The 10 Essays That Changed Art Criticism Forever

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The 10 Essays That Changed Art Criticism Forever

By Will Fenstermaker
JUNE 14, 2017
https://www.artspace.com/magazine/art_101/know-your-critics/the-10-essays-that-changed-art-criticism-forever-54846 1/45
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Dr. Cornel West
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There has never been a time when art critics held more power than during the second half of the twentieth century. Following the
Second World War, with the relocation of the world’s artistic epicenter from Paris to New York, a different
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artists, galleries, the country. As part of the larger “culture wars” of the mid-century, art critics began to take on greater
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influence than they’d ever held before. For a time, two critics in particular—who began as friends, and remained in the same social circles
for much of their lives—set the stakes of the debates surrounding the maturation of American art that would continue for decades. The
ideas about art outlined by Clement Greenberg and Harold Rosenberg are still debated today, and the extent to which they were debated
in the past has shaped entire movements of the arts. Below are ten works of criticism through which one can trace the mainstreaming of
Clement Greenberg’s formalist theory, and how its dismantling led us into institutional critique and conceptual art today.
The American Action Painters

Harold Rosenberg
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Jackson Pollock, One: Number 31, 1950
Harold Rosenberg, a poet who came to art through his involvement with the Artist’s Union and the WPA, was introduced to Jean-Paul
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Sartre as the “first American existentialist.” Soon, Rosenberg became a contributor to Sartre’s publication in France, for which he first
drafted his influential essay. However, when Sartre supported Soviet aggression against Korea, Rosenberg
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Kooning, then the editor of ARTnews, who ran “The American Action Painters” in December, 1952.
RELATED: What Did Harold Rosenberg Do? An Introduction To The Champion Of “Action Painting”
Rosenberg’s essay on the emerging school of American Painters omitted particular names—because they’d have been unfamiliar to its
original French audience—but it was nonetheless extraordinarily influential for the burgeoning scene of post-WWII American artists.
Jackson Pollock claimed to be the influence of “action painting,” despite Rosenberg’s rumored lack of respect for the artist because
Pollock wasn’t particularly well-read. Influenced by Marxist theory and French existentialism, Rosenberg conceives of a painting as an
“arena,” in which the artist acts upon, wrestles, or otherwise engages with the canvas, in what ultimately amounts to an expressive record
of a struggle. “What was to go on the canvas,” Rosenberg wrote, “was not a picture but an event.”
Notable Quote
Weak mysticism, the “Christian Science” side of the new movement, tends … toward easy painting—never so many unearned
masterpieces! Works of this sort lack the dialectical tension of a genuine act, associated with risk and will. When a tube of paint is
squeezed by the Absolute, the result can only be a Success. The painter need keep himself on hand solely to collect the benefits of an
endless series of strokes of luck. His gesture completes itself without arousing either an opposing movement within itself nor the
desire in the artist to make the act more fully his own. Satisfied with wonders that remain safely inside the canvas, the artist accepts
the permanence of the commonplace and decorates it with his own daily annihilation. The result is an apocalyptic wallpaper.
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Search artists, galleries, shows... ‘American-Type’ Painting 
Clement Greenberg
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Frank Stella, Untitled, 1967
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Throughout the preceding decade, Clement Greenberg, also a former poet, had established a reputation as a leftist critic through his
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writings with The Partisan Review—a publication run by the John Reed Club, a New York City-centered affiliated with the
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American Communist Party—and his time as an art critic with The Nation. In 1955, The Partisan Review published Greenberg’s
“‘American-Type’ Painting,” in which the critic defined the now-ubiquitous term “abstract expressionism.”
RELATED: What Did Clement Greenberg Do? A Primer On The Powerful AbEx Theorist’s Key Ideas
In contrast to Rosenberg’s conception of painting as a performative act, Greenberg’s theory, influenced by Clive Bell and T. S. Eliot, was
essentially a formal one—in fact, it eventually evolved into what would be called “formalism.” Greenberg argued that the evolution of
painting was one of historical determinacy—that ever since the Renaissance, pictures moved toward flatness, and the painted line moved
away from representation. Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso were two of the landmarks of this view. Pollock, who exhibited his drip
paintings in 1951, freeing the line from figuration, was for Greenberg the pinnacle of American Modernism, the most important artist
since Picasso. (Pollock’s paintings exhibited in 1954, with which he returned to semi-representational form, were regarded by Greenberg
as a regression. This lead him to adopt Barnett Newman as his new poster-boy, despite the artist’s possessing vastly different ideas on the
nature of painting. For one, Greenberg mostly ignored the Biblical titles of Newman’s paintings.)
Greenberg’s formalist theories were immensely influential over the subsequent decades. Artforum in particular grew into a locus for
formalist discourse, which had the early effect of providing an aesthetic toolkit divorced from politic. Certain curators of the Museum of
Modern Art, particularly William Rubin, Kirk Varnedoe, and to an extent Alfred Barr are credited for steering the museum in an
essentially formalist direction. Some painters, such as Frank Stella, Helen Frankenthaler, and Kenneth Noland, had even been accused of
illustrating Greenberg’s theories (and those of Michael Fried, a prominent Greenbergian disciple) in attempt to embody the theory,
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which was restrictive in its failure to account for narrative content, figuration, identity, politics, and more. In addition, Greenberg’s
theories proved well-suited for a burgeoning art market, which found connoisseurship an easy sell. (As the
SIGN writer Mary
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“You can’t hang an event on your wall.”) In fact, the dominance of the term “abstract expressionism” over “action painting,” which seemed
more applicable to Pollock and Willem de Kooning than any other members of the New York School, is emblematic of the influence of
formalist discourse.
Notable Quote
The justification for the term, “abstract expressionist,” lies in the fact that most of the painters covered by it took their lead from
German, Russian, or Jewish expressionism in breaking away from late Cubist abstract art. But they all started from French painting,
for their fundamental sense of style from it, and still maintain some sort of continuity with it. Not least of all, they got from it their
most vivid notion of an ambitious, major art, and of the general direction in which it had to go in their time.
ABC Art
Barbara Rose
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Donald Judd, Galvanized Iron 17 January, 1973

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Like many critics in the 1950s and 60s, Barbara Rose had clearly staked her allegiance to one camp or the other. She was, firmly, a
formalist, and along with Fried and Rosalind Krauss is largely credited with expanding the theory beyond abstract expressionist painting.
By 1965, however, Rose recognized a limitation of the theory as outlined by Greenberg—that it was reductionist and only capable of
account for a certain style of painting, and not much at all in other mediums.
RELATED: The Intellectual Origins Of Minimalism
In “ABC Art,” published in Art in America where Rose was a contributing editor, Rose opens up formalism to encompass sculpture,
which Greenberg was largely unable to account for. The simple idea that art moves toward flatness and abstraction leads, for Rose, into
Minimalism, and “ABC Art” is often considered the first landmark essay on Minimalist art. By linking the Minimalist sculptures of
artists like Donald Judd to the Russian supremacist paintings of Kasimir Malevich and readymades of Duchamp, she extends the
determinist history that formalism relies on into sculpture and movements beyond abstract expressionism.
Notable Quote
I do not agree with critic Michael Fried’s view that Duchamp, at any rate, was a failed Cubist. Rather, the inevitability of a logical
evolution toward a reductive SIGN
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was obvious to them already. For Malevich, the poetic Slav, thisLOG IN
realization forced a turning inward
toward an inspirational mysticism, whereas for Duchamp, the rational Frenchman, it meant a fatigue so enervating that finally the
wish to paint at all was killed. Both the yearnings of Malevich’s Slavic soul and the deductions  of Duchamp’s rationalist
FIRST ORDER mind led
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both men
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artists, to reject and exclude from their work many of the most cherished premises of Western art in favor of an art 
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stripped to its bare, irreducible minimum.
How I Spent My Summer Vacation

Philip Leider
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Michael Heizer, Double Negative, 1969
Despite the rhetorical tendency to suggest the social upheaval of the '60s ended with the actual decade, 1970 remained a year of unrest.
And Artforum was still the locus of formalist criticism, which was proving increasingly unable to account for art that contributed to larger
cultural movements, like Civil Rights, women’s liberation, anti-war protests, and more. (Tellingly, The Partisan Review, which birthed
formalism, had by then distanced itself from its communist associations and, as an editorial body, was supportive of American
Interventionism in Vietnam. Greenberg was a vocal hawk.) Subtitled “Art and Politics in Nevada, Berkeley, San Francisco, and Utah,”
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the editor’s note to the September 1970 issue of Artforum, written by Philip Leider, ostensibly recounts a road trip undertaken with
Richard Serra and Abbie Hoffman to see Michael Heizer’s Double Negative in the Nevada desert. SIGN UP FOR OUR EMAIL & $ USD |

RELATED: A City Of Art In The Desert: Behind Michael Heizer’s Monumental Visions For Nevada
However, the essay is also an account of an onsetting disillusion with formalism, which Leider found left him woefully unequipped to
process the protests that had erupted surrounding an exhibition of prints by Paul Wunderlich at the Phoenix Gallery in Berkeley.
Wunderlich’s depictions of nude women were shown concurrently to an exhibition of drawings sold to raise money for Vietnamese
orphans. The juxtaposition of a canonical, patriarchal form of representation and liberal posturing, to which the protestors objected,
showcased the limitations of a methodology that placed the aesthetic elements of a picture plane far above the actual world in which it
existed. Less than a year later, Leider stepped down as editor-in-chief and Artforum began to lose its emphasis on late Modernism.
Notable Quote
I thought the women were probably with me—if they were, I was with them. I thought the women were picketing the show because
it was reactionary art. To the women, [Piet] Mondrian must be a great revolutionary artist. Abstract art broke all of those chains
thirty years ago! What is a Movement gallery showing dumb stuff like this for? But if it were just a matter of reactionary art, why
would the women picket it? Why not? Women care as much about art as men do—maybe more. The question is, why weren’t the
men right there with them?
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Why Have There Been No Great Women Artists? SIGN UP FOR OUR EMAIL & $ USD |
Search artists, galleries, shows... Linda Nochlin 
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Linda Nochlin teaches an art history class at Vassar in 1965

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WhileSearch
Artforum, in its early
artists, galleries, history, had established a reputation as a generator for formalist theory, ARTnews had followed a decidedly 
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more Rosenberg-ian course, emphasizing art as a practice for investigating the world. The January 1971 issue of the magazine was
dedicated to “Women’s Liberation, Woman Artists, and Art History” and included an iconoclastic essay by Linda Nochlin titled “Why
Have There Been No Great Women Artists?”
RELATED: An Introduction To Feminist Art
Nochlin notes that it’s tempting to answer the question “why have there been no great women artists?” by listing examples of those
overlooked by critical and institutional organizations (a labor that Nochlin admits has great merit). However, she notes, “by attempting
to answer it, they tacitly reinforce its negative implications,” namely that women are intrinsically less capable of achieving artistic merit
than men. Instead, Nochlin’s essay functions as a critique of art institutions, beginning with European salons, which were structured in
such a way as to deter women from rising to the highest echelons. Nochlin’s essay is considered the beginning of modern feminist art
history and a textbook example of institutional critique.
Notable Quote
There are no women equivalents for Michelangelo or Rembrandt, Delacroix or Cézanne, Picasso or Matisse, or even in very recent
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times, for de Kooning or Warhol, any more than there are black American equivalents for the same. If there actually were large
numbers of “hidden” great women artists, or if there really should be different standards for women’sSIGN
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one can’t have it both ways—then what are feminists fighting for? If women have in fact achieved the same status as men in the arts,
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then the status quo is fine as it is.

But in actuality, as we all know, things as they are and as they have been, in the arts as in a hundred other areas, are stultifying,
oppressive, and discouraging to all those, women among them, who did not have the good fortune to be born white, preferably
middle class and above all, male. The fault lies not in our stars, our hormones, our menstrual cycles, or our empty internal spaces, but
in our institutions and our education.
Doctor, Lawyer, Indian Chief

Thomas McEvilley
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Exhibition view of “Primitivism” in 20th Century Art: Affinity of the Tribal and the Modern
One of the many extrapolations of Nochlin’s essay is that contemporary museum institutions continue to reflect the gendered and racist
biases of preceding centuries by reinforcing the supremacy of specific master artists. In a 1984 Artforum review, Thomas McEvilley, a
classicist new to the world of contemporary art, made the case that the Museum of Modern Art in New York served as an exclusionary
temple to certain high-minded Modernists—namely, Picasso, Matisse, and Pollock—who, in fact, took many of their innovations from
native cultures.
RELATED: MoMA Curator Laura Hoptman On How To Tell A Good Painting From A “Bogus” Painting
In 1984, MoMA organized a blockbuster exhibition. Curated by William Rubin and Kirk Varnedoe, both of whom were avowed
formalists, “‘Primitivism’ in 20th Century Art: Affinity of the Tribal and the Modern” collected works by European painters like Paul
Gaugin and Picasso with cultural artifacts from Zaire, arctic communities, and elsewhere. McEvilley takes aim at the “the absolutist view
of formalist Modernism” in which MoMA is rooted. He argues that the removal tribal artifacts from their contexts (for example, many
were ritual items intended for ceremonies, not display) and placement of them, unattributed, near works by European artists, censors the
cultural contributions of non-Western civilizations in deference to an idealized European genius.
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Notable Quote
The fact that the primitive “looks like” the Modern is interpreted as validating the Modern by  showing that
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while atartists,
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galleries, projecting it—and with it MoMA—into the future as a permanent canon. A counter view is possible: that 
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primitivism on the contrary invalidates Modernism by showing it to be derivative and subject to external causation. At one level this
show undertakes precisely to coopt that question by answering it before it has really been asked, and by burying it under a mass of
information.
Please Wait By the Coatroom

John Yau
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Wifredo Lam, The Jungle, 1943
Not content to let MoMA and the last vestiges of formalism off the hook yet, John Yau wrote in 1988 an essay on Wifredo Lam, a
Cuban painter who lived and worked in Paris among Picasso, Matisse, Georges Braque, and others. Noting Lam’s many influences—his
Afro-Cuban mother, Chinese father, and Yoruba godmother—Yau laments the placement of Lam’s The Jungle near the coatroom in the
Museum of Modern Art, as opposed to within the Modernist galleries several floors above. The painting was accompanied by a brief
entry written by former curator William Rubin, who, Yau argues, adopted Greenberg’s theories because they endowed him with “a
connoisseur’s lens with which one can scan all art.”
RELATED: From Cuba With Love: Artist Bill Claps On The Island’s DIY Art Scene
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Here, as with with McEvilley’s essay, Yau illustrates how formalism, as adapted by museum institutions, became a (perhaps
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unintentional) method for reinforcing the exclusionary framework that Nochlin argued excluded women and black artists for centuries.
Notable Quote
Rubin sees in Lam only what is in his own eyes: colorless or white artists. For Lam to have achieved the status of unique individual,
he would have had to successfully adapt to the conditions of imprisonment (the aesthetic standards of a fixed tradition) Rubin and
others both construct and watch over. To enter this prison, which takes the alluring form of museums, art history textbooks,
galleries, and magazines, an individual must suppress his cultural differences and become a colorless ghost. The bind every hybrid
American artist finds themselves in is this: should they try and deal with the constantly changing polymorphous conditions effecting
identity, tradition, and reality? Or should they assimilate into the mainstream art world by focusing on approved-of aesthetic issues?
Lam’s response to this bind sets an important precedent. Instead of assimilating, Lam infiltrates the syntactical rules of “the
exploiters” with his own specific language. He becomes, as he says, “a Trojan horse.”
Black Culture and Postmodernism

Cornel West
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Cornel West
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The opening up of cultural discourse did not mean that it immediately made room for voices of all dimensions. Cornel West notes as
much in his 1989 essay “Black Culture and Postmodernism,” in which he argues that postmodernism, much like Modernism before it,
remains primarily ahistorical, which makes it difficult for “oppressed peoples to exercise their opposition to hierarchies of power.” West’s
position is that the proliferation of theory and criticism that accompanied the rise of postmodernism provided mechanisms by which
black culture could “be conversant with and, to a degree, participants in the debate.” Without their voices, postmodernism would remain
yet another exclusionary movements.
RELATED: Kerry James Marshall On Painting Blackness As A Noun Vs. Verb
Notable Quote
As the consumption cycle of advanced multinational corporate capitalism was sped up in order to sustain the production of luxury
goods, cultural production became more and more mass-commodity production. The stress here is not simply on the new and
fashionable but also on the exotic and primitive. Black cultural products have historically served as a major source for European and
Euro-American exotic interests—interests that issue from a healthy critique of the mechanistic, puritanical, utilitarian, and
productivity aspects of modern life.
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Search artists, galleries, shows... Anna C. Chave 
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Richard Serra, Tilted Arc, 1981
In recent years, formalist analysis has been deployed as a single tool within a more varied approach to art. Its methodology—that of
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analyzing a picture as an isolated phenomena—remains prevalent, and has its uses. Yet, many of the works and movements that rose to
prominence under formalist critics and curators, in no small part because of their institutional acceptance,
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rearguard rather than the vanguard.
In a 1990 essay for Arts Magazine, Anna Chave analyzes how Minimalist sculpture possesses a “domineering, sometimes brutal rhetoric”
that was aligned with “both the American military in Vietnam, and the police at home in the streets and on university campuses across
the country.” In particular, Chave is concerned with the way Minimalist sculptures define themselves through a process of negation. Of
particular relevance to Chave’s argument are the massive steel sculptures by Minimalist artist Richard Serra.
Tilted Arc was installed in Federal Plaza in lower Manhattan in 1981. Chave describes the work as a “mammoth, perilously tilted steel arc
[that] formed a divisive barrier too tall to see over, and a protracted trip to walk around.” She writes, “it is more often the case with Serra
that his work doesn’t simply exemplify aggression or domination, but acts it out.” Tilted Arc was so controversial upon its erecting that the
General Services Administration, which commissioned the work, held hearings in response to petitions demanding the work be
removed. Worth quoting at length, Chave writes:
A predictable defense of Serra’s work was mounted by critics, curators, dealers, collectors, and some fellow artists…. The principle
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arguments mustered on Serra’s behalf were old ones concerning the nature and function of the avant-garde…. What Rubin and
Serra’s other supporters declined to ask is whether the sculptor really is, in the most meaningful sense
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artist. Being avant-garde implies being ahead of, outside, or against the dominant culture; proffering a vision that implicitly stands
(at least when it is conceived) as a critique of entrenched forms and structures…. But Serra’s work is securely embedded within the
system: when the brouhaha over Arc was at its height, he was enjoying a retrospective at the Museum of Modern Art…. [The
defense’s] arguments locate Serra not with the vanguard but with the standing army or “status quo.” … More thoughtful, sensible,
and eloquent testimony at the hearing came instead from some of the uncouth:
My name is Danny Katz and I work in this building as a clerk. My friend Vito told me this morning that I am a philistine.
Despite that I am getting up to speak…. I don’t think this issue should be elevated into a dispute between the forces of ignorance
and art, or art versus government. I really blame government less because it has long ago outgrown its human dimension. But
from the artists I expected a lot more. I didn’t expect to hear them rely on the tired and dangerous reasoning that the government
has made a deal, so let the rabble live with the steel because it’s a deal. That kind of mentality leads to wars. We had a deal with
Vietnam. I didn’t expect to hear the arrogant position that art justifies interference with the simple joys of human activity in a
plaza. It’s not a great plaza by international standards, but it is a small refuge and place of revival for people who ride to work in
steel containers, work in sealed rooms, and breathe recirculated air all day. Is the purpose of art in public places to seal off a route
of escape, to stress the absence of joy and hope? I can’t believe this was the artistic intention, yet to my sadness this for me has
become the dominant effect of the work, and it’s all the fault of its position and location. I can accept anything in art, but I can’t
accept physical assault and complete destruction of pathetic human activity. No work of art created with a contempt for ordinary
humanity and without respect for the common element of human experience can be great. It will always lack dimension.
The terms Katz associated with Serra’s project include arrogance and contempt, assault, and destruction; he saw the Minimalist
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idiom, in other words, as continuous with the master discourse of our imperious and violent technocracy.
The End of Art

Arthur Danto
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Andy Warhol carries a Brillo box in his Factory
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Like Greenberg, Arthur Danto was an art critic for The Nation. However, Danto was overtly critical of Greenberg’s ideology and the
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influence he wielded over Modern and contemporary art. Nor was he a follower of Harold Rosenberg, they shared influences,
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among them the phenomenologist Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Danto’s chief contribution to contemporary art was his advancing of Pop
Artists, particularly Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein.
In “The End of Art” Danto argues that society at large determines and accepts art, which no longer progresses linearly, categorized by
movements. Instead, viewers each possess a theory or two, which they use to interpret works, and art institutions are largely tasked with
developing, testing, and modifying various interpretive methods. In this way, art differs little from philosophy. After decades of
infighting regarding the proper way to interpret works of art, Danto essentially sanctioned each approach and the institutions that gave
rise to them. He came to call this “pluralism.”
RELATED: What Was The Pictures Generation?
Similarly, in “Painting, Politics, and Post-Historical Art,” Danto makes the case for an armistice between formalism and the various
theories that arose in opposition, noting that postmodern critics like Douglas Crimp in the 1980s, who positioned themselves against
formalism, nonetheless adopted the same constrictive air, minus the revolutionary beginnings.
Notable Quote
Modernist critical practice was out of phase with what was happening in the art world itself in the late 60s and through the 1970s. It
remained the basis for most SIGN UP practice, especially on the part of the curatoriat, and the art-history
critical LOG IN professoriat as well, to the
degree that it descended to criticism. It became the language of the museum panel, the catalog essay, the article in the art periodical.
It was a daunting paradigm, and it was the counterpart in discourse to the “broadening of taste” which reduced
OFF YOUR art
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times toartists,
Search its formalist skeleton, and thus, as I phrased it, transformed every museum into a Museum of Modern Art, whatever that 
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museum’s contents. It was the stable of the docent’s gallery talk and the art appreciation course—and it was replaced, not totally but
massively, by the postmodernist discourse that was imported from Paris in the late 70s, in the texts of Michel Foucault, Jacques
Derrida, Jean Baudrillard, Jean-François Lyotard, and Jacques Lacan, and of the French feminists Hélène Cixous and Luce Irigaray.
That is the discourse [Douglas] Crimp internalizes, and it came to be lingua artspeak everywhere. Like modernist discourse, it
applied to everything, so that there was room for deconstructive and “archeological” discussion of art of every period.
Editor’s Note: This list was drawn in part from a 2014 seminar taught by Debra Bricker Balken in the MFA program in Art Writing at the
School of Visual Arts titled Critical Strategies: Late Modernism/Postmodernism. Additional sources can be found here, here, here (paywall), and
here. Also relevant are reviews of the 2008 exhibition at the Jewish Museum, “Action/Abstraction: Pollock, de Kooning, and American Art, 1940–
1976,” notably those by Roberta Smith, Peter Schjeldahl, and Martha Schwendener.
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The 10 Essays That Changed Art Criticism Forever - Art For Sale - Artspace PDF

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8/11/2018 The 10 Essays That Changed Art Criticism Forever | Art for Sale | Artspace

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Dr. Cornel West

The American Action Painters

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Jackson Pollock, One: Number 31, 1950

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Search artists, galleries, shows... ‘American-Type’ Painting 

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Frank Stella, Untitled, 1967

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Donald Judd, Galvanized Iron 17 January, 1973

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RELATED: The Intellectual Origins Of Minimalism

stripped to its bare, irreducible minimum.

How I Spent My Summer Vacation

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Michael Heizer, Double Negative, 1969

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Search artists, galleries, shows... Linda Nochlin 

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Linda Nochlin teaches an art history class at Vassar in 1965

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RELATED: An Introduction To Feminist Art

then the status quo is fine as it is.

Doctor, Lawyer, Indian Chief

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Please Wait By the Coatroom

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Wifredo Lam, The Jungle, 1943

Black Culture and Postmodernism

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RELATED: Kerry James Marshall On Painting Blackness As A Noun Vs. Verb

Search artists, galleries, shows... Anna C. Chave 

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Richard Serra, Tilted Arc, 1981

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The End of Art

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Andy Warhol carries a Brillo box in his Factory

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RELATED: What Was The Pictures Generation?