- _

. I-I-·
I-..... t-

I-I-+-IH--IH-I g I~~- - t--~ : .= -- I-I-

i\- I - ..--
- . ..1- 1- -, 1
1- . _. .-i-
1-
"-1--
.f-< 1-
--I-
-:-'r,' - - l- F
!t-
... +-.- i 1_
.. , ~t- . SAND
1 ~I)~- . -. :
- 1--
1-,,- -_l- 1- ..
. 1-1- .-j-- . .- --
I- -~
-. 'r:- .
- _.. _- - - -----;..---
..1-- ---
~-I==I- ~. _ ..
t Ul-I-..I-4I'=....Jf-:Wl....'.1..-...L'..J-_.LL.ll.:...L....L.L.L...l

PIERCE FIELD
DENVER BASIN
COLORADO

}lud nature is very important to S.P. development opposite sands.

Although low contrast between mud and formation resistivities
will result in a log as sho'-lIl on the right, the depressed S.P.
in example on the right is caused by the nature of the Gyp Base
drilling fluid. Care must be taken when correlating or making
sand counts to account for changes in drilling fluid

Figure 1-4
 ---.-----.--.----

I
'.

ORI GINAL HOLE SIDETRACK HOLE

""'I'F'::. ,;"0,,.( ,
INHIBITOX MUD GYP.-DIESEL MljD
MUD RESIST. BHT. (l45°F)=O.14
- - ~rn
I
.'
1-
:- +- "'~
> .
~'.

- - .

• I~""
, "
- . j'=
§ 1- R
• <.~
.'

"
~
i - \-.
f': , -,
, .,
,
-
~
- -
I
,
l- I-

i
1-0
..
-~

/
1), , t- f-- 'Ii' +. -
r-- i- I- ~~ -
l-
i' , - , I " ,
" l- .. I '
I- t- 1>- I- t- +- -
·g
~:

i .. Iff-:>:
< t- - -
.
...
~ ~" ..
" .. . ~; .
~ -:. ,- .
- , -
• 'if
~
. .
. - •
!
..
i 1->.
1 t- ., F'- .
; I- . ..
l ..,,' ,
, - I-- - -
t-
,i •
8 . .. I
• --
j

I v - §
- '.jS \-' ~. - - 't-
i5
.
- . .. : . i- -
j " '
..... 1-= -
,.
~

j "
J ....
'"'l
. ..
, r:.' ....
! 00 • ,
1
.."" §
. 1--.
.
• "

.
-
§
II?-
' ..
I -
!,
;
I.n
I ( I
.' :+- -+-:
EFFECT OF DRILLING FLUID ON E-LOG OIARACTER
 _.-..
IHIJ~.lhl'Ollllllt
""- ....,...
'UUIII'JIY
. .... ...
'lllllll'lI'
...~ ,

-.-. .

DOWNIIOLE GROUND
:at. EFFECT ON TilE

S.P. CURVE
;Jt· ,
.. ~

The shifting shale base line is

caused by a long ground electrode
moving with the logging sonde and
being affected by the average
:1' potential of the 100'-200' interval
which it straddles. Downhole
grounds are sometimes necessary to
avoid adverse surface effects par-
ticularly in metropolitan areas.
This S.P. curve cannot be inter-
I·:
'c preted quantitatively, and the
curving base line must be csrefully
considered in qualitative interpre-
.1 tation and correlstion •

~-

ffi_~""
_
:±
IE,l_
-U.
-Tt- .

Figure 1-6
 RESITIVITY REVERSAL
FROM CRITICAL BED THICKNESS

... - -I--t-
-
. -I-- I-
,I
.. . ..

'I--t--
1-- i
--
+1-
.- - "1-- r

l-
_~ _ t-::: _ .1\ .
I--- i , -~ \
-l- I- -
,
" -
.. -
0
§
!-
I- ..
.'

"

I--
-- ".'

DENVER BASIN
\
COLORADO Resistive bed between
16" and 64" thick.

Interval 910-920 feet on log to left shows. a resistive bed on all

three curves. Log on right side shows a well defined resistive
bed only on the lateral curve. The long normal on the right hand
log is affected by critical bed thickness and actually shows
resistivity reversal. Normal curves always show resistivity re-
versal in beds of high resistivity when the bed thickness is less
than the log spacing. When correlating by normal curve character,
the bed thickness should be considered.

Figure 1-7
 EFFECT OF WELL - BORE FLUID
/-,
}
ON RADIOACTIVITY LOGGING
Galllllll Radiation Nautron
8
-- -
•
-
- 1--
~- _.. .
--
I
-

~ --
NOTE INt:REASED -
GAMMA RAY i
SENSITIVITY , MAXIMUM NEUTRON
READING OUT OF
~ FLUID IS ABOUT
880 COUNTS
i ~
J= I-
NOTE SCALE
CHANGE $t ------
FLUID ~VEL

•
§
MAXIMUM NEUTRON
~
READING IN FLUID
IS ABOUT 540
COUNTS
I
-

GYPSUM BASIN
COLORADO

Well bore fluid depresses gamma ray and neutron

activity. Unmarked fluid levels may resemble
formational boundaries,

Figure 1-8
 (

I '---"
POROSIT Y INDUCED FROM
WASHOUT OF MATRIX

Gamma Radiation MicroLaterolog Laterolog

.J: ... .
i"'- .. .

.. ~.
;.~ •
.. F- ..
_ ... -
.- . , .. ":,..
~ . .

:' I- E:: ... :~ ; _ . t: .;

.,

KIBBEY LS. I NOTE HIGH

:.FF ~~~Wbt=t~:1jiittt+t1 RESISTIVITY
~ .. - i-o .-H POROSITY fu.-U-f-t--i'-\'i;::H-tt-t-H
I-~ .. 1-+-· - 1'-",
.I; . .. .. . . -
I'-
.- -
(-"k::.:I-+-f:::l r:.::.- - Irl-

..- --f--t-:-.-l'.'t-",.J=l.;
-. ·1< ...
k: •.•

WILLISTON BASIN
NORTH DAKOTA

Porosity as shown by MicroLaterolog has been caused by washout of

salt cement from fra,gmental limestone. The Laterolog with a deeper
investigation, reads beyond the washout zone and the high resis-
tivity is indicative of low porosity •. This particular circumstance
could be easily confused with oil saturation. Sample examination
is necessary for interpretation.

Figure 1-9
~
iI
I

SEVERE HOLE WASHOUT

IN ABNORMALLY HIOII PRESSURE SAND
IVAN RI VER,ALASKA

In the interval 8700' - 8750', the S.P. curve is reversed, mud travel time
is recorded on the Sonic log, mud density on the density log, and even the
deep induction curve is affected primarily by mud resistivity. Fortunately,
cavities such as this are rare in permeable sands.

Figure 1-10
I )
HIGH PRESSURE SALT WATER INFLUX

~-

50 rr <:
Il!:' ~ . ~~- -I-
.
0 7-
>
-.
I 1"-
-.
~ ;" t r..... - - --
I-
.....

'" g ~
, -::
~ -
--
0 0
0- 7'"
, l-
T
f-
... ~
~
CSP reduced oy t
by aalt 'Water
_ 1'low. ~

-
V -.
I-
'( 00-
--
-- 1-.. -
• r:>
§ I~dr~g
g 11,571'-rnud level In pita
rising (gained 50 bbls.). Increated
po mud wt. to 16.8 lb/gall chlorides
r_

-"
I~

-
I? ~ increased i'rca 6200 ppm to 14,500
ppm. .. ..
. ...
- . -. /-

.. ~
....
f . -- p
~
- -
.
~ t
( c
I"::
h..

0
~ '"'"
1'<
~
~-

I-'
-
~ e:.
1<;; '-
FR
11754
•
j
- (AMP) 2
0 A'16"-M 6 FF40
SHORT NORMAL INDUCTION
0 10 2000 0
0 100 4000 2000
INDUCTION
20 ~ •••••••••••••• __ •••••••• _••••• JJ!
-1-/ +
Q................................._.lD.Q

SPONTANEOUS· POTENTIAL "

~
RESISTIVITY CONDUCTIVITV
millivolts ohms-maIm ml'/I'1m has I m ~ 1900
.tIm,"",,!_
'"

Figure 1-11
 LOGARITHMIC VERSUS LINEAR SCALES

The re-introduction of logarithmic scales by Schlumberger in 1962 caused some

consternation among geologists unfamiliar with that type of format. The older
generation will remember that Schlumberger recorded resistivity curves on a
logarithmic scale in the middle thirties, but that was a non-focused two
curve systemand.there was no particular advantage to the logarithmic scale
except for greater detail in low resistivity intervals. This detail was later
restored on the linear scale with the expanded normal curve.

The Dual Induction-Laterolog 8 Survey (DIL) provides, in a single surveying

operation, three focused resistivity measurements and an S.P. curve. It was
designed to determine depth of invasion and provide a good value of true
resistivity where the deep induction curve was affect~d by invasion. The
logarithmic scale was chosen primarily to facilitate the quantitative evalu-
ation of invasion from the ratios of the resistivity values recorded by the
three curves. On this scale, the horizontal separation between any two
curves is the ratio of the resistivity values.

Contrary to early experience with non-focused systems, the logarithmic scale

now improves the readability of a three-curve focused system. It provides
greater detail in the low resistivity range and eliminates confusing off scale
traces and scale changes. All resistivity curves are on the same scale and
the expanded and ten times scales are eliminated.

Detailed correlation is facilitated by the logarithmic scale, particularly

between wells where the resistivity contrsst is large, as shown on Figure 1-12.
Two of the logs are linear recordings of 16" normal and lLd induction curves;
the other two are logarithmic records of the LL8 and lLd curves. Major
features are readily correlated between any two of the four logs. Further-
more, the few minor features that are apparent on the 16" normal curve are
readily correlated with the LL8 recordings. However, as is frequently the
case, the normal curves are quite rounded and afford little detail for
precise correlations, particularly when the hole diameter is large and/or
there is a high contrast between formation and mud resistivities. The LL8
curves provide a much sharper bed delineation and more detailed information.

6
 COMPARISON OF CORRELATIONS - LOGARITHMIC SCALE OF
LLS-ILD VS LINEAR SCALE OF 16 IN. NORMAL-ILD

WELL A WELL B WELL C WELL 0

SP RESISTIVITY RESISTiVITY RESISTIVITY RESISTIVITY
-20+
H
0
0
.(
.oe g .e
we
10 100 IOOC 10 100 1000

.,2:
. .
'
12. 1-7- - .-- - $ . -- - --- ,~
-- ......
1-" -- -- --
(~ •
r--
·"':·S
\
8
---.-;,:~: .. _\....,
..":s_
•• ~
•....
~_
8 ..-:::

'~t;~
"" --
~ ~
...
.. =------- :- .... _..
"'y_.,- t- -- - f- -~"
:=,'--
~
·8 >J,
.--
___
,;~
--
....... -.. --- " ~~ -- - J!
f-
. I.. - .. - -.' .
1...- "
,l~----
"..::;- ---- .. -
:".= __ ;-~.t.
C~,
I.. ..._'"
,.iJ -
-- f- _H
g

,
-.
''' ...: - - - - I- - -1":'.?""" - - - - ./
"'. • ..:.. - "l~
--
'.

J.~?6FF;jQ --
....,
(~ -
-·
8 -- . - - 'l - 7· .. '
-
•
;~~ .:'..
. .-.
'---
)
· ,.
(f£
(\16- NORMAL
8 (.'

~RMAL
.'

ILd--...,.
q 'E ' --
.-""::::-LL8 --- :::::: iE'

( r--·-
0
0
.,:,1 I Ld-fJ- LL8
.... -- ..'
> .- --
.•g ~:S: .. ··

~'"
-
,
"
'~F40 ,
. -~~
.-_ .. .. .. .. - 1-,
-.,.~,--~
'. '~'\
::; ;r~:--:::
;.':.'= . -......... - .... --- -
~
.---:.0;:
... :.~-."... ·•
.
'- - J!W.
.
.---- ;?; ·•
t·· " '"
8 ~

2::- --='
--r-~ ~ ;.;.:--','

I-:-:..d=~
::::::.- ~:::'.--
.
(.---==--
0
0
,
) - .. -----<--.
--
_.,:< .,":;; =-
;s: -- _Ji
-_ .. -

· ---_..
- .
....... ~:"___: ..~::" ;z

--~
-- --
.:::::-- -
f-_<;
~: ... ' .
~:----

'- - •"':4;:
0

f:~
0
)
..:'. - -- - - -4.-
.' ~ .
-i --?
'

/
(
" .:;
,>
_1 ..... -.
'\
:
>........
"
\
'.~
§
~:'
..

-:?:
.; ~
c:: ~
=-
'"'" -

Figure 1-12
 /

I
II'1

,~
1.,",.
-:
·fr':If)i:~
.~~ , 'or
PART 2

INTERPRETATION OF DEPOS ITiONAL

ENVIRONMENT FROM LOGS

r

/,

. '>
>, "
";;',:
:,' '/

"

,\r•. ,.
-.J'
"
!
,
I
/

I
I
 !

The accompanying examples are excellent illustrations of the four electric

log patterns described by Mr. Nadler. However, before using such patterns,
particularly in a new area, the following points should be considered:

First, the S.P. curve on the electric log should be used exclusively, as was
done by Mr. Nadler, as the resistivity curves are more affected by formstion
fluid. Also, finely interbedded ssnds and shsles may approximate the appear-
ance of both transgressive and regressive environments on three-electrode
resistivity logs because of masking and false resistiVity effects.

Second, the type of mud used in the hole and the relation of its salinity to
that of the formation water should be checked. Lime-treated mud is particu-
larly detrimental to the S.P. log csusing erratic behavior in many cases,
and in fresh water areas, the S.P. curve is considerably dampened and may
even be reversed if the salinity of the mud is greater.than that of the
formation· water. (See Figures 1-3 to 1-5). In such cases, the gamma ray
curve may be substituted for the S.P. curve provided that the natural
radioactivity is primarily a function of clay or shale content.

Third, the relationship between the S.P. curve and sand permeability is not
always as clear-cut as might be implied from the examples shown. Siliceous
shales, like those of the upper Miocene in California, often show electric
log patterns similar to those shown by chsnnel sands. (See Figure 3-5).
This is partly a result of fracturing and partly the high concentration of
silica, as compared with clay minerals, in the cherty or diatomaceous beds.

Fourth, electrical disturbances (both natural and man-made) may cause

erratic behavior of the S.P. curve. A scratched electrode effect, ordin-
arily caused by pulling through a tight spot in the hole, may look very
much like a transgressive ssnd pattern, and drift of the S.P. curve, if not
properly evaluated, may also cause an erroneous interpretation.

. I
"----"'

2
REGRESSIVE SAND
POSO CREEK
CALIFORNIA

Figure 2-l
 SANDSTONE
CYCLIC REGRESSIVE SANDSTONES OF THE
CRETACEOUS FRONTIER FM OF CENTRAL WYOMING
WERTZ FIELD, WYOMING

fl )( 0 50
. ?>.. ' .. ...
,=:P- ...
. .- .- .

. .'- f.. .+
. r;;.... ... .. .
. 1'<: .,.. - . i""
-1-1- - ~. ".1- : '~,

-I-
.
.. '
.
- .,. :: " .~ -; ,cI:-::·· . '_
. - .I\.'~" K
-1-1- - - _. . . .-~ .,. . .

._. , ~:+_.... ... . 1.,1-

-H~-····· ..
-H~ - ......, .
-1- ,. ,. 12'.
- 1-, ·1-
.... : ':I~P
I~ 1- ..

tttlBf-:'
+1- .
.. -- I p.

'f-'I- ..
..

[ , 1\ I--
1-.
++...... .
+-1- I-

,
V . I
50

Figure 2-2
 H-

TRANSGRESSIVE tot:
j-~-
..
SAND I --
CASTAIC FIELD H:'::
CALI FORNIA .• -
-.
1- '-'

/-I-
.
.' .1-+
- -I-

f- -
I
I-I-

e- .. - I-
I- I--

':-

~.

-
-- 1--1-- I-

- I-I-f-
I- I-

-
.~
-
.. -
1- - 1- - -- ~~ -~
I-I-

'.
"
-
• .'
-
100 MV + 0 ohm, ""1m eo
Figure 2-3
 Kft' 1051

KRf. '018

'100

OFFSHORE BAR
1200
COALI NGA NOSE

..,.,
CALIFORNIA ,

i:!
1--------+-+-1~-----
..
,,00 •
~ 17

GS ''!~4
EGA 1313
71
....
1400

1100

'--

0-1505,.1.

0-500 s.e,df..
94
",o0
33

Note Uniform Character

Of S. P. Curve.
"00

~
()
~
,aoo ,C\.
....
()

'"

"00
•~

...'.,"
.,
.
Ot

8000
[ GZ 1001
8ol~
100 MV + 6015TD

Figure 2-4
 ,-

BAR SAND
8

l
II)
§
ALMY FM. ~.

~
II)

i •
~

!
)
\....-.-

§•

GREEN RIVER BASIN

WYOMING

Bar sands are characterized by the lack of thin shale

interbeds, massive sand character and blocky S.P. shape.

Figure 2-5
 l

CHANNEL 4'10 4-14. J :':nd

- r:;
~
'::'1-
~"
~1
SAND
-~~fri~:"mp",
_ 1

ELK HILLS
.000
CALIFORNIA -

~ -~
.'
':;""

-
- :~ ~~~

t~ f- -~

nlif"io~ -~
ItoD
~
~j TI
'f

Coarae,Grltty
Sand Interbedded
5100
- .;;' a:
With Fine Sand And -
~
i;j -
Brown Shal •• . ,
,
1--.: 15$
,.1' ,
0

=~
-
~-
•'00 ~ i=
-

iJ
600
~
_:4 .

~
•,. -
- I..
~ ~~
1'1

~ -j. :.,
'0'
•.'0 •• 'oiI
100 MV + 0 ohm' m1/", 100
sell. 'to. Figure 2-6
 CHANNEL SANDS

I .'

....

.,

<.

RED WASH FIELD

UINTA BASIN
UTAH

The channel sand environment cannot be conclusively

identified from electric logs. The thin sand beds
reflecting frequent depositional variation are well
shown by electric logs. However, such a pattern
characterizes not only channel environments but others
as well. Lithologic descriptions of the sands and
associated beds plus detailed mapping must support
identification here.

Figure 2-7
 LAGOONAL DEPOSITIONAL PATTERN
\ ~
I 18'8" Lateral ....... 16" Normal ...,.-64" Normal

1\
T-~
, .- ; .-r:r:
~.+ .• ....&..-l-
.- . .:......: ~
. ·.·-t-"i
...
'-.
,:
.-.

The sedimentation patte.rn of

a lagoonal environment is
characterized by relatively
low percentage of coarscr
clastics, thin beds and coals.
The resistivity contrast
between thin coal or siltstone
beds and shale or sand CSUSOG
a rapidly alternatina high to
",i low resistiVity character.
The thin resistive beds may
reach critical thickness for
resistivity reversal in the
normal curves, however, the•
lateral curves reflect the
.... , resistive
_ ...... , • ...J beds except in the
shadow zones •
"

-I-... - .
- ~.

, '
~

'. '. ,.

_.4-...
(
\'" . ~.

, 1:' .. ,,:

.'--.c.) GREEN RIVER BASIN

WYOMING

Figure 2-8
 CONTINENTAL CYCLES

Cyclical deposition can sometimes be recognized in continental fresh or

brackish water sediments. Figure 2-9 is an example from the west side of
the Cook Inlet in Alaska where the Tertiary topography was probably similar
to that of today, but the climate was warmer.

The log example shows two cycles which began with the dumping of coarse sand
and gravel into coastal marshes at or near sea level. These flood deposits
were followed by finer sediments and periods of little or no sedimentstion
during which thick peat deposits accumulated. The peat has since been
converted to soft, lignitic coal beds by burial and compaction.

3
 •.... - - - , - - - - , 'r

__ ~_:'_.~_.~::~-'~'-4{~: :~ -o;~ l~i_ti+i;.+!li~!,~.._. -i -!j~r~:i~i ~ 2J±j=~j=;-~j,~l!~ ~j:.r~- ~ ~.~ ~..:l

8
.. J ... L .-.. Cl AY
'.+-'_.
I
,ijll',.
+1
I
. '''~~I''; . l' ! ; i I!i:.
1 ~ ..... j

..... ~ .
ii'. . I • I ,I:,
.- . ; .+
.......... T' ····I,···~
;· ._.
.L
i.... 1..
t '_'.

s171 ~.I'
I ( ~ ;;
fj"it"I'i ,I!I .. ··!··Ilt:.....·'
.
:1
~!"::t'
l H. jIll..~.j .~:
l-t·llt •.. - ••..•.. :
:: :::1
'

I
,
...••. - ....... _ .• ---,.
I ._~.
c'
'j': -... ! "1'
COAL II i '1''ill I ,"~<:::;"'~ ,-.- ... ,.
'" . ' i-!""'~"'"'' .:
,
':: -;-"1 .... -_.
•.• ~ __ ...... _ •• .0- _,,_
,.tj·i:"·-"I··t·il"l:·-~~'''::··';··
. 'i 'II
' I I...· I I. ,.;,.. , . ~f.,... II j •• •• J.; • d .. .o...
.. :I ...'·
.•... ~-- ..-~-
! - I1I - :- 'I , j I. - ..... -.,
....,'" t' ~,' .. - ,.
"-'1 .
I :,',;-::; --~.-.
• •• .j .

.-.J • . • i ! ~ , I . 1" •

~... :.-~ ....j-:-;.~i-. ...j ...J-- Cl.~Y " .. _.i .. !k>!ll _.i .. ,.~l.:., .----:-
:,. ''::':~~1:1=
__ I -', ·~.·-rt· I
And! .;., ... Tr- -I-~'
·I{·o, I ( "'jll ___
.. -.+·····~ ;:~:
" ...-h-~ •. __ !...
.::~.
. •..•.. ~-
.
I___
I'
.;.......:.....+~l
, ..
... (
! SILT,
I'."
+-tlii1' -+ 1',:1 i .... ~ .. ,' ;or",./... .......

_
.• __ ~ I
.~-i...J.
• r r +-
L.sr-- Willi' ' I':
THIN 11'11~'-
"
":';
'~. I
:~ .: _. ...;-;-.;_. __ ... - .....
c::::',
, I' -1 to', --'1'" .~,":t..:.: - ':, ----'--.- ... -'" .
_~.T-i·+--··C;,..,,; §~1f,slRI1· -. +'ll~~:" ,.:" ":i:;"~-·"···"··
!' 1/, ~ ITI,;---:·TI):;i·-·-t-·;~;~;i-i-· .... I .•
. :. __
, i.....!c;o:i-"".
I ::::SoL . 0
I,,.;."
! , --.. ' 1 1 J " ... -.-
I ;•..•
, -....... --- ........- . - !'il
,
.. :-. i l l
I
s; , ~ ..... J - .: ..
'--t~·1
:'{""t]"1 "_±j'-:J-ULi --,.-......... 1-.-.-
.~:=:. : . \.: FINERij ':.; .'~'.: :~\ 1 1\ W ......... m_.
, i-I
I '

SAND '1 ~ ,:.r- ~"iii..-l'ilTii+i --:~.. -...- - -.

.~.....l....J, ,'\....:.
____ - J
I __ ,
--".
.. ffit'
I
t,!·-.
I,' •
'\: "
:.~
;',"1'
'
; I'll
i .. 1,
iii' ,
,
..•--.'--.
•
COARSE .. 1 '-I'~; :=- .. ~ ,::. >: i TtJl ,----.
_
:---r-;-<:::::
. !
,
' : <c --:'

,__
~
I I
I I
i
SAND
'"
'"
I
r!il
'j" i" ,.,
i!
~,....
. ·~:I---l-:-m,,~~-"·"-·----·
'--'j

. ':C ": . - .-._.-.'-j-; - , - - _ .- - - . - - - -

• ..i, : '
i

'I iii
J---g!" : ~. ::.-...:.' +d.
-...--........,-1
----:-. : + {-Ft'-~....
, t I I ; I

I If,. COAL li~.':,::~·~ r.~:; --':'~:'~~ll,""1 .-~--- .. j--

; 'I
I !I
:~... iII~'''I--''
• ' : : .. - .I-.J.~ !.~.
- . '.-- .---.--
,. '';~i I -1-.--
1___-'-...;.....+++~~I......j._1 .. l~ , ill, ,
;
, , I
I '
'\..
CLAY' ,.
AND! f-:-;
· ir
:. - : '-j 'I ( :.:. j i[I - -'-7~t: i i i '
'II ,. I'" '
....... .
'-,
.___+_+ ...
.,.~
, SILT 1-11" - ., .. -~.~,•. """7' --I-·j--:-"TIt"hML..··......___
,- ·'·I_,--.+·t·,.-~r-:-~.··'i ---
--.
1-:+:
1_
!
+'
:+1++=~,~
I '
-,-",.~,2:=.Ig---j.'
<. 0 :8:: i I I--
" 1,1'
-;,. ''1'-1j'~'"',!: I '."
, .. -:--r-~
" I.;,
I
I
i
' -
- .. -'-:"1' I
-,-', 1
~,
:?--..
w~ .-
FINER' .. : --
_____ g'1 • i ...~~
" ~
fllTI·...;-1.."'r·J·nl'r-.L.-
- , ' . .

.-I.-I-l-
I ",,...!Ai J
.j-l.t...LUU. ........ 1----
. '" .---.
'i"+,--r-r=:s"~' SAND .,.j: . . ",l~ ·····[-1- 1'::!if·· ..-' ..... -.. - ...
~ .~-.~ .<... ··1 ~- ~~-·I·- l_ll:- ! C-~ --" I ~; ~1:1::_~_.; .;: -,

I . . . . "'r-'-"
. . I
. -to +-t-::±:..
~ (i'
I

+-.
I
i·i , -
. COARSE,'
!

i
l.l~'l-l··H~' ;i'
,RF;' .i ....·ft· j.q n-l-~""· ..... - .-.
- -l-.
.- T'" I
.. ' 1\,
r' 1 I II
l' . . . - .
H-- SAND "j .': ," -.
II"'''''
A"'O..C"L'I
'',·r. ,,:''- .w;..
,.~.[t
. 'f['":, ., .
-'
4. " .. -

---"
-

.4I ....
t~(1t '.-' .... 1.--
.' ,I j' . - - ...............
; i !,.--.
, o- . ., " ".!.
,.' .
I '
I
, I " I' I

: ; i i .l il,l " 1-0 I::; :;. ': ~.~''',. ~, : ; . : .. T

·-n-i+'. ~ ;..- - 1';H';'~I,j '--l·tll/·,~ 'i-rHH ..--~ .. -: -....... .
~~1-:-1 i ! i i~Il' :1-"~~ .' 'lIIU' .. - ·-t-t +I~ ,·--t-· -...... I ~.~~.
, ,- VOI+ .' l
o.lii 1I j:ro I - C{1 !l ~ --;-: -j'T;, 11; 10-:- :." ")0116'"
:_I.J I 1\ 1/1:1,1 1 c..1l1 1 1 ':11 I !
Figure 2-9
 TYPE OF CLAY IN CLAYEY SANDS

The type of interstitial material in sands can often be used to interpret

the depositional environment because it is indicative of the source of the
sediments. Figure 2-10 shows a continuous sand and conglomerate section
with a sharp break in electrical properties and permeability at 12,154'.
The only apparent difference from visual examination of the cores was a
slight change from gray to white in the pore fillings, but the x-ray spec-
trograph identified montmorillonite and chlorite in the upper sands and
kaolinite and clay-size white mica in the lower. The former identifies a
volcanic source whereas the latter is indicative of plutonic rocks.

The "b" factor is proportional to the cation exchange capacity and therefore
the surface conductivity of the interstitial material. A "b" factor greater
than -0.2 will cause a rock to react like a shale electrically. For further
detail on electrical properties of clayey sands refer to C.R.C. Research
Report 781 by A. E. Worthington, dated November 9, 1962 •

. The presence of swelling clays in the upper sands is also indicated by the
micro-caliper curve on Figure 2-10. Permeable sands normally stay to gauge
because of the protective mud cake whereas impermeable sands are subject to
physical and chemical erosion by the drilling fluid.

Another example of sands with electrical properties eimilar to shale is

shown on Figure 2-11. The sands above 2120' are relatively clean, reworked
marine sands whereas the lower sands are plugged with montmorillonite clsys
indicating a continental volcanic source. In this area, the tight, clayey
sands are easily distinguished in cores by their characteristic green or
brown coloring.

' ...... _.

4
 .. 115
~
[,,-1-
-IE'
1=1= ~ ~
...'..
°0 ' •

1- .I- ,r.c-- " .

.... "
- 1- _.
. '.
: .=.:"
~::
SI
. I=§
=1-- 11'
1=
1- I, -'-".., lu I
1=
I-
, ,Ie
I- 1:- ~~
=~
I- e:)
....
=
:::~

"~...." ~
! --

--- - - - - -

,-

-=+-- ~(
~,

_._. '"
I..! "~~ I~ -:
=::
1~1f
:: :'.:', 1=
: -
i ItC;j
1= I -",
-

r~'::'
-,-
, .' .-
_-= :c,: ,. __ = _, ':': = _
~e :-c ,--c \( ',':' :'. .- - -, 1'-
: :':::: 1"- ." .,i'
'" '- ,

-,--
'::

=-- "- ..... W,'. ::= r~

!!~ ICC ~ 0.:;:. :..:. ,

f I;'·): I- ~
1= --=
=~ -, ..... r: ,',:. 1-- ~ 7..
- I- ' '"
·~l.,:
I»....
,
'.'
,. ---- -- ---
:.;'.:
,:

.-:=: .L i ~
~
~ ---
-, "::!
=- '- - ---- -"'1,- '-'-' =.:. - - -:-
~
-
- ::: '
:';':: =>
::.t: =~
=
-"
) -- '-~ ,

Figure 2-10
[

Figure 2-11
 v'
l ( ( \
)
..../
SANDSTONE
STREAM CHANNEL CUT AND FILL OF mE CRETACEOUS MUDDY ("GRIEVE")
7j
, SANDSTONE IN THE WIND RIVER BASIN, WYOMING
'~
This is a good example of ~ into a pre-existing marine shale and silt interval
.\
vi
followed by ss fill. This appears to be stream channel depOSition on a nearly
flat, slightly emergent surface. The width of the channel is less than 2 miles
~
·1 at the line of the cross section. This sand produces from an upstructure meander

.,I
I in the Grieve field. That this is not a marine bar sand may be readily seen
from the marine shale and silt found on both sides of the sand development, with
widespread silt "markers" found in every well in which the Grieve sandstone is
absent. Differential compaction of the shale-sand interval is readily apparent.
J
~
,'1
(

l =c:t:: i ..
KlWRY
~~E I
~ r- 'c .. c:.
::Et:: I--
~~E r-
~ ::::Et:: ~ .
.I
j . UPPElt ~~E
t::Et::
- ~

1 THERKlPOLIS I E~E
t::Et:: I~ .. i
SHALE
~~E
t::
t:: .

j EE~ ~
E~E
E j::: .. . -. r-
MUDDY SILT t::
,ifF Ie
. LOWER
~ ~§ I I C;::.
~
~~
mERKlPOLIS
t
SHALE
, ~
E ~~
- I - I I
i.
ii'ideapread
E E~
~ ~§
/ ..
r/ .
""
S11 t "Markers"
i
Et::~ . -. t:::1o'
~
~ §~ E t==_ .. . .
Ie
-
II
..
"1
....
DO
~~
Et::E -
I ..'I'
!; .DAKOTA SILT - -
~ EE -
--
Ir"-
- -
t:: ~ - -- C :I
.
.... .. - ...
'" "- 1< ,..f--
j ~
.
 SALT SOLUTION AND SAND INFILL
POWDER RIVER BASIN, WYOMING
L ... l<tf~etl LOVht-y ( PlgpJ"'lI.t-
V(J....tlcy rce(d-)

Detailed log correlations reveal anomalous stratigraphic and structural

conditions created by differential solution of salt, and compensating
thickening of overlying beds. The time of collapse is dsted by the com-
pensating thickening in >the part salt beds. In this example, the bulk of
the Goose Egg salt was removed from the left well post-Morrison, with the
resulting collapse low being infi11ed with lower Lakota ssnd. These two
wells are 80 acres apart.

5
 I
,r

'--....-- I MUDDY

ADDITION
SAND HERE

-~
~

:l:!=t.=mtit1 i

. I
11111 GOOSE EGG
SOLUTION __
SALT HERE
= . I

• MINNEKAHTA I
~
~~i

I MINNELUSA . .i-
I
~
!~ H ii
Figure 2-13
;

CARBONATE PATTERNS

A carbonate section is characteristically highly resistive as compared with

a sand-shale section, and because of the high resistivity, which causes a
high potential drop in the formations with respect to the bore hole, the
S.P. curve is sluggish or rounded in appearance and formation discontin-
uities are poorly defined.

Porous intervals in, carbonates are recognized by abrupt decreases in resis-

tivity opposite intervals on the S.P. curve which are convex in the negative
direction. If the S.P. curve is concave in the negative direction, the
interval is shaley. For the recognition of thin porous intervals, wall
resistivity, induction, and focused resistivity logs used with the S.P. or
gamma ray curve have been highly successful. For quantitative evaluation
of porosity the neutron, Sonic, or density log is used with the gamma ray
curve.

Radioactivity logs are preferred for.detailed correlation in most carbonate

areas. These are supplemented by focused electric logs and continuous
velocity logs like the Schlumberger Sonic Log.

6 . '
 i
CARBONATE
ROCKS
SOUTHEASTERN i
IDAHO
- -----
--+

i
NOTE SLUGGISH
S.R CURVE AND
HIGH RESISTIVITIES.

...-
. po.. - H-

-;
iJl ::\=f
,--... --t

I=~:..:~~ .~~:-. -t _~> ~;

~-ttO~'~V _1+. 0 : o:;:~~ .--.1:: 0·; Oh~' m~~' .o~·
Figure 2-14
 RECOGNITION OF DEPOSITIONAL
ENVIRONMENTS IN CARBONATES
,~.;;:::.:qsrrrr~T+r
-... -- - - .... .
- 1. .<;<~.:
i i i ?'
..• •.. _. ____ ...... _. J.
j'.' _. _', ,~~t
.
'T"
I

::'''' " , , ' " ' ' I . f· J ,. P. 1 1

.. ,il:~·,I-~."'!',.·. ++-+-!-1r~4.'--<1-.l-_+_-I-"l-I_+-f-
~~=::.~~ -=;~~,~.y
0;:;.

. ' ,. . . '!-'f-
(D ;c;;r:
. . j • :.'
. I~~..
I '\
I-I-t
' ,

.. - .. __ ....... - .... - . i /-l\-j-.~

.. -"'1""t+-t-t-+-t""""t-t-t-t-t-t-t-
"'!-'I-I-
i
=:-:::.~.:. -:::~,-~::,::
." ,.._1-1',--",--1 . -.1-+
.:.r:1=-
~- ;=~r-~:..~::t
- ,- " -------+ •,< - 4:=:"t4=1P=fJ _ NOTE CONTRAsTING
-- .,-t- ----... ,,~
~ [ ,. , , :', :1::. %:r-=r=ri:j'1.:::I~1=t=
EVAPORITE -
~
- t-I_--.~~·
---_. -----
"I'~:::, ,.' .'.
.

...:' , I, • i. .
, ,/.. - HIGH AND LOW
RESISTIVITY
;- - - f- - - - _ .. ! . . . , -","" . ,1 .i"~.-=
'- >--". . ." I···. ~ : '

, r--- ~' .j'" U-lI-H~l ~:=.:

--~ .. .I (""i'~'
..I.. ,_I--.. ~:
I i I . .))_ 1'""-1-
,. '1-1_1-.
.. . . ,..l--f-"": I ..r

CLASTIC -
-'- 8 >1Y.5>' !!I . . of- I-I-
I· ' " r--' NOTE LOW UNIFORM
~11? ! II <
( " . ',,---' RESISTIVITY
K" •
I
I
;.
I
-l=:::

If;,
Jt::tJ
.

~ )~
=
=
"
=
=RED RIVER!
FM. 1, .
'lYi
. .i I
r-e--
'-
'~~-4~~'~~++'~'~~~
.
-,
'"
I "

d:: -
---

~ - + r--'::1 ~ : :';;,;.. /
BASINAL
-",l ;t .~ : i
8 '-tIM~~,--t-.··.,r-l'-<r>++++-t-+cl-Il-t-t-
>' >
WITH THIN ~. T,. :(11' :1<; r'
CLASTIC .. I·
I II -i+t+___ NOTE IUGH UNIFORM
INTERBEDS (-t-H---t-1!r-t'.rl-1-t--f-
-Ht--t--+x+ RESISTIVITY
- !~,
1
i '-..,=

: I ~l:i I I. \."

;" 'I . ".:.....-

" : ,\' I ' "

=t=~~A"+ , /; ~!
• ~ .. . L - " _ L - " ,
.!: :
1\
: , I
I !..:
!
i

WILLISTON BASIN
NORTH DAKOTA
Three broad carbonate depositional environments can sometimes
be recognized by electric logs. The evaporite association i.
characterized by alternation of very high and low resistivity.
The clastic phase may have low resistivity if the porosity is
high and formation fluid is saline. The basinal limestones,
'""--,,,, I if not argillaceous, usually show high uniform resistivity.

Figure 2-15
 REEF CARBONATE

The log character that distinguishes a reef from other porous carbonates is
a complete lack of bedding indication on the gamma ray and S.P. curves.
Both curves have a uniform, blocky appearance similar to that shown by thick
bar or beach sands. Figure 2-16 shows a true biohermal reef mass from 7234'
-7388'.

Depending upon the post-depositional structural history, back-reef sands may

enhance or dissipate stratigraphie entrapments. A typical example of the
electric log character of back-reef sandstones is shown on Figure 2-17. In
this case the reef was built on granite wash covering a granitic basement
high. The high radioactivity shown on the gamma ray log indicates these
sands were derived from the underlying granite wash which apparently con-
tains a high percentage of potassium feldspar (orthoclase). The radioactive
isotope of potassium, K-40, probably accounts for most of the radioactivity.

Proximity to a reef may be recognized from a comparison of well logs by an

increase in the calcareous content of shales. Also, a small incr~ase in dip
may indicate draping against the side of a reef.

7
 REEF CARnONATE

tum ...
..._ _ ",n

. __ . __ ~_. ____ ItUImm-.u ._/• ,.1''-'

.e....------..: •

T .,

""I'ti!
' ',i
,I\~ !,
I " '\ I
~ j .

tt "'I I
, l
, I! ,
' ,

~ -.l;'~!
. L1!
j i

; (t I

·t±' .

ita.W
Ij

Figure 2-16
 BACK REEF SANDSTONE

IPOMr'MtOUI·POrtMIIAl
mlllf¥ottt
I RUI5T1VITY
ohtnl.m'/m
•

Figure 2-17

-_._+. ~.-- ...--;_.

 CROSS-BEDDING IN UNIT '0' INDICATING
THE SAND TRANSPORT DIRECTION

WfLl COO!: 1051 DIP UAGNIJUOf DIP AIINUTH SUJoIMAR'I

Of DIP
SOUTH LOUISIANA tY K1" 20" W 40" roo 60" 2ro- tY 90" 1110" OIRECTlONS
I i I I I i I I i i i

--=+-l~:-~~_Jllllrlmml '
ij ,
, ,
I
I
I
.....

tt- I

I I I I • GOOD
rr 10" 20" 30- .. FAIR
+ HOLE DE .... IATION • POOR

The dips in Sand Unit "B" range in magnitude from about 4° to 20° and form
a prominent southerly directional pattern. In contrast, the dips in Sand
Unit "A" are generally lower (except for 3), and they form a less consistent
directional trend. The structural dip of about 2° southeast at this loca-
tion was determined from subsurface mapping.

The dips in Unit "B" are interpreted to be cross-bedding, and the direc-
tional pattern indicates that the approximate direction of sand transport
was S 10° E. The dips in Unit "A" conform more closely to structural dip
than do the dips in Unit "B", and cross-bedding appears to be less
prominent.

This stratigraphie section is part of a deltaic sequence in the Miocene of

South Louisiana. Subsurface mapping has shown that the sand body, composed
of both units "A" and "B", is lenticular, and that its axis is oriented
ppproximately north-south. The well in this example is located in the
thicker part of the sand body. The combined data indicate that the sand was
deposited by paleocurrents fiowing southward.

Figure 2-18
 CROSS-DEDDING IN UNIT '8' INDICATING
THE SAND TRANSPORT DIRECTION

WELL CODE 1240 DIP MAGNITUDE DIP AZIMUTH

SOUTH LOUISIANA

----+-1 ~ 1 - / - - - - -
I',
<----~f\ll\.
:c

--~-~~I-~----

:..
.. I ,,'
I!: . '"
>. " ,
I. .. .. ' ...... '

I"'~ ,>: ','

• I~ •• "1

•
ltIj .
•.
,
•
I
,
',

• fAIR
+ HOLE OEVIATlO~ a POOR

In Sand Unit "B" dips range from about 4° to 32° and are relatively consis-
tent in direction. Structural dip in the vicinity of this well is no more
"
than 1°, bssed on subsurface mapping. The dips in the shsle, Unit "A", and
in the sand and shale below Unit "B" indicate that locally the structural
dip direction is slightly north of west. The dips in Sand Unit "B" are
interpreted as cross-bedding and indicate an average sand transport direction
of about S 25° W. •

This stratigraphic section is part of a deltaic sequence in the Miocene of

South Louisiana. Sand Unit "B" is a lenticular sand body that trends gener-
ally west-southwest. This well is located in the thicker part of the sand
•
body. These data suggest that this sand unit was deposited by paleocurrents
flowing in a south-southwesterly direction at this ·lu~tion.
.' . I

Figure 2-19
 -'
CROSS-BEDDING IN UNIT "B" INDICATES NORTHWARD
TIIICKENING AND AN EAST-WEST TRENDING LINEAR SAND

wELL CODE 1241 OIP MAGNITUOE DIP AZIMUTH SUMMARY

SOUTH LOUISIANA
~~_ww~~ _ ~ ~ __ OF O,P
DIRECTIONS
1 i I \ I \ I I I I I I
1-1;--- ~ .. - . ~-. ~- .. , --

•
I' I· ,I.<'\-""T m·\ ::!-,: ::
,
,

,
',
,
.-
----1-1 ~ 1 - + - - -
'---

\....--)
• GOOD
• FAIR
II POOR

The four dips in the basal part (Unit "B") of the thick sand in this example
illustrate a special type of cross-bedding. These dips are consistently
toward the north, but become progressively steeper near the base of the sand.
Notice that each of the four dips is measured near the base of a separate
sand lobe, as shown by the S.P. curve. These dips define a series of ssnd
wedges or lenses that become thicker to the north in the direction of dip,
or, conversely, that are thinning to the south. The southward thinning is
inferred to be stratigraphic convergence within the basal part of the sand
body.

Subsurface maps show that the northeasterly structural dip is less than 2°.
The dips in the shale, Unit "A". approximate structural dip.

The sand is part of a deltaic sequence in the Miocene of South Louisiana.

The dip pattern in the basal part of the sand suggests that this well is
located on the south side of a lenticular sand body. The trend of the sand
body is interpreted to be nearly east-west, perpendicular to the direction
of maximum thickening. Subsurface ma,ps support the interpretation made from
the dipmeter log.

Figure 2-20
 CROSS-BEDDING IN UNITS "B", "CO AND "0" INDICATES A MAJOR CIIANGE
IN SAND TRANSPORT DIRECTION BETWEEN UNITS "B" AND "CO

WELL CODf .,1' DIP hfAllNITUO£ DIP AZINUTH SUMMARY

OF DIP
SOUTH LOUiSIANA 20" roo 40" eo- &0- DIRECTIONS
j i I I I.

I-~----

"

I I I I • GOOD
(1)10*20"30'' ... FAIR
+ HOl£ DEVIATION e POOR

When dipmeter logs show vsrying dip patterns in both magnitude and direction
in areas of low structural dip, as in this example, it is generally diffi-
cult to separate structural from stratigraphic dips. In many cases accurate
interpretation is possible only if the interpreter is extremely familiar
with the area or has recourse to other subsurface information.
In this example, a fault has been picked in the well between the depths of
9530 and 9600 feet, based on E-log correlations. The change in dip between
units "D" and "E", therefore, is the result of a fault which can be localized
at about 9570 feet by means of the dipmeter log. No faults can be picked
above this zone in an area of closely-spaced well control and good correla-
tions. Therefore, the shallower anomalies are probably of stratigraphic origin.
The structural dip on the top of the sand in Unit "B" is locally about SO_7°
south, based on closely-spaced well control. The dips in Unit "A" may
approximate structural dip, but the rate of dip is only 2°_3° in this inter-
val. The dips in Unit liE" are assumed to represent structural dip in the
lower fault block, although this cannot be completely verified. The origin
of the dips in Unit "F" is not known.
In order to evaluate accurately the dip patterns in Units "B", "e" and "DIt,
the effects of structural tilting must be removed by rotation. The dips have
been rotated, and the results have been plotted on Figure 2-211..
Figure 2-21
 "

DIPS IN FIGURE 4 AFTER ELIMINATING STRUCTURAL TILTING

BY ROTATION. TIlESE DJ PS JNDJ CATE SOUTHWARD TRANSPORT
IN UNITS 'c' AND 'D' AND NORTIlWARD TRANSPORT IN UNIT 'B",

WELL COOE lSI. OIP ,. AGN ITUOf 01,. AZINUTH su .........,

SOUTH LOUISIANA. '" OJ,.
DIRfCTION'

'-r----1ffiflll

+ HOLf DEVIATION

The dips in Units "A" through liD" on Figure 2-21 have been replotted sfter
removal of the effects of structural tilting. The structural dip in Unit "A"
was assumed to be 3° S 15° W. The dip in Units liB", "e" and "D" was assumed
to be 70 south.

The northward rotation has increased the north dip in Unit "B" and decreased
the south dip in Units "e" and liD". Also notice that the rotation has
reduced the,width of the aZimuth pattern in Unit "B" and broadened it in
Units Ife" and linn.

If it is assumed that all structural tilting has been eliminated, the remain-
ing dip would be only cross-bedding. The original dips in Units "e" and "D"
suggest that the sediment transport direction was southward for these units.
The sand transport direction in Unit "B" waS northward. This indicates a
1800 shift in the direction of paleocurrents, or a change in the agent of
sediment transport.

Figure 2-21A
 TWO SEPARATE AND DISTINCT SAND BODIES,
UNITS "B" AND "CO, IIECOGNIZED BY TilE
CIIANGE IN DIP PATTERN WITIIIN TilE SAND

WELL CODr 12Z6 DIP MAGNITUDE DIP AZIMUTH SUMMARY

Of DIP
SOUTH LOUISIANA 0' 10' 0' 100' DIRECTIONS
I I I i

----~H~~-------

.
~.
)
It \

I I I I • GOOD
0" 10" ro- Xl" • FAIR
+ HOLE DEVIATION QI POOR

The massive sand below 11,700 feet on the log appears to be a single thick
sand unit on casual inspection of the E-log. The dipmeter log, however,
shows a distinct chsnge in the dip pattern between Units "B" and "C". This
change in dip pattern is evidence thst Sand Units "B" and "e" are two sepa-
rate and distinct sand bodies. A re-evaluation of the E-log shows slight
differences in log character between the upper and lower parts of the sand.

The dips in Sand Unit "B" are interpreted as cross-bedding, which in turn
can be used to determine the sand transport direction, after the effects of
structural tilting have been removed. Sand Unit "e" appears to be more
massive, and since there is no distinct cross-bedding pattern, the dips in
Units "A" and "D" represent structural dip. Notice that nearly all of the
dips in the sand below 11,900 feet reflect structure and not cross-bedding.

Other wells have been drilled in the vicinity of the well in this example.
All have penetrated a sand that correlates with Sand Unit "B". No sand has
been found that correlates with Sand Unit "e". Apparently Unit "e" is a
separate sand body of small areal extent.
Figure 2-22
 DIPS IN FIGURE 5 AFTER ELIMINATING STRUCTURAL TILTING BY ROTATION.
TlIESE DIPS INDICATE AN EASTWARD TRANSPORT DIRECTION FOR UNIT "B".

WELL CODE 1226 DIP MAONITUDE DIP AZIMUTH IUMMAfty

0'01'
SOUTH LOUISIANA DIHECTIDNS

I I I I • GOOD
CI' 10" 20" 30" • fAIR
+ HOLE DEVIATION o POOR

The dips from the well on Figure 2-22 were replotted after removing the
effects of structural tilting. The structural dip assumed was 7° S 30° E,
from interpretation of the dips in Units "A" and "0" on the dipmeter log on
Figure 2-22. This dip corresponds closely to that determined by aubsurface
mapping in this area.

The results plotted in Unit "0" after rotation have a small northwesterly
component, indicsting that the dip probably does not exceed 6°. After remov-
ing structural dip, the dip directions should be random.

The original dips in Sand Unit "B" (determined by the process of rotation)
range from 3° to 20°, and they are interpreted as cross-bedding. They indi-
cate an easterly sand trsnsport direction. This direction differs st lesst
20° from the direction indicated prior to rotstion.

Figure 2-22A
 . _. -.. -...-.. . ._ ..-_._. _._..--
-~·-···---·--I

t-'!

PART 3 l
LITHOLOGY FROM LOGS

f
I
i
 CONGLOMERATES

Conglomerates present some of the most difficult problems in quantitative

interpretation of fluid content from electric logs. Even when fully wet,
they usually show a similar character to that of good oil and gas sands.
The S.P. curve usually shows values ranging from those shown by clayey
sands to those shown by clean, highly porous sands; and the resistivity
values are always higher thsn those shown by porous wet sands containing
water of comparable salinity.

Two factors are responsible for this characteristic appearance of conglom-

erates on electric logs. First, because of the irregular porosity caused
by extreme variations in particle size, invasion of mud filtrate and
sometimes whole mud is usually deep. Secondly, the formation factor is
higher thsn in sands of comparable porosity because the tortuosity factor
is higher. In a conglomerate, the current paths must bend around pebbles
and sometimes boulders composed largely of highly resistive material. The
result is an increase in the bulk resistivity analogous to that resulting
from an increase in the length of conductors in a metallic circuit.

Conglomerates can often be distinguished from oil or gas sands by their

vertical patterns. In a conglomerate the resistivity usually increases
toward the base of the bed due to increase in the size and number of pebbles,
whereas in an oil or gas sand the resistivity may decrease in the downward
direction if the bed is penetrated near the oil-water contact.

If there is any doubt about the interpretation, the electric log should be
compared with the mud and cuttings log, the drilling rate should be checked,
and core and cuttings samples examined.

1
 ""'" 4~&
I
I I ,.
31GG
i e-.. . I- e::
I
.

- ..
CONGLOMERATE S3GO

NEWHALL AREA t
I
.~
~ -I-
CALIFORNIA
(
1
~
fC1
c.. ~,"" ::: J~
'" -
r ,< ~ ..,
l.- t
noo
.D 61
, l-

K ~
I, ....... )}- ....~ :: ~f: ~~ ~
,
,
r-. ~
- .• -
:~ L;r
=
,aoo
,
I
;
. ~

'~ I'.
"-:..~ -
~
~
5100
I!; :: ?
<
I ~, ~ ~.
<,
<=
" ~ J' - --
- ;-
1400
"'1= 1 ,~ -
<
~ ~ ..
, ,...
... "" -! - ~

l( ,>l

.SOO
,
fC7=' ., . """
,
<
-
.;,-
.,.
~ ~ .~

.00. ( A
yj
~
"'7" , - ..

"'- ......
... - $I
~

"'00
"
lOONV +
Figure 3-1
 SILICEOUS SHALES

DIATOMITES

The characteristic electric log pattern through a diatomite bed is as shown

on Figure 3-2. The resistivity curves show low values and approximately
coincide, as they do in porous argillaceous shales, but the S.P. curve looks
similar to the curve obtained opposite a uniform sand.

The reasons for this behavior become readily apparent when we consider the
factors controlling resistivity and self-potential. Diatomites are very
porous but have little or no permeability because of their fine grain size.
Consequently they contain a large amount of format~on water which cannot be
readily displaced by oil or gas or by mud filtrate from the bore hole. This
accounts for the low values shown by all three resistivity curves. The
uniform negative departure shown by the S.P. curve results from the uni-
formly high porosity and siliceous composition of diatomites. The S.P.
~-
current circulation at a diatomite - argillaceous shale contact is,
therefore, similar to that at a sand-shale contact.

An electric log pattern of this type shol.ld always be checked by cuttings,

sidewall samples, or cores, however, because a uniform, non-argillaceous
siltstone shows a similar pattern, but siltstones usually do not maintain
the same uniformity through thick beds. Another check, which should be made
if cuttings or cores are not available, is the _time interval between pene-
tration of the bed and the logging run. A permeable salt water sand will
quite often show little or no invasion effects on an electric log run a few
hours after penetration, and will, therefore, show an electric log pattern
similar to that of a diatomite.

Figure 3-3 shows an interesting example of diatomite interbedded with clayey

oil sand. The thicker diatomite beds are easily identified by their dis-
tinctive electric log patterns similar to that shown on Figure 3-2. The
thinner beds would be difficult to distinguish, however, were it not for the
density log. The unusually low bulk density of the diatomite is ascribed
to the low grain density of the diatom shells and the high porosity. Diatom
shells are composed- of hydrous silica which has a grain density of 2.0-2.2
gm./cc. compared with an average sand grain density of 2.65 gm./cc.

2
 8 -" ,."
AM -10" '
• AO =10'
- --
- . .. .. , ~
,--
0
§ -
DIATOMITE BED
I
-
I I, I I

RM =2.4 OHM-M

AT 84°F
~
..
SOUTH BELRIDGE

CALI FORNIA
I
-

A AO = 20' 1= -

+- §
~

c- c-
, ,
, \-
,~
~

- - - .. . c- .
...l SP
i

- I~ol tiN + 0 H S A~
• o 0 H S
~~ ~

Figure 3-2
 .-
.71 l'lo -- f'I':)5r-
~
t-<

/
- -
-t- -
1 -
J- F" =t\
T ,

,~ -' ,

, I- t-- -
SAND
,
, I --

, -:--!
,
"
~
R::
-
~

i= -.:. -- --
j . -,
T l3i - -j
t---
--
- e- -
.- j J _ [3
" -- -

fo ~

--+- - g ~--l---
I
I" r __ !
n..1 '- I :
i
!r-r
1---',
--l~~-__ j
-

"
-.1

. , f'I
! ! ' 1 I. 7J J.!O

Figure 3-3
 OPALINE SHALE

Upper Miocene siliceous shales in California developed in large part from

diatomite which is still preserved in some localities near the basin edges
where subsequent deposition was minimal. Deeper burial and solution pro-
gressively changed the diatomite to opal and finally chert as the end
product.· Recent grain density determinations from cores (1) and denaity logs
from wells(2,3) have shown the opaline stage to be more widespread than was
previously recognized. The reservoir quality of these shales in some areas
was undoubtedly enhanced by the microfracturing in the opaline stage of
alteration.

Figure 3-4 shows how these opaline shales can be distinguished from sands
or chert by comparing the density log with the S.P. curve. Normal sand
response is apparent in the top 120'. The caliper shows mud cake, the S.p.
indicates sand, and the bulk density averages about 2.2 gm./cc. Assuming an
average sand grain density of 2.65, the average porosity would be 27%, which
is a reasonable figure for thst sand. The next 200' looks like normal Silty
shale on the IES log and the bulk density averages about 2.15, which is a
reasonable figure for silty shale at that depth. Below 4650', the top of
the siliceous shale section, comparison of the S.P. curve with the bulk
density shows that the negative deflections on the S.P. correlate with
abnormally low bulk densities except for a few high resistivity - high
density streaks which are either hard sandstone or dense chert. The abnor-
mally low bulk densities are now known to result from opal in the shale. If
we assume an average grain density of 2.2 for opal, the total porosity of
the more porous intervals would be in the range of 25% to 33% which is con-
firmed by core analysis. The effective porosity, however, is considerably
lower because the matrix porosity of the shale probably accounts for more
than half of the total.

(1) Chevron Research Project 14,706, Dec. 31, 1962.

(2) Geological Item of Interest No. 94, Producing Item of Interest No. 38,
"Formation Evaluation of Frsctured Shales - San Joaquin Valley,
California," R. R. Johnston, W.O.!., 1964.

(3) "Application of the Density Log to Fractured Shale Evaluation,"

J. C. Wells, Formation Evaluation Committee Report, April, 1964.

3
 OI'ALI NE SIIALE

US Ii 1".1.1 r
CAIIPfR
"""'''''' ...... _ 1 I BULl( DENSITY
0/0.""."" ...
,. .~ ,.,,'
.

-+
.. ...... "~~, "":';.:'~; "
·H·
-

Figure 3-4
 FRACTURED SIIALE RESERVOIRS

The characteristic electric log pattern of fractured shale reservoirs in

California is as shown on Figure 3-5. The S.P. curve resembles that pro-
duced by a finely interbedded sequence of argillaceous shales and sands of
varying porosity or clay content. and for the same reasons. Given similar
relationships between mud resistivity. formation water resistivity. and
streaming potential. the resultant S.P. curve will primarily reflect differ-
ences in porosity snd concentration of clay minerals. In the case of the
fractured shale. the more siliceous or cherty beds will also be more brittle
resulting in greater frscture porosity.

Resistivity curves in fractured shales are usually very erratic showing

extremes of contrast opposite what appear to be similar beds from the S.P.
curve and lithology determinations. Unfortunately. for quantitative evalu-
ation. these varistions more often reflect erratic changes in formation
factor over short intervals. because of the irregular nature of fracture
porosity. rather than changes in type and concentration of formation fluids.

Wet sands interbedded with siliceous shales can sometimes be distinguished

by comparing the resistivity curves for invasion if the sand beds are more
than three or four feet thick. For thinner sands and oil sands. a wall
resistivity log is useful if the hole is to gauge because mud cake does not
form on fractured shale unless the shale is pulverized sufficiently to
approximate intergranular porosity.

Figure 3-6 shows a contact between siliceous shale and dolomitic shale. The
dolomitic shale has a lower matrix porosity and is not as brittle as the
siliceous shale. Consequently it shows an electric log pattern intermediate
between that of siliceous and argillaceous shale. The density log. however.
shows the contact quite sharply because of the high grain density of dolomite
compared to that of silica or opal.

4
 -. >- r-
-
·. ~ ·f· ~t:.
~
·. ~

f=~~
- 0
-
--.
~I . f-t-
r
- f- . -I-
- .,~I I:J
'-
-=- :Ii ..
g 1- I- ! .

FRACTURED ~t= t-
SHALE =
-
o
~
I-

ELK HILLS
-
-.
~
CALIFORNIA 8 ~ PECI N PruHAr.11

~ f-
f-
"
t
8

., '

-
~ " .• 1."

=
·. ~, - - -j-H-
'r;f<:k' "J ..- ,', f- ·,I~
60'. '""
:r
=i ;
=r~
~
-j ,
'. "" -'. ," "

+-

=!.
I
,,; .
~
g I~-' " , ..
-
<,

: ......... :.. ..
........

~ ...... : .. \',

'"

..
o
g --

~.
J-

a'I • 1
.. '

o
o

Figure 3-5
 SILICEOUS ANO DOLOMITIC SHALE

I~'-' ,--- ,.,. ,I I I I

1--- - "'"
__ L.
- f-t--+-;-
~r
f-.
- .. .L~
. ,
-
"~
- -;- ~.'~

- -i.-t--t'
- rl--~ , ,
~
.
.t....
, ..
..
,
- c....: .c. i ':? :
- ,
;- f-- -r-...,...
'- f--.. ~ ,
'.=~- ~I
----,- _.. '- I-'~ j , "
~
.
"'"
f-. f- -'- '::
- I-~-t
l- f--- .;
~

-.,..,.--
~
f-. f-- .. ~
~......."'_:~. __ _ .0':"_
c- I-~-"
---,' :..:..:;,.:;;:.::::=+~~-!.- .. R=-~
":--=::- ~:'"
, .. ---- _.. -
I --,-'
::::::::::j:=:::>- .......
.' . i-l---'<'!C": ~: ,
L- '-.---' . H-'1~
. __ ."."
t- • • ~.

-,--.. j[
;
C+' , I
1

+"
,
,
.-+-t.-
'T -
~ntCt4 D£fOITY 'lOlCf.U.J.T
UlINCIOU Wrnt" ClJCtO p IJ.O
!l2f9'.
+ ..
-i.- I

~
~-
OoUiu
.. ,,
- -4 .•
AI> CiOIlIIALLY
I CCIIWClIVlfY,"
-' --. !~~.~ SIP-~ ;tn~ ~I
~
~
,
.... ::r_. -'--~-""
CVTTI.JQ
-,. -; ,
,_.---_-·0.- ...... .
I
__ . ...
-+. ..' " 1 ' -I-~- -....; ,
: Y
....J: .. _ - .. .. , =-
- ... - --,
I

- -.-
- . :.- 1+
c-
c.. ,·1-: . ~ ..
T

f-'
--;
, .... t:-,::-=t= ~t±;
i__-
Z5
8{lL.K
- '1'J
O£:sax. =,
,2,~ . ] ,: . i2.~,-i--'r.s:

Figure 3-6
 SILTSTONE

In some areas, siltstones may be sufficiently clean to show electric log

patterns similar to thick sand sections or even diatomites if the log is run
soon after penetration. (Figure 3-7). Cuttings, sidewall samples, or cores
are necessary to distinguish this siltstone from sand. If the log is not
checked against samples, serious errors in sand counts will result.

Note that the resistivity recorded by the 16' Lateral curve is lower through
the siltstone than through the shale below. This indicates either a much
higher porosity in the clean siltstone or saltier formation water.

5
 SILTSTONE
......... _--- ~.~ . --
FILLMORE AREA
CALIFORNIA
~::.-: : ~. ~~::.~ ..
~~~·-~~M~~M~~·,~~.~--
r--... ' .'...._....
;1=:..:"-. :.: . "'--
~. '.:-: - '~~.:'=
-,-'" - f-I-f--....... " ...... -

- ...--.-.t·-.

.. -- . ..... .. ...
~
CLEAN
...... ~
~ .....JLj
..
~.::::. :~'..!.: :.': :

-][
.
SILTSTONE 4'i!---" ~ .... -- ~.-.

I j------

. -=~---~-:-~:.~
§~-'~:::E~~:'
.. .-
l _ _..• _ .
.'
T~ ti' Pk"tJ . .
"'" ~_(()~$.f" r-(f/-'!'4/
~- .. ~ ... , .. ~_/~ IV/. . . .

( .. - ",. -.. . -

Hc--'.••• _ I

ARGILLACEOUS
.: i
§ I- '--- .... :.
SILTSTONE
c _ _ _ _ _ _ ,"
.. ::j,
AND
SILTY , -~--
_ ....! .
·1
I
SHALE
----- - -
-~-- .. -.,.
- 8 f- -.-..
f--_.
1 .'

~-L-"~~
_ _" ____ 4 ._ ••

--"--- ...... H i - - -' '.

i--'-" I
~.-­

. --' ! .

~ . f=-:::
I-~'
r-- .
:-'-"-'--. I-f--'.' , .'
I-r- .
1-1-"
;:: I- f--_ ..

Figure 3-7
 BENTONITES

A pure bentonite always shows a positive departure on the S.P. curve (i.e.,
to the right of the shale line on the hour glass type log), and a resistiv-
ity value lower than the average shale value on all three curves.
(Figure 3-8). .

The reason for this behavior is the super clay effect of the montmorillonite
group of clay minerals. The minerals of this group absorb more water than
the kaolinites and illites and are even. more selective to the passage of
ions.

The modern induction-electric log combination now enables us to identify

bentonite beds in sandy intervals as shown on Figure 3-9. The high contrast
in conductive (low resistivity) formations on the conductivity curve causes
bentonites to stand out from ordinary shales even when interbedded with
sand, provided that the sands do not contain super saline waters. Maximum
water salinities in California are about 3000 GIG or 50,000 P.P.M. Conse-
quently, sand conductivities do not approach the conductivity of bentonite.

6
 BENTONIT ES

THORNTON AREA

SACRAMENTO VALLEY
i
CALIFOR NIA
,

;-

t3

i
--\

=1 -
-
- ...
= 4
: ~ -
- Q;;
-
I
='" 1- -
-=§
-
- .~ 1- f-

I
:J

.. - il
Figure 3-8
 .....
8 -- f-- ..- - f - - .. -
~
f-. - - f - f- .
- . 1--- ~. I- - -- - ...
) - -- -
.,-
-- -. f-
.- . .-
- .. - .
" "'-
~
-

;;.--
f--

.-
BENTONITE

.. - ..
--

~,~
- . . - - '-
... --- ..... -- f- - -- -- .", -I --
- .- .. - ~.' . - -- f-- · - f- --
..
- -- r' -
"0~
- - -- I--~ I- 1--- - -- f- ~~ -
,-
.- .I
~-
- . -' _. f-- .. ... - --: l- I- -- - - l-
.. - , .. f-- ---c - f-- -- .- If.
J. . - - - .- - 1- .
-- -
.-

..
_.
--
- c-.

... ...
-

i
I-
~ . ..
_.. ;;::> ..
-- ...

- . -.
- ."

· ..
... -
- .. . r--
~ r.-.-
1--- -
- . c- _. ~ .. . . ..
_.
j" _. - - . -. .. - - ..
... -- "
J ..
§
(
.-
~
....- ... . - -
i:'" - --
- - . - . _.

..
-
f-- .- <
•f ...
... f--..
" .

J.
'.~
- :.;,; .,/ -- ._- -- - c ·- ...
.- - -- ..
..... ~ • - ~ i--.

_.L~
;=;
-.... --
- -
' . - --
- k b: ~ .. "
- '-- ... . . +.
-. ~
.- -
_. -f- - -- ~'.
.. ~'
C- v" .- - - lj.
"'i
-- . - -- -- .8 -f- - t -..:'

•
~
'. ·
• b
.. .-- -
~
-
. - _. 0 -. .,r -.
= - .- - . .
<~
BEN 'rONITE
1
."
.' 1 ,/
.. - l. -- -.
'.\'"
.. ..... _.- .- ~
r' ....
.~
_. _. -
.. - - - -- lj' y - - .-.
- . - -- f-.
-.
- .- .. > - .

~
- .-. I--- .' -f--
.- .8 .. .
c
- - .. -, . . - .-. .. --

'7 - -- - _. .; - - - .. · . ~.
" y
k - - .. .-
.- - ......, .' .. . - .. ._. - ..
-
C -- f--
;.:.:.: ~ . - - .. - f---

_. -- ..<\: iL- l-
.-
-
.- -
_. c::: ..... . - C- .. --
? ",- .. -- ~- · - - .
.. .. - f-. -
.
~-.

-. , II ~
- _. _. -- c-- - . ..- -- -
• 8

-.- -- .... -. -- .•..

16' NORMAL INDUCTION
,U
-1-1 ,
IV v ~JU 0

0 1O0

INDUCTION
~-- ........................... -.............. ?~.
0 ..l92...
0
SPONTANEOUS· POTENTIAL RESISTIVITY CONDUCTIVITY
...
-
m
~
1000
100 millivolts ili ohms. m'jm millimhos/ m Oh";i.~
Figure 3-9
 n

)
J

BENTONITE

Microcaliper MicroLog Microcaliper MicroLog

~
-
~
E
F~

F~
Ef=
~
1= I
~§ PIERRE SH.J
1=
~ ~~~

~ li
-
•
DENVER BASIN (r"O~'" t.ly /-.. 0 .... Y,-ehl:>

COLORADO Fre{ A A." e",,)

Bentonites can often be recognized by observing hole

enlargement with corresponding low resistivities.
The Microcaliper-MicroLog or MicroLaterolog surveys
make good logs for this use.

Figure 3-10
 SANDWICII BEDS
{Finely Interbedded Sand and Shale}

Finely interbedded clean sands and shale, where the individual beds are less
than two feet thick, show an electric log pattern similar to that of silt-
stone regardless of the fluid content of the sand. Figure 3-11 shows an
electric log example where, in the cored interval, the individual oil sands
are less than six inches thick. The interval was completed for an initial
production of 80 BID oil. Figure 3-12 shows an induction-electric log
example where the individual gas sands are probably one to two feet thick.
This interval made a good gas producer.

Quantitative evaluation is not possible where bed thickness is less than

three feet because the true resistivity of the sands csnnot be determined
with our present tools. However, we can detect thin, permeable sands with
wall resistivity devices and short spacing velocity logs. Then, if mud ,
logging or sidewall sampling indicates hydrocarbon saturation, and the sand
count appears to be sufficient, the interval is further evaluated by a drill
stem test or a production test.

7
 SANDI!'J ell BEDS
WIIEELER RIDGE, CALIFOIINIA
I

.1> : ' K.
" I l

~-'
•
...
'"
ID
o
o
t;;:. .~ .
-,
- .
I~

.... --,' F....

~ I"
- .--
"

. -.~--
..

'" -.- .,r..

~
'y'

__ ""':
-

;'7" , ....
-
-

'3 ~ .i .-'
.. t'
i~
..., li
r-:.
.c::. I ." 0"

A
.
<"' g
Q..: 1 ~ o
L'd L
I:s: "~

'. ~
l.!!I' 1'1
i
1<
~

~
... ?

~
.... -l-~~~-t.;~r+H--t--fl~rl-1
~ ~.~ ~
S.-
__-- I---P!Id-+-t--t-li-t--t--t--t
~

&~i-t~;/~,'4--r.I_~~r.~.1-~-I~--::~~~~'~~-t-l-r-t-Ir-t-;~

~ P( NT~N~O, S: ~OEt nL R~SIS~I~IT'

- .tlm Iii, of:s + b
• : ,
~l>hl\l1s.
, : ,
I~I m 21
t ; ;

t'

Figure 3-11
 SANDWICII BEDS
SOUTH TEXAS
j

16" normal (0-10 ohm scale \-

1111.1111111
Induction (0 - 10 ohm scale)

','

I -
'--"-~ -- , "
-+- -r- -

r::-Perfs @ 11,262' - 320'

I , Flow gas ARO 4650 to 4750 MCFPD
on 1/4" ck, GOR 5-1/2 to 6 OO/MWJF.
Sonic porosi_ty 40%; SW 54%
Rwa anomaly .4-.2
" , ... -' , , , I I

Figure 3-12
 7

GLAUCONITIC SANDS

On electric logs, glauconitic sands cannot be distinguished from other sands

with like permeability and porosity, but can be easily recognized on gamma
ray logs because of their high natural radioactivity. The high radioactiv-
ity value results from the presence of radioactive potassium, K-40. in the
mineral glauconite. Figure 3-13 shows a typical example from the Lower
~J
Tertiary in California.

8
 GAMMA RAV~ rf~ NWTRON ~
RADIATION INfl"mYIHtft"'" ~fl RADIATION INHN"TY INC."",

~ I
~~11fffi:J'!
~" i"
I.
... j.,.rJ-
" .. - -~ --r- . r

1
• I .
l_f-
r!--}
.-:.
I:
,.,
..
~

, •. L
.1
I':':;!
I

.,-
...--;-,
:i'1-1"+ -.~ -,-,
~....(.!
RADIOACTIVE EX PRESSION , ..
OF GLAUCON ITIC
GREEN SA NOS
'fH···
·
, . Tr ., _.
. t-· . , ., . I
-r-I·-1·-~·f
.. .
;~<r-
,.+W~
._.
.j). -, -
..
_

I-

+"- H=t::-.~~c.::1-
RIO VISTA AREA
~±--, -j-.
-', ~-H~r
"i~ t' -.I,

_@r'-'~d
CALIFORN IA
r:..'-:- ! ..
~~ ~'l B-~-1 :.;'~
· ." __-:--1:.::-.\:_, ,
I I , I
I,
· ,
.• 1 ._--f--, ; -i . I

.-
~t=4
'- T" -.~ ..
.. ..
1S ;'-i
1-- :- ~- --1.-I<l
1:1'-' + t'r
'-1 "'IS
- j_. '. .'- I-

f1-t::r
'--r- '--'-
'r- ,c'[-' r-'~
, .
~.
-f.-
I"~ , -! ..
,
-,-
+.;~
},
_c_, --r-I" '::r~i!'
-T j ·~-t,~l~
1- - .. ~ ;.;-_~_~~~ -4
, L
1--- I- ,=.~
or"~

i'
I
-1-.- '-, "~i
§ 1-
1-.
,
--
,. r--c-- ,
' .. 1
'"

0 ' . "

l- I- -+ .,

,=t _,-ti':--.
~
r -
=1--' J
t.J - -e-
- . -\ .-
t.J . ,
Q: ,+- "1- --I" ,
r- ,- I- - -- ~1
~
-I· . ' I I

l'l~
,
~ --
.....; . -,
• .. , I
r ,
$.J:i~ >"
~

- ,- 1-- ,
-+-1- -- ... '~ -1 ' !
--I- I
--- "'I-.i-· -- '. "J
r. h I>: -
.. I- 1-1- ...
--f- 1-' - --
L ..
kf'1'-
.. , ~-- I-I-,
-
, -
- r- -- --""1--
· ! -" 1"-1Iy'c
, - "1 I

.:..j.:.' .- t-- -r
.--t .
-~ l-I- ~ .. 17 ... j-..

-- r;. l.- 1-'"

__ I ••• - ~

- I- I- t-. "'1-

·-t+ I--.. - t~ " : 1-1-1

Figure 3-13
'----)
ORGANIC SIIALES

NODULAR SHALE

The Nodular Shale is a subsurface term for an organic, phosphatic shale 'that
~rlies an unconformity at the top of the middle Miocene in many parts of
the Los Angeles Basin in Southern California. Where the middle and lower
Miocene are absent, the Nodular Shale rests directly on schist basement or
is separated from the schist by a thin basal sand or conglomerate.
(Figure 3-14).

The Nodular Shale is a black, hard, fissile shale. It is highly organic (up
to 10% organic carbon by weight) and contains bands or nodules of brown
phosphatic material. The phosphate mineral is predominantly apatite. Car-
bonate, usually dolomitiC, is associated with the apatite and is also
present in the non-phosphatic portions of the Shale. Core analyses yield
a range of 1 to 18 per cent carbonate by weight.

\.....,) The high resistivities of the Nodular Shale (20 to 1000 ohmmeters) are
attributed to its high organic carbon content as are the low densities,and
velocities. The S.P. expression varies from that of a normal shale to a
siliceous shale with irregular negative departures. Comparative properties
of intervals with differing S.P. are as follows:

Negative S.P. Shale-type S.P.

Resistivity Very high Moderate to high

Organic carbon con~ent Very high (12+%) High (5-9%)
Density Very low (2.1 gm./cc.) Low (2.2-2.4 gm./cc.)
Velocity Low (7300-11,000 ft./sec.) High (13,000-15,400)
Drilling rate Fast Slow
Clay content- Low Moderate

For additional detail on the Nodular Shale, please refer to W.O.I. geological
report, "Sentous Study - Inglewood Field, California," by W. J. Plumley and
T. L. Wright, dated August 1964. The above description was taken from this
report.

9
 m

NODULAR Sf/ALE
j
LOS ANGELES BASIN, CALIFORNIA

lI'OHflJlfOOS I'OffHflU RfSISflYlIY COHDUCflYlIY CALIPER

millivolh ohm.-m'/m millimhos/m .. ~ HOI' Di.t.M.. IN ....o.r.
A'''~'M ".".." -{! ______ e. -- ___'Jl,
~ HOI.IoUol I' •• a ItKMJC110H •
"
'H'
CORRECTION
GA.UlJ,/C(
I,

-"OIJetlOH
~ _ _ .... _....... _....e. BULK DENSITY

,'I I;
~ -I
\"
.:
II t
,~1 ;1- J,

; I I
'.
1 ,
..,-. ,':-{ ;(, _~ I •
--~t---5I-""--~""r---l
'.~~
..l
.;~ ..,
",~

~'
, .-
,
, ...

.." , i,/.
, '.
.-r.,o'
!;
'-<.!; ,
""'-J
" f :~>
0~
' ". "
~"
: •• : , .

1 i!' ~ ~."~"-'~--'~~'+---'-'~f'-'-'~'
':. :::
L I,
~,I,
'I', "i. ~,'~I" -'~c ' >-
:'<-:,~ :

:!; :i ~ 'Jf--:---' .c:+---:~~.-.:--l

I, ,j ~ J ' .3-
_.;- j " c::s ,'/ ~--+~~-,'. ,. ')

it
~ ~: ~ :~"
0,

' Ii: :
'I

,¥, I ,~,_: .. ---£ ,_

~ i' "'" ~c '.~:."--'
~ b ~ ....:.~"::'
, 1 ' , <;-"'
, I 'I ! :!: <..3 ( .: , <- : ,.__ .
'~:+ll,+-
Ii f-+--r- j ~
i
1-,'1---+----'-:-;;r<:-, :?: :=:-1,
" ,I ~.. . j ~f=-
I----r~r_j ; -~--~--~~r--l
• --L : : ',roc";£t..==- =~ I

I j i 1 !" ~ --;~'-:il"~"""~=C'-1---'--r--:-:'-o'::"~f~'
:I
,
iIItl ",I ~. ',I{':'~~ ~'
j ,- '.. .
" " i':::'~=-=
~
I' +i-"I~-rTt-tI,,-.-j,
I-:-ri ~ ::, :'~;'~ 1:~~
'-j..l"'+-f=-I-l-+++-l
1_'
, 1'3
j I
~
<::5
I 0
[:,:5
','~,===5
' ,~.
, ..>C,
,. p , , " :;e; {i' r-:- ,..--,- ..c '
-~"~~.i'
o
,:::
u,
'---'- _If~~,"""
P'"_
-:--'-,' ' . 1 C~_.
; . , I ..~
-.,1 ~ :,I~'
1:'~:t .1 .~
,-1- -:;..;-;- , 'I
~-i't-mm~ ~ II , ' L : -"
II IIIIII~I";

Figure 3-14
 <:. / Yt. t;./ Ir\l~ I D - T t'r8 N
R 'U W J L,,- (,; fo .. 11.1 "-
Co INA fQ,.I1.Y Jl.p v-<y" ,
CARBONACEOUS SHALE C!'<It! K #- ~ I ;\'I<..K,I\ztei
(,,,,,-1-'1 I

Garrana-radiation Laterolog Resistivity

8

SLIGHTLY RADIOACTIVE
ARGILLACEOUS LIMESTONE LODGEPOLE LS; '::'1::

IIIGlR.Y v, . •. '0
CARBONACEOUS SHALE BAKKEN FM.'

RADIOACTIVE SHALR ~

THREE 1-1-
1--1--
FORKS FM. 1--1--
I-I--
1'-"

Low radioactivity from

limestone end dolomite ~'
or sands. ",y "111 I FM •.
I

I
Cerbonaceous ahales can be II SII. -
recognized by the
abnormally high gamma ray
activity. Laterolog to ~ DUPEROW FM.
right a180 shows higher
resistiVity in carbonaceous
shale interval than in the
other shale sections.

WILLISTON BASIN
NORTH DAKOTA

Figure 3-15
 COAL BEDS

Coal beds are normally highly resistive with little or no S.P. development
on electric logs. The electrical expression is, therefore, similar to other
nonporous rocks such as dense basalt, cemented sandstone, dense carbonates,
and evaporites. They can be easily recognized, howover, if a velocity log
or density log is available for comparison.

Unlike other nonporous sediments, coal has a low velocity, about 7,100 feet
per second or a travel time of about 140 microseconds per foot. The density
of coal is 1.0-1.8 gm./cc.

The accompanying example, Figure 3-16, shows the comparison of the electric
log and Sonic log opposite a relatively thick coal bed. The density log can
also be used to distinguish coal from other high resistivity rocks if the
hole is not bsdly eroded.

) Fractured cosl may look like a good oil sand on an electric log, and if
fractured sufficiently to form a mud cake, it will look like a sand on the
microlog. (Figure 3-17). A velocity or densHy log is therefore essential
for proper identification.

10
 n

COAL BED
ELECTRIC LOG AND VELOCITY LOG
POWDER RIVER BASIN, WYOMING

Sonic
S P Resistivity 140 microseconds /Ioot 40
-- - 0
" - f--- _--i-- -_ -
0 ~-
F"'i _r: - -_J--' ~

-
~

==1:::.-
- -- --f--- c- - - 1- --
-t::- f--- f---
-~
, -

+ ft -
--
'=-- -::..j=
-I--- ::- - - -
- - .:;- -:- : - :- - - ,F- -- -- 1=1= :-:.:
= = - -
-- -- J'.. ---
- - -- c._ r.::

I- != -
~
f--- =-1= -
1-- -- -
- 1- - -- I;::: ~~
--
== 1= -
-- --
H' .. _.
-
I - f---
= /'-' =:
~ -
-- 1 -

1= J--:- r:::. I=-

'-
-
- -
1-- 1= 1= --~ ~ ~-
--
- 0

- -
-
f---- f-:o
I:-H \ - -- --- - --
- --- \-- :- c:-
I-
-
-
- - - --
--
-
~

-
,
1=1-- ~ I-
-- - -
1- f--- i, l-'-
1= - 1-1- - -
~
~ • -7
- 1- 0
0 -- -
Le:
0

..J
1- - !-- -
<t: I- I- 1-
0 1-
(.) I- Ll F- j-- -

-f-- I-
1=I -
1= I--
::{
I~~
---I~
~
IS =- i= 1-- - - .. 00

-
--
0_

-
00

1- i--' -'; 1-' t:- ~o

-- - :.-:.: l - f---
1- -- - --
1= ::':: --t=- =::: :- 1-- _0

-
o-
f:- I - I-- j~
-
\-
1-
-1- - -0-
00

1-
- S-

.. .- .. c-
- 0

~
l::::::= --
- 0

Figure 3-16
 COAL
TERTIARY FORT UNION FM OF THE POWDER RIVER BASIN
BIG HORN CO., MONTANA

This is an example of a fractured cosl bed displaying SP development,

filter cake buildup, and positive ML Separation, all of which are similar
to overlying and underlying sandstones. Lack of a velocity log to
differentiate thi. coal from sandstonea. and lack of good aample quality.
could lead to the aieiuterpretat!on as sa oil bearing sand in view of the
very high accoapanyina re8iativity. A g~ methane gas kick accompanied
the drlllina ot thb coal. /1\ e
If: 2. Z ~ -'f-r.
(

10 16" Nonaal. Hicrolog

fool Induction HicrOCal1per Res is ti vi ty
~v o _n R fl 0 )

- - -- - - :=:
. --=:- .= =- :-1= =-

.~.. -. ~i?, - 1=:: -.:-::

_.t<='.:_

J'>.~ =c _: c:c __ :: .::: : ~F ______.1:::

I 1""-':: -:: -=-.::: I
r=-
i=
F
,.

-1<
1:-- . _.
i: P:
,--i
i--
! -
• •

Figure 3-17
 SANDSTONE REEFS

A high resistivity intervsl in a sand-shale section with low resistivities

above and below msy indicste hydrocarbons, a fresh water aquifer, a coal
bed, or unuaually low poroaity. Figure 3-18 is a good example of the latter
case, and shows why porosity logs are now run in all exploratory wells.

Aside from quantitative evaluation there may be geological significance to a

porosity change such as that shown on Figure 3-18. In this case we are
looking at a calcareous sandstone member of the upper Miocene Santa Margarita
formation which is probably the cliff-forming Ostrea titan-Pecten estrellanus
reef exposed in canyons north of Coalinga, Californis.

11
 -',~;tJf;~j~~:, :~ " SANDSTONE REEF

0 g
SP.()NTANEOUS POTENTIAL RESISTIVITY INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME
millivolts ~ ohm.- m'/m 8 MICROSECONDS PU fOOT

• 016"·M T_'.-2.'•
10 SHORT NORMAL ,n
0
11<0 11l'L--_. __ - -_. .5.Q
-H' 0 200 2'" 200
-,
150
INDUCTION
P-•• -•••..•...•••.••.•.•.••..•..••.•~P
0
tr···········~1'l1'· ;;'.it:···········200 ~
,
I , IJ III IC "1, ,
-
I ..
, , ,y
~
, I
~.-~,:?
.. ---
,
, , 1-'
,
,
I ..J~. ,
, ! '" u
§ I'-
u
§ -, ;
~,
I
- 1/ h :
;- , h ,
In 7 ='1 15- f-'-I , , ;
,
! I , I : --ri'
, ,
:
; I
, r
"
T
, ~
,
I

I i ! ~
.
;
I I : : ~
.,
:
,':;:>
!
I
u
§ '1
I? ~ I- u
§ 1
,
: i
• , ,,
: 1«·
..;.?

h- , I , , I <'"'
:7; I) : , I , , ~
:>; I I .J
/ rr c:
'< , ;
.. I

, <:,
.
'. .-
J , .-"'
-..:;:: ; , - ' - -.
,
./ "' I
I , ,
; ..
-S
i i
~.,

. ..., ; ; , -, . .. .. - -
,
: ; )
!
1~I , -
I
, :
_. -
, ~

""7. l:\- I
I: .! . ~
i

--
;
,I i>
,
I- , __ . 3 --
! I- .~
, § §
,
:
i I
;-
l-
, ,
I
I
..
-
" .. -
-~, ----- ..
I ;
: Ie I
: , I i
I T ,, , :-..:! Ee-
...
',\, I- 4 r
,
1-0" ; I
~ .-
. ''Y I I
DI.J
, .. ,. ..
-, J • ( •
8 8 . 1 .
, -,;
;

;
i
I
I .t;.;
I
~- I-
'"
~
, II
I

i~
•

~':::.:' ~:-== ......

__
--
~-.--- I
" (.
i"T
;
h~- . F::. ~.f-.I-.I-
I '
,
......!---.
I
.-- - .
I
......
I
I I I
Ie-
... ~.
~_:.J. -1-.,- ·H-,··..,-· 'J k:':: _~ ..:.:. . _ I
I
5L..."7· :.-.- !-...... -.~ j:-. ---- .. _.1-'-,
- , _~ .. .. l-; .. ~ ..... 1:.. ........ - · - - - - - 1
t-..' I
-4_"
I I I I -1$- .. -.

Figure 3-18
 r

4'
., ! ~'
~: ~ f . "

CARBONATES AND EVAPORITES

LIMESTONE VS. DOLOMITE

With the advent of the continuous velocity log and the density log.we can
now distinguish clean limestone from clean dolomite by comparison with the
neutron log. In a carbonate section the velocity log .and the density log
are affected by both lithology and fluid in the pore spaces whereas the
neutron log responds primarily to the amount of hydrogen in the rock. In
pure carbonates all of the hydrogen will be in the pore spaces. Conse-
quently, the lithology do~s not affect the neutron log.

Figure 3-19 shows a comparison between the neutron log and the Sonic log in
the "B" zone of the Aneth Field. Two intervals, 5491'-95' and 5537'-44',
appear to have the same maximum porosity on the neutron log but show much
different values on the Sonic log. The upper interval is limestone with a
matrix veloCity of about 21,000 feet per second, whereas the lower interval
is dolomite with a matrix velocity of about 24,000 feet per second.

12
 c./ (W /f\.W I '1 - -r 1/-1 5 - I< 2 It E ~+I<".t... .. d.. 0 i " # 12.-~ fJA..ltfl.J'o
k
i
_. . ~. E

.-
LIMESTONE
i

DOLOMITE

: --

•
I ..... ~~
. ··cy'"
\
ii I _ .. r=
~

I I I I I I

SONIC LOG
I H U lV !,,,,~, ..!..~.A~!! tTl", I
_ 1 ..· . -
• _1. ,'- ,.,

.. .
SU.NOAlO (O\JHT, MCOHO

"",,»<Y . ~.QlL ~~ Of '~lfIWHJ.. SwlC ,. SU'

.
n.u~ .
WIll

'''''"''
''V' to ,utI,. J
i.tN JUJ!f
t. .u·,
... _IIAH._. UL<IL.
SW$C TO HiS
•. Dill 10 562, 0<.
~))l

"... >I' '" .

Figure 3-19
.,
 DOI.OMITE CAVERN
ANADARKO BASIN, OKI.AHOMA
. :::-:...
r
1
1 ,-.'
:
j
1-:.

I:i r=

HUNTON 1l0L(I!IITE

I
Iiii

I \ ..J

, :

SYLVAN LIMESTONE
tt
'I •

I-

,-'
GAMMA RAY 1 10 100 1000 2.0 2.2:1 2.11
OHM-METERS gm./cc.

Figure 3-20
 VERTICAL FnACTVRES

Vertical fracturing in carbonates may be detected by comparing different

types of resistivity curves with acoustic velocity and amplitude logs as
on Figure 3-21.

The formation is Ellenburger dolomite in the Texss Panhandle. The Sonic log
shows the consistent low porosity of the matrix throughout this interval.
However, from 12,210-12,324 feet the ILd is reading higher than the LL8
whereas above and below this interval the relationships are normal. This is
believed to be due to near vertical fracturing in this interval where the
LL8 current is somewhat short-circuited by the mud in the fractures whereas
the LLd current cannot,be short-circuited in this manner.

It will be noted that the ILm also reads higher thsn the LL8 in the upper
part of this interval but in the lower part, the two curves sverage about
the same. This might be interpreted as an inconsistency in the thesis.
However, there is considerably more difference in the ILd and LL8 resistivi-
ties in the upper part of the interval than the lower. The failure of the
ILm to conform to the theGIY is believed due to the poorer resolution at
higher resistivities of the ILm.

The fact that the Proximity log sometimes reads higher and sometimes reads
lower than the other logs is believed due to the directionality and sampling
volume of the device. If a fracture(s) is within the sampling volume (Le.,
more or less parallel to it), the "short-circuiting" occurs and the reading
is low. If the sampling volume consists of matrix only, the reading is
high.

This thesis is confirmed by the shear wave amplitude log and by DST. Sub-
stantially more permeability was indicated by the test of this zone than
would normally be inferred from the low porosity shown by the Sonic log.

13
 VERTICAL FRACTURES

,
. -_.---.. . . . . .'. --+--+-+,
. •
i I •• _.
I I .
....
I:'
..
,
, I .. I
I ' .. CQmpr .... Waw4 St I. (m."J
, il" I
_ ......'=_,....;
___ " .~_~. :1066 7 S<iol< Scali (p m/ fJ 1
;:,.., .!-~ ~__..7--~~-'-- -'"'
--1:-_ _ , .. !
.... ' , ! ~

--'
5/leQr
WaY'
t.mpHluch

12200

T 'Compu'lioooi Wove
Ampllh,dt

c
z
o
~
:!
f I-~--~~--~--r.:~~<=:d=-~~r-~--~~--:--i--~~~~--~-i
r.;
,,
~

. -,

, .,

12300

., .,

0>' •

I ,
1

Figure 3-21
 · .,

ANHYDRITE

Anhydrite is a dense rock which cannot be distinguished from other nonporous

rocks on electric logs. Its velocity (20.000 feet per second) is similar to
that of low porosity limestone. The gamma ray log shows it to be nonargil-
laceou8 with an expression similar to that of pure carbonates.

The density log. however. distinguishes anhydrite from all other common sed-
iments. As shown on Figure 3-22. the bulk density is the same as the grain
density. 2.95 gm./cc. The !lotted line on the density log shows bulk density
from core anslysis. Although the anhydrites were partially cored. no
analyses were run.

The example is from a well in the Paradox Basin near Blanding. Utah. The
formation is upper Paradox of Pennsylvanian age.

14
Figure 3-22
 ';-' -'
,

SALT AND ANHYDRITE

Distinguishing between salt and anhydrite in an evaporite sequence can be a

difficult problem with nothing but regular electric logs, radioactivity logs
and cuttings. Salt and anhydrite are both dense rocks which show similar'
characteristics on electric and radioactivity logs, i.e., high resistivity,
no S.P., low gamma, and high or low neutron depending upon hole effect and
hydration. Anhydrite can be recognized in cuttings, but salt (halite) is
seldom recovered because of its solubility. If salt muds are used, as is
customary in evaporite section, the effect of salt beds on the mud is
negligible.

Until the development of velocity logs, the caliper log was the most defini-
tive tool for locating salt beds. Figure 3-23 shows how salt and anhydrite
can be distinguished on the Sonic log by their velocities. Rock salt has a
velocity of 15,000 feet per second compared with 20,000 for anhydrite or a
transit time of 66.7 micro-seconds per foot compared with 50 for anhydrite.,

15
 , ,
~ '" ,
., '-~
,-. y ".,C ",

.'
WELL A WELL B

TRANSIT TIME
.;M. SEC I FT.

8..
p_7.....9
__60 5P
......_ ..... .....P
81...'O_7 __6_P_,_5,O
I
I ' I !
·I I.
i --I
I
•

, I
I
I
I

I
)
~ 100'
I I

II
I
I

I I
'\
•
I•
I I
--------- SALT
,-'-' - ANHYDRITE

WINKLER CO. t TEXAS

Figure 3-23
 r

SALT (NaCI) IIIENTIFICATION

1 Microcaliper NicroLaterolog
:,
C. /I\.W/J,tw J 2.. 2-HN - l4lP,
TtLi! (AII-l'OI'fI1,'t\.. (o ..... pM.IA'I)
..
tt: I V;-e T,.,.' btj.1 I
.,ttA.,..1.-te2v .... ~ I (OVIA-ty

Sodium chloride has the logging

~ HOLE properties of low gamma radia-
~~ . ENLARGEMENT tion, high neutron and high
resistivity. However, all of
. H
these properties may not be
~ apparent on many logs. The
solubility of salt in drilling
'" fluid may result in considerable

~~ J hole enlargement. If the hole

enlargement is greater than the
depth of investigation of the
survey, the drilling fluid
becomes the investigated medium.
E~
l:i. The MicroLog, MicroLaterolog,
Neutron and E.S. normal surveys
may be affected by hol~ en-
largement.
~.

PARADOX BASIN COLORADO

The upper example is a typical
case where hole enlargement
results in the log reading
mud resistivity. The lower
example shows very little hole
enlargement by the caliper
~= . measurements and the high
salt resistivity is recorded.
The well with small hole
enlargement was drilled with
CHARLES FM. mud saturated with salt prior
to drilling the interval shOlffl.

WILLISTON BASIN
NORTH DAKOTA Figure 3-24
 SALT BED IDENTIFICATION

The following is sunnnarized from "Salt Bed Identification from Unfocused

Resistivity Logs," by J. R. Lishman, 1960, and for more detailed information
the reader is referred to the original work.

ABSTRACT

Salt beds are almost infinitely resistive. They differ from

other infinitely resistive beds in that they are usually
soluble in the drilling fluid, and give rise to enlarged bore-
holes. An infinitely resistive bed, lying between shales, may
be recognized from the characteristic shape of the electric
log resistivity curves; and the ratios of the apparent resis-
tivities which they show. Anyone of the curves may then be
used to compute the hole diameter, and hence decide whether
the bed is salt.

When a washed out salt bed lies adjacent to another infinitely

resistive bed in which the hole is to gauge, the configuration
of the curves is characteris~ic. Apparent resistivity ratios
again help to identify the salt.
.. .. .. * *
Unless the hole diameter is known, the reading of anyone curve csnnot be
used to determine whether a bed is of infinite resistivity. Ratios between
curve resdings, however, can be used. In beds of low to moderate resistiv-
ity, the reading of the 64" normal curve is never more than!£!:!!. times the
reading of the 16" normal. However, in thick beds of high resistivity, the
ratio is generally much higher than four. The R64"/R16" ratio is approxi-
mately 5 for an infinitely resistive bed 80' thick and ratio increases with
increasing bed thickness. For beds thinner than 80', the R64"/R16" ratio
is less than 5, but for these beds the ratio of the 18' 8" lateral curve to
the 16" normal curve ranges between 12 and 15.2.

16
 BEIIAVIOR OF ELECTRIC LOG RESISTIVITY CUIIVES
IN SINGLE INFINITELY RESISTIVE BEDS

1'* "*0111014
• '000

.0'.... ~
• ____..'.. ________
I·
I
!2;.~

---
- - --- I I
---
-- --
_flL!.~

,
I
1

T I
1
I
1
II
1
1.
- - . -+-H--t-+-i
I , i - "5 [1.[C11100£ 0),1 8(0

1'" 1
--
I I
'i-'
" --
--
---
I
--
-- -- - - - -

----- - - _lItl'~ !
-- - ---
rI
I
-'
1
I
II

"1
1 1
I
1 '
I
" , -
,
" /
I
I
I I
L 1
J
1
I

II
II 1\....,,--++ - -, (\.((rllOO( ,,. no

...I
L .1 /
''-.- -) III' co J.
- 411NOA Ihi 1[0

L 1 1 I
-' 1 ,,
I 1
_I ,
I
I
1
;
1
/
,,
I 1\

J
I L
1
1
V/
-
I
.L
I
1
1
',Ii"
- ,'.).

Figure 3-25
 W
z
2
----- ... .......... - ..
5
o
§, o
.·1
/"'----...
\
W
",
~
•o• .
i ,I
/' :r:
(/)

~
·•• .~
/ etl--
>-

o '-- - co~
t- I-- l- '
I--
I- I- ~L
I-- l- I- I- '
W(/)
I-JI-- - l-f-I- h I-- ...J-
--< f- f.- I-- et(/)
~ H H :r:W
(/)0::

~IIII~IIIII~
I et w
:r:!::
~z
:>-
o It.
O::Z
x-
I-
It.
(/)0
) W
>(/)
0::0
:>w
om
~z
OW
...JW
~
01-
_w
0:10
/'--::- I-
o~
Wz
I ...J_
w>-
I ...J

l:>
. . . .J z
o
(/)
0::
..::(
n.
::E
8

Figure 3-26

----=--, '.
 COMPARISON OF TlIEORETICAL ELECTRIC LOG CURVES
TIIHOUGII A SALT liED 1111'11 AN ACTUAl, LOG
lUI FOH TIIEOHETICAL CUHVES = ,05

flO

SPOHUHIOUHOlfHllAl a RE51S'TlVITY RUI$TIVITY

..1111",,11> I ohm •. mt/m ohm~ m'/m

-R'O . \I

\. " THEQRETICAL CURVE S

o 11'.- LAY"."'- &0

000

_1 ", '

I
.........
" ....... .
•
. ; I
. ...... . ' •
• I I• I 1 , I' •
'/
Figure 3-27
 POTASH

Potash (sylvite) can easily be distinguished from salt (halite) on gamma ray
logs and used as msrker beds in saline basins (Figure 3-28). These logs are
from two wells in the northern psrt of the Paradox Basin, Grand County, Utah.

As in glauconite, the radioactive isotope of potassium, K-40, accounts for

the high gamma response. The average K-40 content in naturally occurring
potassium is 0.0119~ as compared with 93.08% K-39 and 6.9% K-41, the stable
isotopes. .

Sylvite, being a dense rock like halite, shows a similsr response to other
dense rocks on the neutron log. Potash beds, therefore, cannot be confused
with radioactive shales or porous glauconitic sands when gamma ray and
neutron logs are used together.

17
 f\.~/;e H -'2.61 -70 ~Cf
M,tJ--'+\~ r"+1'01 #(
\
Gunu.

-~
: : t ~'.
, '- ......
!

..,
: ! : : 'r .
C., .
....• -.
I~. .
- .:._:_tll. ~ "
Figure 3-28
 VOLCANICS

Figure 3-29 shows the typical appearance of dense nonfractured basalt on an

electric log. The resistivity is very high and the S.P. departure low. The
S.P. curve also has the rounded, sluggish appearance which is a characteris-
tic of dense rocks.

Unfortunately, however, dense, nonfractured basalt represents but a small

portion of the total section of volcanics in many areas, and it is difficult,
if not impossible, to recognize most volcanic rocks by the electric log
alone. Pyroclastic deposits may run the whole gamut from dense rocks to
sands and shales depending upon size of particles, alteration and cementa-
tion, and flows may be sufficiently fractured or vesicular as to approximate
the appearance of fractured cherty shales, fractured or vugular limestone,
or conglomerates.

Consequently, unless the volcanics in a particular area are known to b~

solid flows, cuttings and core samples are essential for electric log inter-
pretation. A gamma ray log, if available, may also help considerably
because volcanic sediments normally show higher natural radioactivity than
other sediments. Hydrous silica or opal in vitrir. tuff may be identified
from the density log. (Figure 3-30).

Figure 3-31 shows an electric log very similar in character to Figure 3-29.
In this case, however, two of the highly resistive intervals are tar sands.
As explained on Page 19 and illustrated on Figure 3-32, a velocity log will
distingUish tar aands from dense basalt.

18
 7

VITRIC TUFF AND VOLCANIC SANDS

WEST SI DE COOK INLET! ALASKA

l' 1,' _
_t..l ...... , •.••••..•• J..l.~~~
.J ~ ....
BULK DENSITY

._.l,"---.....'!...._--..!,-L_ INTfRVAl TRANSfl TIME

_.,...c..,. ... 1OOf

l'O~lnl~~ 'OIl~JtU
...,tt..-oIto
I 'f$I$HVUY
....."'.-""1'"

\
Figure 3-30
 7 •
..

, .f- f-- I''': :: I" - ..- . 'I"

• \- f-
r
)
i

•
§
TOP OF
VOLCANICS

I}
i)' ..
., ~f>

,.
1/

I'

,
.
EOOEN E
VOLCAN lOS

WESTE RN
'1- f- f-
WASHIN GTON )

j ..
fi I-
I- H· 1- ~
-. 1- 1- I~ f> I~ H- ">
• ..
8

- f-f-

- -

100 MV +

Figure 3-29
,>'

SIIALLOW., UNCONSOLIDATED TAR AND GAS SANDS

As shown on Figure 3-32, continuous velocity logs are excellent for identi-
fying shallow tar sands and gas sands because of their abnormally low
velocities. In the tar sands the velocity approaches that of tar itself as
the sand grains in these loose sands are literally floating in tar. In the
unconsolidated gas sands, the low velocity is attributed to a combination
of compaction and the attenuation effect of gas bubbles in the pore sp~ces.

On the example, which is from Huntington Beach, California, A-C are shown by
the mud log to be tar sands and D-K are probably low productivity gas sands.

Similar low velocities have been noted in partially aerated sands at shallow
depths.

19
 E

.. ~ ." ....... .
( I
. (I :

J
!
1
'--~. - ---.-.-
/"

:', -:. - 'r<.. i ' , ,

1
-r'-~--.'

-+---- .. -. --. ~ I !
I ,., ,,' , .. I
i
TAR SAND
:· l(~,.~/ ''-:- I
J--

I
'

• I
--'-j

,
I
I, __
I. - ,
,
. i)
~
.-.
~ ,f.j,~--c'~..c.
-. ---
".
-,
r' .........
I) ':::!===-i

TA R SANDS
AND
, ,
VOLCANICS ~.' r':
T '~
-l-l---L--J..,!L.j-L

OXNARD AREA
CALIFORNIA

,-=

TAR SAND
--:- _.

-
•
;·-\' - - ~:;oi
., . -
! • . . •

t-- • •
§ .:·_, ', . ' ,I"
_ ~.",JOOI~_ '

, .... - . .'):
i ."
;
"I
I, . . . i" _____ _
(/)

u
," ,

z
'"' --- .
U
-I
o
c'"
1--

', ' , I
___ • • J
> , .

t ' --~

Figure 3-11
 r

"
~fSISTIVITY
ohmL ml/m
RESISTIVITY
ohnu, m"m
S'OHI AHIOUS·POIIHIIAt
mlillvoll. I --- HM,
,.---,
"".~~O"!!.A':!.:'
...... ~~ ..
10o
,

o •• J;:l .0 ' . . •• -. ,'~ '" '

--, ,
o· •• r;.' . ' ;+:~ '~.r! t:::P1,.,j .

...
• '. ~: I
Ie: ~
:0
l-
p ;
I
•
_. 1 ... "
'-
.-j----. f-I- .
F - ~-
~
I . '- H-
~ l- e-. .,.-
I
j
'il! - . .. k'
L I.
•
i I •~
0

!> 1 I I-
..
. 1- . • .
..

1-1"; .' 3·<· ... ' :l1 l- I--

I-'~ I- _. H - . ~
,
'.' I' 0 l.- .. 0
1-
.f-f- .'
! :.
. - v-
'I"'~ .
H. - I~' .
.
Po
. ,:\, _...L~ I .~
I
'- -
Figure 3-32
 7 •

MINERALIZED ZONE

Mineralized zones, which are commonly associated with volcanic dikes, can
sometimes be recognized on electric logs by unusually low resistivity and
erratic (usually negative) S.P. departure. The unusually low resistivity ia
caused by metallic conductivity of mineral veins and the S.P. is affected by
oxidation potentials.

On the example I-ES log, Figure 3-33, the mineralized zones are immediately
above and below a volcanic dike or sill at 9315'-9470', and at 9940'-9970'.
The lower zone may have been connected to the dike by a high angle fracture
or fissure •. The vein mineral primarily responsible for the metallic con-
ductivity in this well is pyrite, which was recovered in large amountS in
cuttings samples from the three zones.

The geologie significance is obvious because any oil accumulation predating

the dike or sill would be dissipated from the volume of sediments affected
by the intrusive.

20
 =

MINERALIZED ZONES

SPOHI AHf OUs-rO I f HIIAI RESIS11VITY CONDUCTIVITY

millivolt, ohms, mt/m milJimhos/m • ~;.;.1,09!.,.
tff40
o - - - " .. NOIM4l--20 "'OUClION
I
o

{- r

·1

I .,
,
J
.~----~.- _..... _--..
.r .
. ...
~

.-. -". -
i 1
. I
i, L
I

I '-')
I '1
I
I
+1',
··t··
[I .

. 11
I i
.L.~.l ~ ++-1#4. -_ .. ! .;....
I i l--l~-4----~----~----

j. .. ;--=-.

I ;

Figure 3-33
 1
1
1
--I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
BASEMENT ROCKS 1
1
1
The term "basement" usually denotes any igneous or metamorphic complex which 1
lies beneath the sedimentary section. Igneous basement rocks are usually II
referred to as "granitic basement" and the metamorphics are identified by
rock type, geologic age, or formation name like "Franciscan basement" in 1
California.
1
Solid granitic basement is easily recognized on electric logs, as shown on
Figure 3-34, but if the rock is deeply weathered or covered with a basal 1
conglomerate, or granite wash, containing large granitic boulders. a solid 1
core 20 feet or more in length may be required to distinguish true basement'
from overlying sediments. (Figure 3-35). 1
Metamorphic basement is usually not as well defined on electric logs because 1
these rocks are normally fractured and/or deeply weathered, resulting in a 1
secondary porosity which may equal or exceed the porosity of overlying sedi-
ments. For example, fractured schist normally resembles fractured, cherty 1
shale in electrical character and weathered serpentine may be indistinguish-
a~le from' argillaceous shale. Consequently, good lithologie information may
1
be necessary for electric log interpretation. If density and/or velocity 1
logs are available, however. top of basement is usually well defined because I
of the higher grain densities and matrix velocities of most metamorphiC
minerals compared with overlying sediments. (See Figures 3-14 and 3-36).

21
 .J ~ c> :J
1100

~
GRANIT Ie *F :::::
BASEME NT
f1
1101

TEJON A REA
CALIFOR NIA , il'
1400
f
~,..

- ~
=
f-
'"
1100
I'
! f-
f- f= ~

1600

)
'~

-
-
noo .

1&00

TOP OF
BASEMENT '''0

~.,><

2000

SPONTANIOU3 POTlNTlAL RESISTIVITY

50 ",nlivolt. + o ohms 1Il~ ~40

Figure 3-34
 o oRESISTIVITY
~I~ i-
CONDUGTIV
.q 1 1 100 .. ITY
11 _., 1 .. , . ' -+ +..... -0
) I - - - : :._tt.f!:H--
f.-I- -
- -.
T
f-
. Ii'-I-
,. -. I~t.: :. :l£bo' -'WQ
0
r. I - - ' : .', J;;: t-l00t-
__ -+ . II"'--?r;.J ,.' . \--,=.
,. \-,. -
- l-
. E' : . I~ -
-
" .! t;. f- ~ .

n • r•b r"'-
•
- I "
•. f-.f'" ..·t-tl-l-
I-< ~ - l-~
r.--..
-
-
..; - .-- L..i(...:J.,;1

- - H,'
-
- .. i 1< .... ~ .. _ _ I-
_ 1_ :.. ~~~I-l-~
--
-
f-. .-
" '. -- 1-1- rt
• -b" .10;.' • -".: - ,.. -
1-

I::~::.
I t-1i=tr+"':t.-j;J.,hl;';r- -1--:1-1- I<
r

f~' _I- -1--- _ ::, -. ~+-I- tr:

~
'-r-lC-'L
J
...-l_L. . "' _+r:+;:=Fil-+tll
(VV _1.1. r:;

I.·t~_l--·
I
-- ..... I J.: ~._.+.:.L --\--I- ...
1.1 .... -. - .. -+- •
. [-f.<..>'-.. -~ .:-~-,- -.~ -
.-i
-" .. -.... f--
- j;;; ~ __ j_:~I~
- l~ L- -
-
·1 . I.~t: I- _. l+-

I:tl-t~5'~ ~-,ttJ'·~t.:-1'1"~-tfl-~·~fi~:
I-
1-- ...
=t -1-11-' .: 'r
=t t
=
-::J
__
I }- _ ...
.. r,.' b. l-
" -- ~
. l- I--
+1-
~
I- " .. ~ - ·1-
-
-+ I. .

_ ._ .. f-.........-' I

.. '~~1- '~k j
1_"
.- . t,: ,".. .
-f-
I I
-
J . 1
UI.lln,··-t-J-±-tiii I
.1 _J .. 1.

0 -.... 1000
Figure 3-35
 if
"

-
-

>

1- '.
......
"

, --
- ,I-- '
.. ~~
.
,I;'.
-- ~
< '--
i ~
~ ~6

: "

~ ~'
r":::; , ,
~J=I'\;< "
J~
f'.
i ~ .. II

Figure. 3-36
'. -
. :~
-'.i

.,

\.

,- " .
,,
•. ,1 •••. _
. ~, .

-~-,

." ">.,
PART 4 :-, \-.
,',

" .-.,"
'~ 1; \-

STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATION . '-1

'- ~~;

FROM lOGS
.'

. -,'.11 f '7,.':. : _.'t.: .

.,
 STEEP DIPS

The effect of moderately steep dips on an electric log is an apparent

thickening of equivalent intervals when compared with a log showing a normal
section with low dips. If the dips are very steep, 50° or more, other
effects become apparent as shown on Figures 4-1 to 4-4. In a thinly bedded
section with contrasting resistivity (bedding anisotropy), the resistivity
curves become rounded and flatten out because the depth of current penetra-
tion may include several beds, causing horizontal bed thickness effects in
addition to the vertical effects which are dependent upon the ratio of bed
thickness to electrode, or coil, spacing. In thick beds with relatively
uniform resistivity and little or no permeability (no invasion effect),
intervals of steep inhole dips may be detectep by the effects of micro-
anisotropy. A microanisotropic formation is one which is more conductive
(less resistive) parallel to the bedding than normal to the bedding. Any
formation with a preferred grain orientation parallel to the bedding will be
electrically anisotropic, but shales and shaly siltstones will normally
exhibit this property to the highest degree.

The effect of steep dips in an anisotropic shale section is most apparent on

the induction-electrical (IES) log as shown on Figure 4-3. The radial, 3-
dimensional current pattern for a short, 2-electrode spacing like that of
the 16" normal results in a resistivity value greater than that parallel to
the bedding but less than that normal to the bedding, and this resistivity
value does not ch&nge appreciably with radical dip changes because of the
predominance of the hole effect on a non-focused short spacing system. The
current circulation which produces the induction log is in horizontal loops
around the hole, and the hole effect is negligible because of the focusing
coils in the system. Therefore, ~.a shale section, the 16" normal will
usually show a higher resistivity than ths induction curve where the inhole
dip is less than 40°. Depending upon the anisotropy ratio (RN/RP), the
curves will cross when the inhole dip is between 40° and 60°, and above 60°
the induction curve will show a higher resistivity because the current loops
must now travel obliquely across the bedding.

The response of the IES log opposite thin resistive beds may also provide a
clue to the amount of dip. If the dips are low, the induction and short nor-
mal curves will indicate approximately the same apparent bed thickness, and
if the bed is uniform, the peak values of the two curves will occur at
essentially the same depth. However, with steep dips the bed thickness is
exaggerated, particularly by the induction device because it has a much
greater lateral investigation. Also, the peaks on the two curves usually
occur at different depths with the normal curve characteristically deeper.
The average dip of the intervals shown· on Figure 4-4 is between 65° and 70°.
In beds A, B, C, and D, the induction curve indicates greater apparent
thickness than the short normal, and at Band E, the normal curve reaches a
peak value about two feet deeper than the induction.

Anisotropic effects on the conventional electric log, which is a combination

of 2 and 3-electrode systems with different spacings, are not as apparent in
low dip section·s as they are on the. IES log. Although the longer spacings
are affected more by the horizon,tal component, the difference is usually too

1
 r •

small to be detected readily in long shale intervals. However, when the dip
exceeda 50 0 in thick shale or shaly siltstone intervals, the longer spacing
will show higher resistivities than the short normal with the separation
increasing with the dip as shown on Figure 4-2. High dip effects on the
conventional electric log are described in detail with an excellent example
of a long interval in Geological Item of Interest 096 by Mr. H. E. Nagle,·
W.O.I., which was distributed in July, 1964.

Conditions other than steep dips which may cause similar relationships
between the resistivity curves are mud saltier than the formation water,
particularly in large holes, and hydrocarbon saturation in oil shales like
the Green River. in Utah and Wyoming.

2
 I

"
'-,-r-
i-~ - ,- , __ I==> ~ f'.'f-:- __ -,-- "

i
,-

INTERVAL THICKENING
.. .. FROM
HOLE DEVIATION AND DIPPING BEDS

i
\I"
- 0;,

i
I " ,~Ja '" I - , I -\-

i -
-
"
I
, ' "

I .: .
"
..
'" .
.. "

i I--

~'"

.- ..
1--/-,

i
"
H- ,
I-
/

Figure 4-1
 - '-r
t -I-f-i--
5100
:
)
1- '\
I- I-~t-o 01+
STEEP DIPS

ELK HI LLS

CALIFORNIA

I,,,, '
\
I-

) 1-1-1--
/--1-

I-f- C'-
I-
I ' 11-'
, 1+-
I-
."

I-

100 MV +
sMa
I- 1-·
S.P. Curve Of
Equivalent Section
1-1-
With Low Dip ••
ltoo

6.,.

X l-t-
H- \ I- ,--l-4 t- .~

Figure 4-2
 'p T
,
j

INDUCTION LOG SIIIFT

CAUSED BY STEEP DIPS

IES DIP

16100

IES
80
14000

"
<',
," '"~
"~

"
.'<

IES DIP
90

i
{
,f
'..
•
;1-
..
.,
'H/f"", >f
STEEP DIP BED TIIICKNESS AND BED DISPLACEMENT EFFECTS

A
c..
B
~~
~~~

:::::;:::;~;~ ~
~
--
---
C .. -"......... 6FF40
16" Normal

-----
D ,,---

E -~
c. _____ _

Figure 4-4
 I
'c' ,

"")
:j 'J
<~l
,

UNCONFORMITIES

·Recognition of unconformities usually requires careful correlation of two

or more logs, good age dating by paleontology or palynology to estabish a
hiatus, and dips from cores or dipmeter computation to identify the feature
as a dis conformity or an angular unconformity.

Figure 4-S shows an excellent example of truncation beneath an angular

unconformity and an onlap sand above the unconformity. Many of the better
stratigraphic traps were formed in this way. Consequently, recognition of
unconformities, end angular unconformities in particular, is one of the
first objectives in regional correlation •

. .

3
 I1;lillT"~'
· . I
g
ONLAP AND UNCONFORMITY
,j !" I I
1 1.-,', i ..J. .. f-

rrij-R~-IH".... /'
-j;

- - ..

(64" normal
I: t
j
. /, f -
l L~' _
not shown)
/ ":'1 .. '
! ... .•. ::~'-
I",
I:
. i
-·/-.1-
1::..1- ~
\I ..:. -. ./-[- i " -
-0 ••• -1-- I--
I 4 •• I . i .- - - -!--
: :ENTRADA SS -_.
:':l~l-'
: . _ CARMEL SH _
,:". . ~
•
'.........:.. ~LJ:,Un-
'.:...:1 •
.•.. ,i1l::{:: .'x'.
••••••••• , •••• i ...............•
•••• ,
••••••••••••1 •••• ••••••• ttL' • ••••••••
t ••• t •••••
0"1
t. 0 NLAP'_t.'-.' .•
-
•
,
\ •••••••• '••• It ..... .t ... "T' . . . . . . . . . . -0. • • •
tf ..-~.
~'''::I······''·
.•••• NUGGET SSt ••••••• 10
.. '.,', ....:: ...
:,t\', ° to' ': 0 .of:. ': ....................
fl.J.~
'-~' + 1·-
~
- - ..
::::.1
·····r·····
• • • • • • • • • •····t·~·
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •'1'

':.·::.· ..:,i/p.R ~~
I

• • •.••••
•
••••••
~f , •••••• ," ' : . '''i.' 'r ,", 'o'
......
•••• 4 •••• i•• / . " •••"i! •••• , . , ••••(;.. •.!\ -,-
, "
••••••.•••

.
I J..l.

tt'0 m\C'" ~L
-"
~O"
/"
"
t: ;' ..
./,

j.~" r- /
H-- l-
i = ..
" --
~'L
- ,
~:-'r"Vl-' . I·

~ :l'+ ~ . - .
!-"t.. ·
."
~: LYKINS FM.
1.-.. --L .. I--

:·c·. R- I-~ -1-

~.~:~-
/ .... ~ - -
; .. I .-~ - -.~ - -"
-+_ --

l :; ~
oL ' ,,-
1- -- + -
"'-t-" -~--

.
' .. ,,'
:- . -

,
• "t- - ."'
'. ' . .., "

• .:.l.

1
--,-, -
.~.­
f- f-. -:
--- •. ,
1----
I· -
~
- ~ ..

v,.
DENVER BASIN
COLORADO ~ WYOMING

Figure 4-5
"J

..

NORMAL FAULTS

Missing section on an electric log when compared with logs from nearby wells
may be indicative of normal faulting. Because of the continuous record,
provided by electric logs, many more such faults can now be recognized and
defined than was possible when drillers' logs and core records and cuttings
were the only material available for detailed correlation. However, as was
pointed out in the section o~ correlation, electric logs by themselves may
be misleading. Many workers have become "fault happy" by disregarding the
possibilities of rapid facies changes and/or unconformities. Erroneous
fault interpretations can usually be avoided if the regional and local
lithologic relationships are studied in conjunction with the correlation of
electric logs. To this end, all faunal evidence and core and cuttings
records should be assembled and plotted on the logs. '

Figure 4-6 shows a good example of correlations based on recognition of

lithologic units and log character to define a missing interval. Note the
absence of the Timpas limestone on the log to the left.

Disturbed and unusual fluid relationships associated with faulting may also
be recognized on electric logs, particularly if the fault has a strike-slip
component, S8 shown on Figure 4-7.

4
 NORMAL FAULTING
, -- -- 8
,-

,- .. ._-
. -

IWtl s . I~

I· i 'f-I?

~~ t"J.r~I·~~i~
§ NIOBRARA NIOBRARA

I-f· . NOTE THICKENING

ON DOWNTHROWN SIDE

.D "•
(). CaRR CaRR

CaRR CaRR
__ "_'-1.."; ~
TIMPAS '"
CaDELL i':-'. ,:.!)
CARLILE_I-
~ TIMPAS
~
TIMPAS
CaDELL --II:'ift~, _ CaDELL
CARLILE CARLILE
§
-

1-· j._- .-.-

\- .
GREENHORN
GREENIlOHll

GRANEROS-

1-1-· GRANEROS

PIERCE FIELD
, DENVER BASIN
COLORADO

Figure- 4-6
.1

.~.- .
, f

:l ~/
UNUSUAL FLUID 1100
-r- . - - .......,-t-t--
-t-'rt-
+-+-
-_.
RELATIONSHIP I.- -I -.j- ... ..' +-t-
F ..., ,,' .... --1-+ +-
-I- .....
.1.. ,.
'Ol_-;-...!.--'+-.
_ .:,...-+-.
RESULTING FROM 1-"+ . , ..... ,--
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT 1600
r- 't- t- ... '. t-.,...,... ,
1. 1"·· .•.•. • -;.
, . -.-
--1 -_ - ...... ,."

..
I· t·, . . . . -~-
" ."--
, ,..... ...,-
.. ~ , •. . .•• i . t - . t -
· . t-.~~, ....... , ~-!.­
I··t· ."lj/f.- . , ... -_
noD
SALT CREEK AREA i I.~-t- .•• ,-. -
I~!, J.::. .: L;':::;:"
CYMRIC FIELD .~-l ... : ... & - -
CALIFORNIA '.· !~ii~$L
.
""'.j- -::t
__ ..l-.--y_
..~
-4- .
~

'Ok\--
..
..
-
- I-
-:~
- ...
-~.-+
-,-
_-:-'--+ .....-
t· r- .
- f-- .-

IUO

WATER
OIL

tlOO

noD
-
~

. ,,-
~..,
....... _.
•
• . t • , • • .. ..
1-io.· ... · I · · .. •·
I .. -
I ....... -
100 MV + 0 ohm. mV.. 'to

Figure 4-7
 REVERSE FAULTING AND OVERTURNING

Repetition of section by reverse faulting and/or overturning may sometimes

be recognizable on electric logs, particularly if good dip information and
faunal records are available. Approximate similarity of character, though
indicative of repetition, is not by itself sufficient criteria for reverse
faulting or overturning. However, when abrupt changes in amount or direc-
tion of dip and/or unusual faunal relationships are noted, the electric log
may be used to define the structural feature. Recommended practice for
recognizing repeated section is to obtain two copies of the electric log and
compare detail by superimposing one interval over the other on a light table,
making allo~18nce for differences in amount of dip. If overturning is sus-
pected, one of the logs should be turned upside down. Character similarity
which might otherwise be missed sometimes becomes readily apparent when
duplicate logs are used in this manner.

Figure 4-8 shows the effects on an rES log in a deviated hole which crossed
the axis of a tight anticlinal fold. The inhole dip changed from 26 0
right-side-up to '76 0 overturned in the interval 4160'-4260'. The normal
anisotropic effect which causes separation between the 16" normal and the
induction curves disappears at about 4200' as.the dip. approaches 90 0 where
the well crossed the anticlinal axis. Below that depth the beds are all
overturned with respect to the hole and the inhole thickness is increased
about ~ times by the steep dips as shown by the interval between the con-
ductive beds A and B.

Figure 4-9 shows an interval repeated by a thrust fault with a 150' interval
of drag folding in the fault zone. The steep dips in the fault zona are
indicated by the.cross~over of the resistivity curves as explained in the
discussion on steep dips.

Figure 4-10 shows a sand twice repeated by a possible combination of over-

turning and high angle reverse faulting. The vertical line on the right
represents a well 330' away in which only the lower occurence of this sand
was found. Faunal evidence and dip information, though meager, agree with
the picture as drawn. A similar break thrust structure is shown on Figure
4-11 except that, in this case, the overturned beds are below the fault.
Figures 4-12 and 4-13 illustrate the effect of a high angle reverse fault on
an overlying thick salt section. The structural movement was absorbed by
the salt in diapir type folds draping over. the fault scarp. Repetition of
thin shale markers by overturning is clearly shown on the Gamms-Sonic log
of part of the salt interval by comparing a right-side-up copy with one
turned upside down.

A unique application of a velocity log used for the location of a fault ·zone
is illustrated on Figure 4-14. The well crossed a rev'erse fault where
Cambrian carbonates were thrust over Cretaceous sandstone. The abrupt
change in velocity plus the abnormslly low velocity at 3625'-40', which
probably reflects a gouge or crushed zone, definitely locate the fault. The
velocity log of this example is a single receiver log which is now largely
replaced by two receiver logs.

5
 •
Application of a focused wall resistivity log and'caliper in locating a
, fault ia shown on Figure 4-15. The fault zone around 7700' was brecciated
1 causing the hole to erode beyond the range of the caliper. That a fault
was responsible for the brecciation was, of course, proven by other meana.

6
 .. ..--,- , -~-.,
~.:-~~
•
, • I
,",'.
"
,
"
, ) 23'
.,", ',--, " STEEP DIPS AND
, OVERTURNED BEDS
J
: 19' . '
"

, 2~'

, -/s,

79'

,
,J ,
,
,

, ,
,
,
-J'r
,

52'

,, ,.
.1
:'
1
r,t
t- t 1- it =t-jj~:
"t..i.'
' 1 " " " 'j')
!- ,.-."" '-t r' r . '1 +'t . " -e-r

~
~. t ;·;L ~1l:.HT' Ii·: ~'"
till'f ""j'
, • 1 .• ~. I ,-~ "t,.l,-I-'--
,
, .-1 'j t '
I ,
"
.I
,
. I- r ' 'i-
-' -I' . +-- '! ; .•
,,-., .. r-.
,,I , ; , " .
, I
,-
'--/
I
! ;
I 1 i.' I'Ll
o
o
I I ,j ,
I :
: , / I
jO 1000

'00 1000
III:
~
- : ,
o
1000

~
- r"1 +

RESISTIVITY CONDUCTIVITY Figure 4-8

SPONTANfOUS-POTfNTlAl
millivolts
'---'-'
I ohm •• m'/m mllllmho./m. ~
 , ~)

I \........

REVERSE FAULTING
_.,-
- r-.
-, I

;
,

a
--
, b
..- ,-
-- c
i - -d
-
~
-- - Note uSe of short normal for
-- correlation. Correlations
a, b, c, and d show bed repe-
R~N
,
,
-- <
tition from reverse faulting.
Correlation is based entirely

~
H

,
-- - on electrical resistivity
character.
,r.. ,
• -
,
pO:-
o a
..
--
-- I
b
-
f-
,
-
- - ,c
- -- d
I
-
-- I
I

LARAMIE BASIN
WYOMING

Figure 4-9
 :..: - ~ ., -
,
- ll- -. 1::- -----. " I t--

600

~ 1'\
A
- ~--
..
REPETITION OF
100
SECTION BY = - .

· -~
OVERTURNING AND -
.
REVERSE FAULTING 800
B
·
·

SALT CREEK AREA -

SOD
CYMRIC FIELD ·

CALIFORNIA

1000
= - .-
t--
:::
-
-
-
-
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Fi g u r e 4 10
 REPETITION OF SECTION BY REVERSE
FAULTING AND OVERTURN
S.E. DURANT AREA BRVAN CO. OKLA,

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Figure 4-11
 . ,
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SOC . .1. TJOS,Rll£ S.c. I- TJOS!RI4-E
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'ON F'OLLOWING PLA TE

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TD~'

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I

10,110 LEADVILLE , OURAY

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ZOOO i
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1500 I
) 1000 SCALE
~

0 0 0 LISBON ANTICLINE:
500 8 SAN JUAN COUNTY UTAH
~
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Figure 4-12
 I! I I'" ,I,,·, I ',I
ii~;;:.
TOP rRONT
., 'I' d IHlHHII'

III JI':, , ;; II !.
!tllH44+11'
79
I

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INVENTED TO SHOW
_I ft

E.XAMPLE. or REPEATED AND OVERTURNED BEDS REPETITION or 0,

AND 02 SHAUS.
ON GAMMA-SONIC LOG
 THRUST FAULT EXPRESSION

j
~) ON VELOCITY LOG
• ROCKY MOUNTAINS
~ 8 TRAVEL TIME IN SECONDS

.~,
5: ~ I
T ~ T ~
INTERVAL TIME fOR
~
!.p~
~ T
f£ET IN IMlCROSECONOS
~T
',iO

i~I~~~~I+~~~~~~~~~~~~,~~,~~,~,~g~~~~~~,~·I'~~~,~~.~4r~~~.~+~~.~~rll
. INTERVAL VELOCITY IN THOU~ANOS or fEET PER SECOND I

o
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Figure 4-14
 HOLE ENLARGEMENT IN
FAULT ZONE
Hicrocaliper NicroLaterolog

BELDEN FM.

na
A reverse fault was found
in this well. The fault
zone around 7700 feet was
brecciated and developed
marl(ed hole enlargement as
indicated by the Micro-
caliper.

MINTURN FM.

GYPSUM BASIN
, COLORADO

Figure 4":15
:j~
STRUCTURAL INTERPRETATIONS FROM DIPMETER DATA
~1

Since the early forties computed dips and strikes from dipmeter logs have
been used with core dips to'determine structural trends and establish the
position of a particular well with regard to local structure. Until
recently the computations were used individually or averaged over short
intervals in the same way that core dips had been used in the past.

The detail now available from modern continuous dipmeter surveys is best
handled by statistical analysis techniques. Several different approaches
are used with the resultsnt display determined by the type of problem.
Regional structure, unconformities,and stratigraphic detail, such as cross
bedding, require statistical averaging techniques like those used in the
MDSTR (Mean Dip'and Strike) computer program. This program averages dip and
dip azimuth data vectorially and the results are usually displsyed in a sim-
ilar fashion to thst shown on Figures 2-18 to 2-22 in Psrt 2 of this manusl.
The vector averaging technique is described in detail in a report entitled
"MDSTR Program for Computing Vectorial Averages of Dip and Dip Azimuth," by
L. R. Litsey in the report on the March, 1965, Formation Evaluation
Committee Meeting.

The statistical approach for detailed structural analys1S of dipmeter data

requires several types of plots which are obtained from the SCAT (Statistical
Curvature Analysis Techniques) computer programs developed by C. A. Bengston
of Chevron Research. The displays which can now be automatically plotted
from the computer output are shown on Figure 4-16. The six kinds of geo-
logical surfaces which can be interpreted from SCAT plots are shown on
Figure 4-17. The type of curvature is deduced from Dip vs. Azimuth plots
like those shown on Figure 4-18.

The objectives of the SCAT progrsms are:

1. To determine the structural dip as accurately as posaible at as many

places as possible along the well bore.

2. To locate and identify geometric singularities, i.e., faults, uncon-

formities, crestal planes, axial planes, and inflection planes.

3. To orient structural elements, i.e., find the bearing and plunge of

crestal lines and dip and strike of axial planes.

4. To determine the geometric properties of the region near the well bore,
i.e., to identify regions of anticlinal and synclinal curvature, dis-
tinguish between prolate and oblate curvature and conformal and
disharmonic structural style.

5. To account for the effect of stratigraphic convergence on structural

change with depth.

7
 '~- . ..:.-.

l C C-.J

AZIMUTH DIP
.. '"
180' 0 lBO' 0 45' 90'
• I~\' •
90'
L T 90' ", CF.

• • .~ ••
I I
I I
I I I
l- • I I
ll.
W
l· -oD.. • !.....WbJ·
I •
o
~ • • 180' 270' 0 90' lBO'
AZIMUTH

j. •
• •
DIP-COMPONENT DIP-COMPONENT
A A' +90' 0 -90' +90' -90'
~ i=::=-~,_ _ ___ (--!---
I
I- ••
I Jfl. I
~
____ •___ 11.
I W
------
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I
J
o •
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J
• f

,
J
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"'l
..... ,
•
----- •
00

".... ,
J
• • • •
.0-
CROSS SECTION LONGITUDINAL
...
f TRANSVERSE
DIRECTION DIRECTION
'"
VECTOR AND GRAPH-TYPE DISPLAYS OF DIPMETfR DATA
 SIX KINDS OF OEOL. SURFACES

HOMOCL/NE
(No Curyafure)
D;r~lionol
No CllrytlllU'l
NON- PLUNGI NG
CYLINDI2ICAL
/,,-),,'--£);r«-II"'" til
I=""OL D (Si,,[ZW'tI) M4.rimllm
L-L-LL
ClIry.;tllre.

I:~) PLUNGING
CYL/ND12ICA
rOLD
(Sinp'v )
CUrYH

PLUNGING
CONICAL ':-OLD
(Sinp1v Curwrl)

5ADDLE
(Doublfl Curn.t/)

DOME (orBd5/o)
(DDU6'1p Cl.lrV~d)

Figure 4-17
 ~~~~~~-----
~-~---~~- ~-----

l
r
c ~

~J
90 90

4 "-
•
• •
•
• • •
• • •
45~ . .'0'
••
•
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:'0·· •
..• , :
•
I · ••
• •• .~ ..... 01 • I • I G····I.·~ I 0
• • ••

180 270 0 90 180 180 270 0 90 180 180 210 0 90 180

ZERO DIP LOW DIP POINT PATTERN
(DIP< 50!) (HOMOCLiNAL DIP)

,T ,T 90, ,T JT 90, , T
90 I
.

•• •
;~ ..:1 .
45 l- .
•
• 45 451-
I' •
• -.
• •

o I.-
0

• t.
I
•
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~2'\'
I· ·;..-t·11'· •
lao 270 o 90 180 180 270 0 90 180 faD 210 0 90" 180
....'"
00
RAILROAD TRACK HORSESHOE CHRISTMAS TREE
....,..
...c (NON-PLUNGING fOLD) (PLUNGING FOLD) (DOUBLE CURVATURE)

..,...
I

THE SIX VAliD DIP vs AZIMUTH PATTERNS

 ,,'

. ~ ;

,',
1:_"

,
",
";,,'

, , . ".' " , ,

~. ',':
PART 5 :,\ '. ~ . t~ "

" "

HYDRODYNAMICS AND ABNORMAL

,.,
PRESSURE EFFECTS

.~l_

.\'

,,,~~.,
,
..i..!

~', Ir
.. l' ': ~~
.:\
.'"
J
: -:,
, -~
,..

-;,c., 'j. -

, "

,. '
,,'-

-,,,,:"'- , , ' .,'.;, .1,

I'
, '

"
" -,,,,,._,",,,.
'-,"

, ".
 \f r ; 1

,',. I
I

TRANSITION FROM .FRESH WATER TO SALT WATER

The normal character of an electric log run through the fresh water-salt 1
water interface is shown on Figure 5-1. The transition zone on this exam-
pIe extends from approximstely 1150' to 1550' • 1
In a sand-shale section the resistivity curves and tha S.P. curve will show
opposite effects if all of the sands are wet. The resistivity curve will 1
show high contrast in the fresh water sands and the S.P. curve will show ,r
high contrast in the salt water sands. The transition zone will always be I
I
gradational on the resistivity curves because of the changing water salinity
in both sands and shales, but the S.P. curve will normally show a step-like
pattern as on the example. The S.P. opposite the fresh water sands will be
positive if the formation water is fresher than the mud, as in this case.
1
and will change from positive to negative in the transition zone. Shifts in
the shale base line of the S.P. curve may be caused by either a change in 1
the shale mineralogy or changing salinity in a sand between two shale inter-
vals. In a continuous shale interval as at 1450'-1550' the S.P. will not
change with the change in water salinity shown by the resistivity curves. 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
:1

1
 - .. - -
1000
- . -- -AO -10'
-- ::- -
TRANSITION -.-
ZONE .'
Ali= 20'
I- i-<
1100
FROM FR ESH TO .AK/= 16"
.- -
SALTY WATERS ".

NO rE
RM "3.4 0 H M - M REV£,RSAL
.
." . -- .
.'
OF SP
AT GO°F 1100

100~V
-- -

HUNTINGTON
1300
BEACH

CALI fORN/A

1100

+.- - O-JO OHAI-AI

1100

Figure 5-1
 ,
I J
I ,~

IIYDRODYNAMIC EFFECTS

Partial flushing of a deep sand reservoir by meteoric waters is shown on

Figure 5-2. The decreasing resistivity in the downward direction in this
sand could be ascribed to increasing porosity with a resultant decrease in
formation factor. decreasing hydrocarbon saturation. or increasing water
salinity. The Sonic log eliminates the first cause. and the second was
ruled out by the complete absence of hydrocarbon shows on the mud log and
in sidewall cores·. Positive evidence to support the third cause is pro-
vided by the shift in the S.P. shale base line between the top and base of
the sand. Calculations of water resistivity from the S.P. curve check
calculations from the resistivity and velocity curves. The salinities
from those calculations are about 200 GIG in the top of the sand and 500
GIG near the base.

An unusually deep fresh water aquifer is shown on Figure 5-3. The sand-
stone in the interval 12.980'-13.085' is apparently continuous to the
surface outcrop on the north slope of the Brooks Range, whereas the sands
with negative S.P. and low resistivity in the interval 12.700'-12,800' are
not continuous. Calculations indicate a salinity of about 200 GIG in the
lower sand interval compared with about 1600 GIG in the upper sands.

2
 i 1

,.

, , . I L
~.:.: _: .. .:
\
'-
=._.- ::::- :- ~~-." '-"--··-·1
-.:~:~~ 1
•
8
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0

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·1

... -

<",

.\ ...
, I"

"
! I::
o
200 2000 1000
,-..La-
INDUCTION 100 50

-1-1+
1iL--_._----._._---.l.Q '~O ISO
10 o 200
•.... ·--lH~T»" .. - · . , .
SPONT AHEOUS·POlENlIAl RESISTIVITY CONDUCTIVITY INTERVAL TRANSIT TIME
millivolt. ohm.-m'/m - millimhos/m - ~ MlCa<»KONOI 'U fOOt

Figure 5-2
 FRESII WATER AQUIFER

/
'- '

'"o..,
o

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I :-------:--
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•• I' ~ -
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r .,Ilj
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•
, I , !;~-'~""I •

,--) i . ~ ;-: ::: .. _~_J: : :)'\)~ . _i.~ I_Ii I i! "

I I ' I' .' I' 'I
_ ,_ t.
......L_...:.---'.-L'.:.,'~
. ../' I
I
I! ; ! ! I

Figure 5-3
 r

r-'
!
ABNORMAL PRESSURE EffECTS ON WELL LOGS

During the last few years pressure effects on well logs have received con-
siderable attention from log analysts. This interest has been stimulated by
both geologists and drilling engineers. Geologists are primarily interested
in the origin of abnormal pressures and the relationship to hydrocarbon
accumulation and entrapment, whereas drilling engineers are looking at the
problem of mud weight control when drilling into high pressure zones. A
study group was recently selected by Mr. K. H. Crandall for a Corporation-
wide survey of abnormal formation pressures, and their work to date indicates
exploratory applications may be more widespread than was formerly realized.

The discussion and examples in this manual will be limited to the more
obvious effects of abnormal pressures on resistivity, velocity, and density
which can be readily recognized on well logs. For more complete coverage,
a seli!Cted biblio.graphy is appended.

The effect of increasing depth on shale resistivities with a normal hydro-

static pressure gradient is a gradual increase as porosity is decr~ased by
compaction, if the shale mineralogy and formation water salinity do' not
change appreciably. A sudden increase in formation pressure at the top of
an abnormal pressure zone will reverse the resistivity trend because the
fluid pressure supports part of the load and maintains a higher than normal
porosity. Figure 5-4 shows the abrupt change from the normal Gulf Coast
shale resistivity gradient down to 4940' to one of decreasing resistivity
below that depth. In this area and others on the Texas and Louisiana Gulf
Coast, the shale resistivity gradients are sufficiently uniform to permit
quantitative calculations of formation pressure and pressure gradient and
thereby provide positive mud weight control for drilling into high pressure
zones.

Similar pressure effects in shale intervals are common in the Cretaceous "E"
and "F" zones in the Sacramento Valley in California, as shown on Figure
5-5. The effect on the velocity log is very similar to thst on the resis-
tivity because both logs are responding primarily to the changes in shale
porosity. A plot of recorded pressures on tests in this well at 3890',
5397', and 6035' indicate the formation pressure gradient departs from
normal hydrostatic at about 3500' and extrapolates to about 0.9 psi/ft at
7400'. The extrapolation indicates an increase of about 3 psi/ft in the
interval 7300'-7400', where the most abrupt change is observed on the logs.
Quantitative interpretation from logs, like that conducted on the Gulf
Coast, is limited because of vertical and lateral changes in shale miner-
alogy and formation water salinity.

The density log can also be used to locate abnormal pressures in shale
intervals if the mineralogy is fairly uniform. However, grain densities in
shales may vary from about 2.2 gm./cc. in an opaline shale to about 2.75
gm./cc. in a chlorite-mica clay shale. The mineralogy must, therefore, be
checked before considering pressure effects. Figure 5-6 shows an example
of a plot of shale densities from cuttings samples compared with a density

3
 log in a high pressure zone. This shale density plot is now part of the mud
logging service offered by Baroid and has been used successfully for mud
weight control on the Gulf Coast where shale mineralogy is uniform.

References

Dickinson, George, 1953, Geological Aspects of Abnormal Reservoir Pressures

in Gulf Coast Louisiana, AAPG Bulletin, Vol. 37, pp. 410-432.

Hottman, C. E., and Johnson, R. K., 1965, Estimation of Formation Pressures

From Log-Derived Shale Properties, Jour. Pet. Tech., June.

MacGregor, J. R., 1965, Quantitative Determination of Reservoir Pressures

from Conductivity Log, AAPG Bulletin, Vol. 49, pp. 1502-1511.

Wallace, W. E., 1965, Abnormal Subsurface Pressures Measured from Conductivity

or Resistivity Logs, SPWLA Transactions, Vol. 2, May, and Log Analyst,
Feb.-March, 1965, pp. 26-38.

)
'-...--.

4
 '-':--r"l.-

~"-, ~
'=1,
;1'i ' :;:t:t:t - ;~.','
a-

Induction (O~lO ohm sz.>i'.l·~I~i~I~'i·IIIClon!diuct1Vity

__.J~ ABNORMAL PRESSURE EFFECT

mmm If-
ON RESISTIVITY
TEXAS GULF COAST

16" ~orm'l (0-10 'C;11~11>'e!)11Ilri"!til;~I~!0!-[2

ohm
a-
~
Fr'~,
olua .cale)

i ~~ .,_. Sh~i;.
.::) I-_jrt,"--,:--,,'~-=---=I
__ (.72-1.0 ohms) thrC>Ullh
resistivity increaaea Vith depth

psi/_ft.) ~rad1ent
"nomal" (.lUi5
interval.
I'~ , "11-;'- - ,
~
,jf-

' ..

,
- -.-~

\-H-J-H ~-
0:.. -'
60' (max.
Top of "Super-normal Preuure"at 494(>1-
shale r..istiv1ty l.~ ohm.)
I

-
-
-
- -
I
- -
-

- ~ - ,I: - ~ ~ -
I

- -
Shale resistivity decreAaCI and rerna.lna
low 1n high pres8 ure interval, gradient
this example i.e 68·.92 psi/ft.
i
- -
.
-
-
I
.- ..
-
- - -
- -- .
I Figure 5-4
•
 ABNORMAL PRESSURE EFFECT ON RESISTIVITY AND VELOCITY
SACRAMENTO VALLEY , CALIFORNIA

r , SPONTANEOUS- POIlHlIAl
millivolt, ~
RESISTIVITY
ohm •. mt'm
CON Due lIVITY
milllmhos/m ...... ~ ~
INI111VAl T.AN~ll
~
.. 4' ..... _4. ,.' lu,

'f " I, \' J,

!.. ".,,,
liMo!

-I~I+
~
~
Uo" NO.IJML -'=
,., ..." "D\I".... . I ,~o
,,~
\ ,~..,
"'S • .

. ,-
1' ..... - . .........- -
).
~.

,
1Htl'IJC1lOH '&f;' ...........

,~

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1-1- _. ..
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+- -

-
- E
-
1-
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1- ~ -f--I-
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.
l.-:~
1- f---

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~~~ 1
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rf:; to< -f--
1-1=..
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I
Figure 5--5

----,"--~- '----.-~ .-
--..... - '

SHALE DENSITY PLOT COMPARED WITH DENSITY LOG

TEXAS GULF COAST

-
-p ______ , ____ ..tJ
C(>rtJI(CIIO"

8Uu< DINSITV

1- I

I _I-"f -

I ~ !~sth~al1e~cfutlt l~ngt-.~De'n~.~itY
inud logge!')
(eveq 30' by

~ C~.l1per I

I~
Figure 5-6
 Geologic Interpretation From Well Logs
.Eocky Mountain Log Supplement

Known Logs

Figure 1-3
-~
top; sw/se/sw, 3-T9N-R79W, Conoco Oil, #5~pollock, Jackson
County, Colorado (McCallum Field).

middle; ne/se/ne, 20-TlON-R79W, Lion Oil Company, #1 Eva,

Jackson County, Colorado (McCallum Field) .

bottom; sw/nw/ne, 22-TlON-R79W, Monsanto Corp., #1 Perkins,

Jackson County, Colorado (McCallum Field).

Figure 1-4

left; se/se, l5-TSN-R66W, California oil Company, #1 Vernable,

Weld County, Colorado (Pierce Field).

right; nw/se, 27-TSN-R66W, California Oil Company, #1 Jennings,

Weld County, Colorado (Pierce Field) .

Figure 1-7

left; nw/se, 27-TSN-R66W, California Oil Company, #1 Jennings,

Weld County, Colorado (Pierce Field) .

right; se/sw, 23-TSN-R66W, California Oil Company, #4 Priddy,

Weld County, Colorado (pierce Field).

Figure l-S; se/se/ne, l4-T3S-RS5W, California Oil Company,

#1 Benton Land and Livestock Company, Routt County,
Colorado.

Figure 1-9; nw/ne, l3-T14SN-R9SW, California Oil Company,

#1 Rough Creek Federal, McKenzie County, North Dakota.

Figure 2-2; sw/nw/se, l-T26N-R90W, Sinclair oil Company,

#35-B Wertz, Sweetwater County, Wyoming (Wertz Field) •

Figure 2-5; sw/ne/nw, 14-T27N-R113W, California Oil Company,

#1 Birch Creek, Sublette County, Wyoming (Birch
Creek Field) •

Figure 2-7; c/ne/se,13-T7S-R23E, California Oil Company, #35 Redwash,

Unitah County, Utah (Red Wash Field) .
 Figure 2-8, ne/se/nw, 19-T29N-Rl14W, Belfer Natural Gas, 143-19G,
Sublette County, Wyoming.
Figure 2-12
left; ne/nw, 7-T32N-R85W, Seaboard Oil Company, 11 Olds-Skiles,
Natrona County, Wyoming (Grieves Field) •
middle; ne/se', 17-T32N-R85W, Forest Oil Comapny, 145 Govt. 17-1,
Natrona County, Wyoming (Grieves Field)~
right; seIne, 18-T32N-R85W, True 9il Company and Mule Creek
Oil Company, 141-18 Dumbel1, Natrona County, Wyoming
(Grieves Field) •
Figure 2-13
left; ne/nw, 31-T51N-R69W, True Oil Company, I1-A Heptner,
Campbell County, wy;oming (Pleasant Valley Field).
right; ne/sw, 30-T51N-R69W, Shell Oil Company, 123-30 Heptner,
Campbell County, Wyoming (Pleasant Valley Field). '
Figure 2-14; se/se, 32-T7S-R44E, Standard Oil of California,
~ 41 Dry Valley, Caribou County, Idaho.
Figure 2-15; sw/sw/se, 31-T160N-Ra1W, California Company,
11 Thompson, Bottineau County, North Dakota
Figure 3-15; nw/ne 13-T148N-R98W, California Company, 11 Rough
Creek Federal, McKenzie County, North Dakota.
Figure 3-17, ne/se, 22-T9S-R43E, Hose Austin Company, 11 Kendrick,
Big Horn County, Montana.
Figure 3-19; c/sw/nw, 9-T41s-'R24E, Standard Oil of California,
112-9 Navajo, San Juan County, Utah (Aneth Field) •
Figure 3-24
top; c/nw/nw, 22-T33N-R19W, California Oil Company,
U Ute Tribal, Montezuma County, Colorado.
bottom; nw/sw 20-T148N-R97W, California Oil Company,
11 Danielson, Dunn County, North Dakota.
Figure 3-28
left; ne/se, 36-T26S-R20E, Texas Oil Company and Gulf Oil
Company, I1-X Federal, Grand County, Utah.
right; ne/se, 36-T26S-R20E, M.G.M. Petroleum, ,1 MGM,
Grand County, Utah.
Figure 4-5

left; nw/ne/ne, 5-TI1N-R66W, L.B. Amer-Chicago Corp.,

#1 Warren-Livestock, Weld County, Colorado.

right; c/se/ne, 36-T41N-R61W, Ginther-Warren and Ginther,

#1 Fritz, Laramie County, Wyoming.

Figure 4-6

left; se/se, 15-TSN-R66W, California Oil Comapny,

#1 Vernable, Weld County, Colorado (Pierce Field) .

right; se/sw, 23-TSN-R66W, California Oil Company,

#4 Priddy, Weld County, Colorado (Pierce Field) .

Figure 4-9, nw/sw/sw, lS-T17N-R76W, California Oil Company,

#S Wilson,_ Albany County, Wyoming (Quealy Dome Field).

Figures 4-12 and 4-13, sw/se, 2-T30S-R24E, Pure Oil Company,

State #l-A, San Juan County, Utah (Lisbon Field) .

Figure 4-15, se/se/ne, 14-T3S-RS5W, California oil Company,

#1 Benton Land and Livestock Company, Routt County,
Colorado.

Rocky Mountain Wells With Unknown Locations

Figure 3-10, Pierce Field area?, Weld County?, Colorado.

Figure 3-i6, Powder River Basin, Wyoming.

Figure 3-22, Paradox Basin, San Juan County, Utah

Figure 4-14, Rocky Mountains (United States or Canada?) .