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Ex: 4.2 See Fig. 4.3a and 4.3b. During the 2.5 k
positive half of the sinusoid, the diode is forward
biased, so it conducts resulting in v D = 0. During
the negative half cycle of the input signal v I , the
diode is reverse biased. The diode does not 5 V
conduct, resulting in no current flowing in the
(d)
circuit. So v O = 0 and v D = v I − v O = v I . This
results in the waveform shown in Fig. E4.2.
V0V
vˆI 10 V
Ex: 4.3 îD = = = 10 mA 05
R 1 k I
2.5
1 2 mA
dc component of v O = vˆO 2.5 k
π
1 10
= vˆI =
π π
5 V
= 3.18 V
(e)
I
3V
Ex: 4.4
0
(a) 2V V3V
0
5 V 1V
3
1 k I 3 mA
50 1
2.5 k I 2 mA
2.5
(f)
5 V
V0V
51
1 k I
1
0 4 mA
(b) 3 V
0
5 V 2 V V1V
1 V
2.5 k I0A I
10
Ex: 4.5 Vavg =
π
V5V 10
10
50 + R = π = k
1 mA π
∴ R = 3.133 k
1V Ex: 4.11 10 V
Ex: 4.9 At 20◦ C I = = 1 μA
1 M
Since the reverse leakage current doubles for
every 10◦ C increase, at 40◦ C I R
I = 4 × 1 μA = 4 μA
⇒ V = 4 μA × 1 M = 4.0 V
1
@ 0◦ C I= μA
4 2.4 V
1
⇒ V = × 1 = 0.25 V
4
= 54.6 mA
0.7 5
10 − 2.4 2.5 k I
R= 2.5
54.6 × 10−3
1.72 mA
= 139
5 V
V 0.7 V (f)
5V
5 1.7
I
1 1 k
(b) 3.3 mA
5 V 3 V V 1 0.7
0
1.7 V
2 V
0
I0A 2.5 k 1 V
I
VT
V5V Ex: 4.13 rd =
ID
25 × 10−3
ID = 0.1 mA rd = = 250
0.1 × 10−3
(c) 25 × 10−3
ID = 1 mA rd = = 25
1 × 10−3
25 × 10−3
ID = 10 mA rd = = 2.5
10 × 10−3
V5V
2.5 k I0A VT
where rd =
ID
For exponential model,
5 V iD = IS eV /V T
iD2
= e(V2 −V1 ) /V T = ev D /V T c. If iD = 5 − i L = 5 − 1 = 4 mA.
iD1
Across each diode the voltage drop is
iD = iD2 − iD1 = iD1 ev D /V T − iD1
ID
= iD1 ev D /V T − 1 (2) VD = VT ln
IS
In this problem, iD1 = ID = 1 mA.
4 × 10−3
Using Eqs. (1) and (2) with VT = 25 mV, we = 25 × 10−3 × ln
4.7 × 10−16
obtain
= 0.7443 V
10 = VZ0 + 0.01 × 50
R For IZ = 20 mA,
IL
VZ = 9.5 + 0.02 × 50 = 10.5 V
VO
Ex: 4.17
15 V
R I
5.6 V
VO 20 mV
a. In this problem, = = 20 .
iL 1 mA 0 to 15 mA
∴ Total small-signal resistance of the four diodes
= 20
20
∴ For each diode, rd = = 5 .
4 The minimum zener current should be
VT 25 mV
But rd = ⇒5= . 5 × IZk = 5 × 1 = 5 mA
ID ID
∴ ID = 5 mA Since the load current can be as large as 15 mA,
we should select R so that with IL = 15 mA, a
15 − 3 zener current of 5 mA is available. Thus the
and R = = 2.4 k.
5 mA current should be 20 mA, leading to
b. For VO = 3 V, voltage drop across each diode 15 − 5.6
3 R= = 470
= = 0.75 V 20 mA
4
Maximum power dissipated in the diode occurs
iD = IS eV /VT
when IL = 0 is
iD 5 × 10−3
IS = = = 4.7 × 10−16 A Pmax = 20 × 10−3 × 5.6 = 112 mV
eV /VT e0.75/0.025
1
vi 7 = [−Vs cos φ − VD φ]φ=π−θ
φ−θ
2π
1
= [Vs cos θ − Vs cos (π − θ) − VD (π − 2θ )]
2π
But cos θ 1, cos (π − θ) − 1, and
vo 7 mV
Line regulation = = = 33.8 π − 2θ π
vi 200 + 7 V
2Vs VD
For load regulation: v O,avg = −
2π 2
Vs VD
= −
π 2
√
200 For Vs = 12 2 and VD = 0.7 V
√
12 2 0.7
v O,avg = − = 5.05 V
VO π 2
IL c. The peak diode current occurs at the peak
VZ0
diode voltage.
√
V − VD 12 2 − 0.7
rZ ∴ îD = s =
R 100
= 163 mA
√
PIV = +V S = 12 2
V O −IL (rZ 200 )
= 17 V
IL IL mA
mV
= −6.8 Ex: 4.20
mA
vS
Ex: 4.19 input
Vs
vS output
Vs 12 2 VD ( )
0
t
VD
t
0 2 VS
u u
a. As shown in the diagram, the output is zero
between (π − θ) to (π + θ)
= 2θ
∴ Vs sin θ = VD Vs
output
input
VD
θ = sin−1 2VD
Vs t
0
2θ = 2 sin−1
VD
Vs
sin–1 2VV
D
S
Vs
b. Average value of the output signal is given by
⎡ ⎤
−θ)
(π 1
1 ⎣ (a) VO,avg = (Vs sin φ − 2VD ) d φ
VO = 2× (Vs sin φ − VD ) d φ ⎦ 2π
2π
θ 2
= [−Vs cos φ − 2VD φ]π−θ
φ=θ
1 2π
= [−Vs cos φ − VD φ]πφ=θ
−θ
π 1
= [Vs cos φ − Vs cos(π − θ) − 2VD (π − 2θ )]
Vs π
2 − VD , for θ small. But cos θ ≈ 1,
π
π cos (π − θ) ≈ − 1
c. Peak current occurs when φ = .
2
π − 2θ ≈ π. Thus
Peak current 2Vs
⇒ VO,avg − 2VD
Vs sin (π /2) − VD Vs − VD π
= = √
R R 2 × 12 2
= − 1.4 = 9.4 V
If v S is 12 V(rms), π
√ √ Peak voltage
then Vs = 2 × 12 = 12 2 (b) Peak diode current =
√ R
12 2 − 0.7 √
Peak current = 163 mA Vs − 2VD 12 2 − 1.4
100 = =
R 100
Nonzero output occurs for angle = 2 (π − 2θ) = 156 mA
√
The fraction of the cycle for which v O > 0 is PIV = Vs − VD = 12 2 − 0.7 = 16.3 V
2 (π − 2θ)
= × 100
2π Ex: 4.22 Full-wave peak rectifier:
0.7 D1
2 π − 2 sin−1 √
12 2 vO
= × 100
2π R C
vS
97.4 %
Average output voltage VO is vS
√
Vs 2 × 12 2
VO = 2 − VD = − 0.7 = 10.1 V D2
π π
Peak diode current îD is
Vp
√ t assume
Vs − VD 12 2 − 0.7 ideal diodes
îD = = Vr{
R 100
t
= 163 mA
PIV = Vs − VD + VS T
√ √ 2
= 12 2 − 0.7 + 12 2
The ripple voltage is the amount of voltage
= 33.2 V reduction during capacitor discharge that occurs
when the diodes are not conducting. The output If t = 0 is at the peak, the maximum diode current
voltage is given by occurs at the onset of conduction or at t = −ωt.
T 1
e−t/RC 1 − × Ex: 4.24
2 RC
T 1 i
∴ VP − 2VD − Vr = Vp − 2VD 1 − ×
2 RC vI
i vA
T
⇒ Vr = Vp − 2VD × vD iD
2RC
√ vO
Here Vp = 12 2 and Vr = 1 V
iR 1 k
VD = 0.8 V
1 1
T= = s
f 60
√ 1
1 = (12 2 − 2 × 0.8) ×
2 × 60 × 100 × C The diode has 0.7 V drop at 1 mA current.
√
(12 2 − 1.6) iD = IS ev D /VT
C= = 1281 μF
2 × 60 × 100 iD
= e(v D −0.7)/V T
Without considering the ripple voltage, the dc 1 mA
output voltage iD
√ ⇒ v D = VT ln + 0.7 V
1 mA
= 12 2 − 2 × 0.8 = 15.4 V
For v I = 10 mV, v O = v I = 10 mV
If ripple voltage is included, the output voltage is
√ It is an ideal op amp, so i+ = i− = 0.
Vr
= 12 2 − 2 × 0.8 − = 14.9 V 10 mV
2 ∴ iD = iR = = 10 μA
1 k
IL =
14.9
0.15 A
100 10 μA
v D = 25 × 10−3 ln + 0.7 = 0.58 V
1 mA
The conduction angle ωt can be obtained
√ using
Eq. (4.30) but substituting Vp = 12 2 − 2 × 0.8: v A = v D + 10 mV
= 0.58 + 0.01
2Vr 2×1
ωt = = √
Vp 12 2 − 2 × 0.8 = 0.59 V
v I > 0 ∼ diode is cut off, loop is open, and the For v I ≤ −5 V, diode D1 conducts and
opamp is saturated: 1
v O = −5 + (+v I + 5)
vO = 0 V 2
vI
v I < 0 ∼ diode conducts and closes the negative = −2.5 + V
2
feedback loop:
For v I ≥ 5 V, diode D2 conducts and
vO = vI
1
v O = +5 + (v I − 5)
2
Ex: 4.26
vI
= 2.5 + V
2
10 k
for −5V ≤ v I ≤ + 5V
and v O = v I
4.1 4.3
1 (a)
Cutoff
I D1
1.5 V VD
1 V
D2
(a)
2 V V2V
Conducting 2 (3)
1 2 k I
2 k
I 2.5 mA
1.5 V VD
3 V
(b) (b)
3 V
VD = 0 V 2 V
1.5 V D2
I= = 1.5 A Cutoff
1
(c) vO (h) vO 0 V
t
0 t
v O = 0 V ∼ The output is always shorted to
ground as D1 conducts when v I > 0 and D2
conducts when v I < 0.
vO = 0 V
(i)
Neither D1 nor D2 conducts, so there is no output. vO
5V
(d)
vO
t
2.5 V
5V
t
t
Vp+ = 5 V, Vp− = −5 V, f = 1 kHz 2.5 V
D1 conducts when v I > 0 and D2 conducts when
v I < 0. Thus the output follows the input.
Vp+ = 5 V, Vp− = −2.5 V, f = 1 kHz
(f)
When v I > 0, the output follows the input as D1
vO is conducting.
5V When v I < 0, D1 is cut off and the circuit
t becomes a voltage divider.
(k)
vO
vO
5 V 4 V
t
5 V
Vp+ = 1 V, Vp− = −4 V, f = 1 kH3
When v I > 0, D1 is cut off and D2 is conducting.
The output becomes 1 V.
4.5 X = AB, Y = A + B
X and Y are the same for
A=B
X and Y are opposite if A = B
3 V 4.12
RS D
6 k
3 – 0 0.5 mA
6 vI
vO R vI 1 vI
R RS 2
0V
0.25 mA D1 D2 vI
ON iD
ON R RS
V0
0 – (–3) D starts to conduct when v I > 0
12
0.25 mA 12 k vO
3 V
(b) vI
0
(b) In (b), the two resistors are interchanged.
With some reasoning, we can see that the current
supplied through the 6-k resistor will exceed 4.13 For v I > 0 V: D is on, v O = v I , iD = v I /R
that drawn through the 12-k resistor, leaving For v I < 0 V: D is off , v O = 0, iD = 0
sufficient current to keep D1 conducting.
Assuming that D1 and D2 are both conducting
gives the results shown in Fig. (b):
I = 0.25 mA
V =0V
√
120 2
4.11 R ≥ ≥ 4.2 k
40
The largest reverse voltage appearing across the
diode is equal to the peak input voltage:
√
120 2 = 169.7 V
reverse biased
10 10 5 k 5 k 5 k
V
10 I I0
5 2.5 V 1.5 V
10 10 20 k
V
2.5 V
R = 8.3
A − 12
Peak diode current = = 0.6 A
R
Peak reverse voltage = A + 12 = 29 V
For resistors specified to only one significant digit
and peak-to-peak voltage to the nearest volt,
choose A = 17 so the peak-to-peak sine wave
voltage = 34 V and R = 8 .
Conduction starts at v I = A sin θ = 12
17 sin θ = 12
π
θ= rad
4.15 4
Conduction stops at π − θ.
4.16
2
V RED GREEN
conduction occurs 3V ON OFF - D1 conducts
0 OFF OFF - No current flows
v I = A sin θ = 12 ∼ conduction through D –3 V OFF ON - D2 conducts
occurs
For a conduction angle (π − 2θ ) that is 25% of a kT
cycle 4.17 VT =
q
π − 2θ 1
= where
2π 4 k = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K = 8.62 × 10−5 eV/K
π
θ= T = 273 + x◦ C
4
A = 12/sin θ = 17 V q = 1.60 × 10−19 C
ID = IS eVD /VT
4.18 i = I S ev /0.025
ID
= IS e(VD −V)/VT = IS eVD /VT · e−V /V T
∴ 10,000IS = IS ev /0.025 10
v = 0.230 V Taking the ratio of the above two equations, we
have
At v = 0.7 V,
10 = eV /V T ⇒ V 60 mV
i = IS e0.7/0.025 = 1.45 × 1012 IS
Thus the result in each case is a decrease in the
diode voltage by 60 mV.
(c) VD = 0.80 V, ID = 10 A
ID1 = IS1 eVD /VT (1)
⇒ IS = 1.27 × 10−13 A;
VD /VT
ID2 = IS2 e (2)
ID × 10 gives V D = 0.86 V
Summing (1) and (2) gives
ID /10 gives VD = 0.74 V
ID1 + ID2 = (IS1 + IS2 )eVD /VT
(d) VD = 0.70 V, ID = 1 mA But
⇒ IS = 6.91 × 10−16 A;
ID1 + ID2 = I
ID × 10 gives V D = 0.76 V
Thus
ID /10 gives VD = 0.64 V I = (IS1 + IS2 ) eVD /VT (3)
(e) VD = 0.6 V, ID = 10 μA From Eq. (3) we obtain
⇒ IS = 3.78 × 10−16 A
I
VD = VT ln
ID × 10 gives V D = 0.66 V IS1 + IS2
Also, Eq. (3) can be written as
ID /10 gives VD = 0.54 V
IS2
I = IS1 eVD /VT 1 + (4)
IS1
4.23 The voltage across three diodes in series is Now using (1) and (4) gives
2.0 V; thus the voltage across each diode must be I IS1
0.667 V. Using ID = IS eVD /VT , the required ID1 = =I
1 + (IS2 /IS1 ) IS1 + IS2
current I is found to be 3.9 mA.
We similarly obtain
If 1 mA is drawn away from the circuit, ID will be
I IS2
2.9 mA, which would give VD = 0.794 V, giving ID2 = =I
an output voltage of 1.98 V. The change in output 1 + (IS1 /IS2 ) IS1 + IS2
voltage is −22 mV.
4.26
ID = IS eVD /VT
ID
= IS e(VD −V)/VT = IS eVD /VT · e−V /V T
2
D1 D2 D3 D4
Taking the ratio of the above two equations, we
have I1 2I1 4I1 8I1
V /V T
2=e ⇒ V = 17.3 mV
I1 0.1 mA
Thus the result is a decrease in the diode voltage
by 17.3 mV.
The junction areas of the four diodes must be Solving the above equation, we have
related by the same ratios as their currents, thus
R = 42
A4 = 2A3 = 4A2 = 8 A1
With I1 = 0.1 mA, 4.29 For a diode conducting a constant current,
the diode voltage decreases by approximately 2
I = 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.4 + 0.8 = 1.5 mA
mV per increase of 1◦ C.
T = −20◦ C corresponds to a temperature
4.27 We can write a node equation at the anodes: decrease of 40◦ C, which results in an increase of
ID2 = I1 − I2 = 7 mA the diode voltage by 80 mV. Thus VD = 770 mV.
Taking the ratio of the two equations above, we VR1 = 4 μA × 520 k = 2.08 V
have 1
At 0◦ C, I = μA
ID2 10 mA − V /R 4
= = e(VD2 −VD1 )/VT = eV /V T
ID1 V /R V2 = 560 − 2.3 × 1 × 25 log 4
To achieve V = 50 mV, we need = 525.4 mV
ID2 10 mA − 0.05/R 1
= = e0.05/0.025 = 7.39 VR1 = × 520 = 0.13 V
ID1 0.05/R 4
4.31 For a diode conducting a constant current, 1.0
V = VT ln = 57.6 mV
the diode voltage decreases by approximately 0.1
2 mV per increase of 1◦ C. ⇒ VD = 757.6 mV
A decrease in VD by 100 mV corresponds to a ID = 3 mA:
junction temperature increase of 50◦ C.
3
V = VT ln = 85 mV ⇒ VD = 785 mV
The power dissipation is given by 0.1
PD = (10 A) (0.6 V) = 6 W For the second diode, with
The thermal resistance is given by ID = 1 A and VD = 700 mV, we have
T 50◦ C
= = 8.33◦ C/W ID = 1.0 mA:
PD 6W
0.001
V = VT ln = −173 mV
1
4.32 Given two different voltage/current
⇒ VD = 527 mV
measurements for a diode, we can write
ID1 = IS eVD1 /VT ID = 3 mA:
0.003
ID2 = IS eVD2 /VT V = VT ln = −145 mV
1
Taking the ratio of the above two equations, we ⇒ VD = 555 mV
have
For both ID = 1.0 mA and ID = 3 mA, the
ID1
= IS e(VD1 −VD2 )/VT ⇒ VD1 − VD2 difference between the two diode voltages is
ID2 approximately 230 mV. Since, for a fixed diode
ID1
= VT ln current, the diode voltage changes with
ID2 temperature at a constant rate (–2 mV per ◦ C
For ID = 1 mA, we have temp. increase), this voltage difference will be
independent of temperature!
1 × 10−3 A
V = VT ln = −230 mV
10 A
⇒ VD = 570 mV 4.34
For ID = 3 mA, we have R 1 kΩ
3 × 10−3 A
V = VT ln = −202 mV
10 A
VDD i
⇒ VD = 598 mV v
1V
Assuming VD changes by –2 mV per 1◦ C increase
in temperature, we have, for ±20◦ C changes:
For ID = 1 mA, 530 mV ≤ VD ≤ 610 mV
IS = 10−15 A = 10−12 mA
For ID = 3 mA, 558 mV ≤ VD ≤ 638 mV
Calculate some points
Thus the overall range of VD is between 530 mV
and 638 mV. v = 0.6 V , i = IS ev /V T
= 10−12 e0.6/0.025
4.33 Given two different voltage/current
0.03 mA
measurements for a diode, we have
ID1 v = 0.65 V, i 0.2 mA
= IS e(VD1 −VD2 )/VT ⇒ VD1 − VD2
ID2
ID1 v = 0.7 V, i 1.45 mA
= VT ln
ID2 Make a sketch showing these points and load line
For the first diode, with ID = 0.1 mA and and determine the operating point. The points for
the load line are obtained using
VD = 700 mV, we have
VDD − VD
ID = 1 mA: ID =
R
i (mA) 4.35
R 1 k
2.0
Diode characteristic
1V ID VD
1.0
0.8
0.6 Load line
0.4
0.2 IS = 10−15 A = 10−12 mA
0 v (V) Use the iterative analysis procedure:
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
1 − 0.7
1. VD = 0.7 V, ID = = 0.3 mA
1K
From this sketch one can see that the operating
point must lie between v = 0.65 V to v = 0.7 V 2. VD = VT ln
ID
= 0.025 ln
0.3
IS 10 −12
i
For i = 0.3 mA, v = VT ln || = 0.6607 V
IS
1 − 0.6607
3 ID = = 0.3393 mA
= 0.025 × ln 1K
10−12
= 0.661 V 0.3393
3. VD = 0.025 ln = 0.6638 V
10−12
For i = 0.4 mA, v = 0.668 V
1 − 0.6638
Now we can refine the diagram to obtain a better ID = = 0.3362 mA
1K
estimate
0.3362
4. VD = 0.025 ln = 0.6635 V
10−12
i (mA)
0.4 1 − 0.6635
ID = = 0.3365 mA
1 k
Stop here as we are getting almost same value of
ID and VD
1V i v
0.30 v (V)
0.660 0.664 0.67
= 0.0002 V = 0.6872 V
1 − 0.6872
= 0.2 mV 2 i= = 0.6255 mA
0.5
0.6255 N
3. v = 0.7 + 2.3 × 0.025 log
1
= 0.6882 V ⫹
1 − 0.6882 1 mA V
3 i= = 0.6235 mA
0.5 k
⫺
0.6235
4. v = 0.7 + 2.3 × 0.025 log
1
The voltage drop across each pair of diodes is
= 0.6882 V 1.3 V. ∴ Voltage drop across each diode
1 − 0.6882 1.3
4 i= = 0.6235 mA = = 0.65 V. Using
0.5 k 2
V = 10.7 V
4.40 Refer to Example 4.2.
For V = 3 V and R = 1 k:
(a)
3 − 0.7
At VD = 0.7 V, iD1 = = 2.3 mA 10 V
1
3 − 0.6
At VD = 0.6 V, iD2 = = 2.4 mA 10 0
1 5 I 1.861 10 k 4 1 mA
10
iD2 2.4 0.86 mA
= = 1.04
iD1 2.3 V0V 3
1 0.7 V
(b) (c)
10 V
3 V
5 k ID2
I
V
V
I0 0.7 V
Cutoff 10 k
10 k ID2
3 V
10 V
V = 3 − 0.7 = 2.3 V
10 − (−10) − 0.7 2.3 + 3
ID2 = = 1.29 mA I= = 0.53 mA
15 10
VD = −10 + 1.29 (10) + 0.7 = 3.6 V (d)
3 V
4.41
(a) I
Cutoff
3 V
V
10 k
V
3 V
I
I =0A
V = −3 V
3 V
Cutoff 3 V
I
V = 2 − 0.7
3 V = 1.3 V
1.3 − (−3)
I =0A I=
2
V = 3 − I (10) = 3 V = 2.15 mA
4.43 0 mA
+3V 2.5 V 1.5 V
ID2 12 k (b)
2.5 − 0.7
(a) I = = 0.072 mA
5 + 20
I0 ON 0.7 V
D1 V = 0.072 × 20 = 1.44 V
D2
Cutoff ID2 V (b) The diode will be cut off, thus
6 k I =0
V = 1.5 − 2.5 = −1 V
3 V
(a) 4.45
3V
vI iD R
30.7
0.383 mA 6 k
6
0.7 V v I ,peak − 0.7
iD,peak = ≤ 40 mA
I 0.383 0.25 D1 D2 R
0.133 mA √
ON ON 120 2 − 0.7
V0V
R≥ = 4.23 k
40
√
0(3) Reverse voltage = 120 2 = 169.7 V.
12 k
12
0.25 mA The design is essentially the same since the
3 V
supply voltage 0.7 V
(b)
3 − 0.7 − (−3) 4.46 Use the exponential diode model to find the
(a) ID2 = = 0.294 mA percentage change in the current.
12 + 6
V = −3 + 0.294 × 6 = −1.23 V iD = IS ev /VT
iD2
Check that D1 is off: Voltage at the anode of = e(V2 −V1 )/VT = ev /VT
D1 = V + VD2 = −1.23 + 0.7 = −0.53 V which iD1
keeps D1 off. For +5 mV change we obtain
4.47 0.1 A I vo
1 mA 0.24 mV
0.1 mA 2.0 mV
1 μA 9.6 mV
1 0.025
For v o = vs = vs ×
Ten diode connected in parallel and fed with a 2 0.025 + 103 I
total current of 0.1 A. So the current through each ⇒ I = 25 μA
0.1
diode = = 0.01 A
10
Small signal resistance of each diode 4.49 As shown in Problem 4.48,
VT 25 mV vo VT 0.025
= = = 2.5 = = (1)
iD 0.01 A vi VT + RS I 0.025 + 104 I
Equivalent resistance, Req , of 10 diodes connected Here RS = 10 k
in parallel is given by
The current changes are limited ±10%. Using
2.5 exponential model, we get
Req = = 0.25
10 iD2
If there is one diode conducting 0.1 A current, = ev /VT = 0.9 to 1.1
iD1
then the small signal resistance of this diode
iD2
25 mV v = 25 × 10−3 ln and here
= = 0.25 iD1
0.1 A
For 0.9, v = −2.63 mV
This value is the same as of 10 diodes connected
in parallel. For 1.1, v = 2.38 mV
If 0.2 is the resistance for making connection, The variation is –2.63 mV to 2.38 mV for ±10%
the resistance in each branch current variation. Thus the largest symmetrical
= rd + 0.2 = 2.5 + 0.2 = 2.7 output signal allowed is 2.38 mV in amplitude. To
vo
obtain the corresponding input signal, we divide I = 100 μA, = 100 × 10−3 = 0.1 V/V
this by (v o /v i ): vi
vo
2.38 mV I = 500 μA, = 500 × 10−3 = 0.5 V/V
vˆs = (2) vi
v o /v i
vo
I = 600 μA, = 600 × 10−3 = 0.6 V/V
Now for the given values of v o /v i calculate I vi
and v̂ S using Equations (1) and (2) vo
I = 900 μA, = 900 × 10−3 = 0.9 V/V
vi
vo vo
I in mA v̂ s in mV I = 990 μA, = 990 × 10−3 = 0.99 V/V
vi vi
0.5 0.0025 4.76 I = 1 mA
0.1 0.0225 23.8 vo
= 1000 μA, = 1000 × 10−3 = 1 V/V
0.01 0.2475 238 vi
0.001 2.4975 2380
4.51
4.50
I
1 mA C
2
vo
C1 D1 D2 D1 D3
vi
I vo
vi R 10 k
D2 D4
When both D1 and D2 are conducting, the
small-signal model is
rd1 I
vi vo
rd2
I
a. The current through each diode is :
2
VT 2VT 0.05
rd = = =
where we have replaced the large capacitors C1 I I I
and C2 by short circuits: 2
VT From the equivalent circuit
vo rd 2 1 m −I I vo R R
= = = = =
vi rd 1 + rd 2 VT VT 1m vi R + (2rd 2rd ) R + rd
+
I 1m−I
Thus vo
vo I rd
= I, where I is in mA vi
vi
0 μA ∞ 0
vo
Now I = 0 μA, =0 1 μA 50 k 0.167
vi
10 μA 5 k 0.667
vo
I = 1 μA, = 1 × 10−3 = 0.001 V/V 100 μA 500 0.952
vi
vo 1 mA 50 0.995
I = 10 μA, = 10 × 10−3 = 0.01 V/V 10 mA 5 0.9995
vi
2.5 2.5
mV mV
4.52
i
vo I
10 mV
R 10 k i1 i3
D1 D3
2.5 2.5
mV mV v1 v3 iO vO
v v4
The current through each diode vI i2 2 i4 R 10 k
0.5 D2 D4
= μA = 0.25 μA
2
The signal current i is 0.5 μA, and this is 10% of
the dc biasing current. I
∴ DC biasing current I = 0.5 × 10 = 5 μA
c. Now I = 1 mA.
I = 1 mA
∴ ID = 0.5 mA
Each diode exhibits 0.7 V drop at 1 mA current.
Maximum current derivation 10%. Using diode exponential model we have
0.5
∴ id = = 0.05 mA i2
10 v 2 − v 1 = VT ln
i1
and i = 2id = 0.1 mA.
and v 1 = 0.7 V, i1 = 1 mA
∴ Maximum v o = i × 10 k
i
⇒ v = 0.7 + VT ln
= 0.1 × 10 1
=1V = 700 + 25 ln(i)
Calculation for different values of v O : For I = 0.5 mA, the output will saturate at
0.5 mA ×10 k = 5 V.
v O = 0, iO = 0, and the current I = 1 mA divide
equally between the D3 , D4 side and the D1 , D2
vo (V )
side.
I 1 mA
I 10
i1 = i2 = i3 = i4 = = 0.5 mA
2
I 0.5 mA
v = 700 + 25 ln(0.5) 683 mV 5
v 1 = v 2 = v 3 = v 4 = 683 mV v1 (V)
10.7 5.68 5.68 10.7
From the circuit, we have
5
v I = −v 1 + v 3 + v O = −683 + 683 + 0 = 0 V
1
For v O = 1 V, iO = = 0.1 mA
10 k
Because of symmetry of the circuit, we obtain
4.53 Representing the diode by the small-signal
I iO
i3 = i2 = + = 0.5 + 0.05 = 0.55 mA and resistances, the circuit is
2 2
i4 = i1 = 0.45 mA rd
i2
v 3 = v 2 = 700 + 25 ln = 685 mV
1 vi C
vo
i4
v 4 = v 1 = 700 + 25 ln = 680 mV
1
VT
rd
ID
vO iO i3 = i2 i4 = i1 v 3 = v 2 v 4 = v 1 v I = −v 1 +
(V) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mV) (mV) v 3 + v O (V) 1
Vo sC 1
0 0 0.5 0.5 683 683 0 = =
Vi 1 1 + sCrd
+1 0.1 0.55 0.45 685 680 1.005 rd +
sC
+2 0.2 0.6 0.4 ∼ 687 677 2.010
Vo 1
+5 0.5 0.75 0.25 ∼ 693 665 5.028 =
Vi 1 + jωCrd
+9 0.9 0.95 0.05 ∼ 699 ∼ 625 9.074
+ 9.9 0.99 0.995 0.005 ∼ 700 568 10.09 ωCrd
Phase shift = −tan−1
9.99 0.999 0.9995 0.0005 ∼ 700 510 10.18 1
10 1 1 0 700 0 10.7
VT
= −tan−1 ωC
I
v I = −v 1 + v 2 + v O = −0.680 For phase shift of −45◦ , we obtain
+0.685 + 1 = 1.005 V
−45 = −tan−1 2π × 100 × 103 × 10
Similarly, other values are calculated as shown in
the table. The largest values of v O on positive and 0.025
× 10−9 ×
negative side are +10 V and −10 V, respectively. I
This restriction is imposed by the current
I = 1 mA ⇒ I = 157 μA
4.54 4.55
V V
R
R IL
VO VO
VO
IL
R rd
VO rd VT /I
(a) = =
V + R + rd VT
R+
I
Small-signal model
VT
=
IR + VT
(a) From the small-signal model
V + − VO V + − 0.7
For no load, I = = . VO = −I L (rd R)
R R
VO
VO VT = − (rd R)
∴ = IL
V + VT + (V + − 0.7)
V + − 0.7
(b) At no load, ID =
R
R VT
rd =
ID
VO 1
= − (rd R) = −
IL 1 1
V
rd VO +
rd R
1
=−
ID ID
+
V + − 0.7 VT
VT 1
=− ×
ID VT
Small-signal model +1
V + − 0.7
VT V + − 0.7
=− ×
(b) If m diodes are in series, we obtain ID VT + V + − 0.7
VO VO mV
=
mr d
=
mVT For ≤5
V + mr d + R mVT + IR IL mA
VT V + − 0.7 5 mV
mVT i.e., × ≤
= ID VT + V + − 0.7 mA
mVT + (V + − 0.7m)
25 15 − 0.7 mV
× ≤5
(c) For m = 1 ID 0.025 + 15 − 0.7 mA
VO VT ID ≥ 4.99 mA
= = 1.75 mV/V
V + VT + V + − 0.7 ID 5 mA
For m = 4 V + − 0.7 15 − 0.7
R= =
ID 5 mA
VO mVT
= = 8.13 mV/V R = 2.86 k
V + mVT + 15 − m × 0.7
1.5 V
4.56 IL = 1.5 mA
1
5 V IL = 0.5 mA
ID = −0.5 mA
IL = −3.4 mV
Vo
With RL = 750 ,
1.5
IL = 2 mA
ID RL 0.75
IL = 1 mA
ID = −1 mA
VO = −1 × 2 × 3.4
Diode has 0.7 V drop at 1 mA current
= −6.8 mV
VO = 1.5 V when RL = 1.5 k
With RL = 500 ,
ID = IS eV /V T
1.5
1 × 10−3 = IS e0.7/0.025 IL = 3 mA
0.5
⇒ IS = 6.91 × 10−16 A IL = 2.0 mA
1.5
Voltage drop across each diode = = 0.75 V. ID = −2.0 mA
2
∴ ID = IS eV /V T = 6.91 × 10−16 × e0.75/0.025 VO = −2 × 2 × 3.4
= 7.38 mA = −13.6 mV
4.57 4.58
5 V
I
I R 200
vO 1.5 V VO
IL
ID D1 IL
ID
RL 150 VO
D2
IL varies from 2 to 7 mA
8 VO = 1.393 V
= eVD /VT
13 IL = 9.287
8 I = 18.04 mA
⇒ VD = 25 ln = −12.1 mV
13 ID = 8.753
and the output voltage changes by No further iterations are necessary and
5 − 1.4 ID = 17.18 mA
I= = 18 mA
0.2
ID = I = 18 mA Iteration #3:
Iteration #2: 17.18
VD = 0.7 + 0.025 ln = 0.714 V
18 10
VD = 0.7 + 0.025 ln = 0.715 V
10 VO = 1.428 V
VO = 1.429 V
No further iterations are needed and
I = 17.85 mA
ID = 17.85 mA VO = 1.43 V
Iteration #3: (e) From the above we see that as VSupply changes
from 5 V to 3.232 V (a change of −35.4%) the
17.85
VD = 0.7 + 0.025 ln = 0.714 V output voltage changes from 1.39 V to 1.29 V (a
10
change of −7.19%).
VO = 1.43 V
As VSupply changes from 5 V to 6.786 V (a change
I = 17.86 mA of +35.4%) the output voltage changes from 1.39
ID = 17.86 mA V to 1.43 V (a change of +2.88%).
No further iterations are warranted and Thus the worst-case situation occurs when VSupply
is reduced, and
VO = 1.43 V
Percentage change in VO per 1% change in
(c) VO = 1.39 − 0.1 = 1.29 V 7.19
1.29 VSupply = = 0.2%
IL = = 8.6 mA 35.4
0.15
1.29
VD = = 0.645 V 4.59 VZ = VZ0 + IZT rz
2
ID = 10 × e(0.645−0.7)/0.025 (a) 10 = 9.6 + 0.05 × rz
= 1.11 mA ⇒ rz = 8
I = IL + ID = 8.6 + 1.11 = 9.71 mA For IZ = 2IZT = 100 mA,
VSupply = VO + IR = 1.29 + 9.71 × 0.2 VZ = 9.6 + 0.1 × 8 = 10.4 V
= 3.232 V
P = 10.4 × 0.1 = 1.04 W
which is a reduction of 1.768 V or −35.4%.
(b) 9.1 = VZ0 + 0.01 × 30
(d) For VSupply = 5 + 1.786 = 6.786 V,
⇒ VZ0 = 8.8 V
Iteration #1:
VD = 0.7 V At IZ = 2IZT = 20 mA,
At IZ = 2IZT = 0.4 A,
VZ = 7.2 + 0.4 × 1.5 = 7.8 V VO VZ
IZ IL RL
4.60 (a) Three 6.8-V zeners provide 3 × 6.8 =
20.4 V with 3 ×10 = 30- resistance. Neglecting
R, we have
Load regulation = −30 mV/mA.
(b) For 5.1-V zeners we use 4 diodes to provide (a)
20.4 V with 4 ×30 = 120- resistance.
Load regulation = −120 mV/mA
11 V
4.61
82 I R
VO VZ
vS
8 vO
rZ
Small-signal model VZ0
Now,
R
VO 7.5
IL = = = 5 mA
RL 1.5
Thus VO
I = IZ + IL = 10 + 5 = 15 mA
and IZ
10 − VO 10 − 7.5
R= = = 167
I 15
When the supply undergoes a change VS , the
change in the output voltage, VO , can be
determined from
VO (RL rz ) GIVEN PARAMETERS
=
VS (RL rz ) + R
VZ = 6.8V, rz = 5
1.5 0.03
= = 0.15 IZ = 20 mA
(1.5 0.03) + 0.167
For VS = +1 V (10% high), VO = +0.15 V At knee,
and VO = 7.65 V. IZK = 0.25 mA
For VS = −1 V (10% low), VO = −0.15 V rz = 750
and VO = 7.35 V.
FIRST DESIGN: 9-V supply can easily supply
When the load is removed and VS = 11 V, we can current
use the zener model to determine VO . Refer to
Fig. (b). To determine VZ0 , we use Let IZ = 20 mA, well above knee.
VS = 13.5 V
VZ = VZ0 + IZT rz
and RL is at its lowest value, to maintain
9.1 = VZ0 + 0.009 × 40
regulation, the zener current must be at least equal
⇒ VZ0 = 8.74 V to IZK , thus
VS 15 V 207
VZ
R
IL 0
20 mA
VO
IZmin 5 mA IZ
RL
25 − VZ
= 9.825 + 7 ×
207
207VZ = 207 (9.825) + 7 (25) − 7VZ
15 − VZ0
R≤
20 + 5 ⇒ VZ = 10.32 V
where we have used the minimum value of VS , the 25 − 10.32
IZmax = = 70.9 mA
maximum value of load current, and the minimum 0.207
required value of zener diode current, and we PZ = 10.32 × 70.9
assumed that at this current VZ VZ0 . Thus,
= 732 mW
15 − 9.825 + 7
R≤
25
4.67
≤ 207 .
∴ use R = 207
7 mV
(c) Line regulation = = 33
207 + 7 V
vS R vO
±25% change in v S ≡ ± 5 V
VO changes by ±5 × 33 = ±0.165 mV
±0.165
corresponding to × 100 = ±1.65%
10
Using the constant voltage drop model:
(d) Load regulation = − (rZ R)
1
20 + (20) = 25 V. (a) v O = v S + 0.7 V, For v S ≤ − 0.7 V
4
VZ = VZ0 + rZ IZ v O = 0, for v S ≥ −0.7 V
vO iD = IS ev D /V T
iD
= e[v D −v D (at 1 mA)]/V T
0.7 V iD (1 mA)
vS
0 iD
v D − v D (at 1 mA) = VT ln
1 mA
v O /R
v D = v D (at 1 mA) + VT ln
slope 1 1
vO = vS − vD
(b) v
O
= v S − v D (at 1 mA) − VT ln
R
vS where R is in k.
10 V vO
4.69
t
0.7 V
0.7 V
10 V 0.7 V
vS
R 1 k vO
u
−1 2.5
= [−10 cos φ − 0.7φ]πθ −θ
2π
= −2.85 V
First find t1 and t2
(d) Peak current in diode is 2.5 0.7
=
10 − 0.7 T t1
= 9.3 mA
1 4
(e) PIV occurs when v S is at its the peak and ⇒ t1 = 0.07 T
v O = 0. T
t2 = − t1
PIV= 10 V 2
T
= − 0.07 T
2
4.68
t2 = 0.43 T
D
1
v O (ave.) = × area of shaded triangle
vD T
1 T
= × (2.5 − 0.7) × − t1
vS
R vO T 4
1 1
= × 1.8 × T − 0.07
T 4
= 0.324 V
√
4.70 vˆO = 10 2 − VD = 13.44 V
0.7
12 : 1
ideal 0.7 V Conduction starts at θ = sin−1 √ =
10 2
2.84◦ = 0.05 rad
= 4.15 V √
v O,avg Peak voltage across R = 10 2 − 2VD
iD,avg = = 4.15 mA √
R = 10 2 − 1.4
= 12.74 V
4.71
vS
D1
6:1 10 2 V
1.4 V
10 Vrms 1 k
vo t
120 Vrms
60 Hz
10 Vrms D2
1.4
θ = sin−1 √ = 5.68◦ = 0.1 rad
10 2
Fraction of cycle that D1 & D2 conduct is
vS , vO (V) π − 2θ
vs × 100 = 46.8%
2π
vo
10 V Note that D3 & D4 conduct in the other half cycle
so that there is 2 (46.8) = 93.6% conduction
0.7 V
interval.
0 t
π−θ √
2
v O,avg = (10 2sinφ − 2V D ) d φ
2π
θ
1 √ π −θ √ √
= −12 2 cos φ − 1.4φ 4.75 120 2 ± 10%: 20 2 ± 10%
π θ
√ ⇒ Turns ratio = 6:1
2(12 2 cos θ ) 1.4 (π − 2θ) √
= − 20 2
π π vS = ± 10%
2
= 7.65 V
PIV= 2Vs − VD
v O,avg 7.65 √
iR,avg = = = 7.65 mA
R 1 20 2
=2× × 1.1 − 0.7
2
4.73 = 30.4 V
Using a factor of 1.5 for safety, we select a diode
vS R having a PIV rating of approximately 45 V.
vO
120 Vrms
vS
4.76 The circuit is a full-wave rectifier with
center tapped secondary winding. The circuit can
be analyzed by looking at v + −
O and v O separately.
Thus voltage across secondary winding (b) (i) Using Eq (4.30), we have the conduction
angle =
= 2VS 40 V
4.77 Vp − 0.7
(ii) ωt 2 × 0.01 = 0.141 rad
Vp − 0.7
12 : 1 R
0.141
Fraction of cycle = × 100 = 2.24%
R 2π
120 Vrms 10 Vrms VS 1 k C vO (c) (i) Use Eq (4.31):
⎛
⎞
2 Vp − VD
iD,avg = IL ⎝1 + π ⎠
Vr
v O,avg 2 Vp − VD
Vp = 1+π
R 0.1 Vp − VD
Vr
VpVD
12.77 2
= 1 + π
103 0.1
= 192 mA
13.37 √
T (ii) iD,avg = 1 + π 200
(i) Vr ∼
= Vp − VD [Eq. (4.28)] 10 3
CR
T = 607 mA
0.1 Vp − VD = Vp − VD
CR (d) Adapting ⎛ Eq. (4.32),
we obtain
⎞
1 2 Vp − VD
C= = 166.7 μF (i) iD,peak = IL ⎝1 + 2π ⎠
0.1 × 60 × 103 Vr
(ii) For
12.77 2
Vp − VD T = 1 + 2π
Vr = 0.01 Vp − VD = 103 0.1
CR
C = 1667 μF = 371 mA
1 13.37 2
(a) (i) v O, avg = Vp − VD − VΓ (ii) iD,peak = 1 + 2π
2 103 0.01
√ 1 √
= 10 2 − 0.7 − 10 2 − 0.7 0.1 = 1201 mA 1.2 A
2
√ 0.1
= 10 2 − 0.7 1 −
2
Vp − VD
4.78 (i) Vr = 0.1 Vp − VD =
= 12.77 V 2fCR
√ 0.01
The factor of 2 accounts for discharge occurring
(ii) v O, avg = 10 2 − 0.7 1 − 1
2 only during half of the period, T /2 = .
2f
= 13.37 V
1 1 1
1 = Vp − 2VD × 0.95
(ii) C = = 833 μF
2 (60) × 103 × 0.01 √
= (10 2 − 2 × 0.7) × 0.95 = 12.1 V
1
(a) (i) VO = Vp − VD − Vr √
2 (ii) VO = (10 2 − 2 × 0.7) × 0.995 = 12.68 V
0.1
= Vp − VD 1 − 2ωt
2 (b) (i) Fraction of cycle = × 100
2π
√
0.1
= (13.44) 1 − 2 (0.1)
2 = × 100 = 14.2%
π
= 12.77 V √
2 (0.01)
0.01 (ii) Fraction of cycle = × 100 = 4.5%
(ii) VO = (13.44) 1 − = 13.37 V π
2
12.1 1
(b) (i) Fraction of cycle =
2ωt
× 100 (c) (i) iD, avg = 1+π = 97 mA
2π 1 0.2
2Vr / Vp − VD 12.68 √
(ii) iD, avg = 1 + π/ 0.02 = 249 mA
= × 100 1
π
1 12.1 1
= 2 (0.1) × 100 = 14.2% (d) (i) îD = 1 + 2π = 182 mA
π 1 0.2
√
2 2 (0.01)
(ii) Fraction of cycle = × 100 12.68 1
2π (ii) îD = 1 + 2π = 576 mA
1 0.02
= 4.5%
(c) Use Eq. (4.34):
Vp − VD 4.80
(i) iD, avg = IL 1 + π
2Vr 0.7 V
12.77 1
= 1+π = 102.5 mA
1 2 (0.1) 120 Vrms R
vS 200 C vO
60 Hz
13.37 1
(ii) iD, avg = 1+π√
1 2 (0.01)
= 310 mA
(d) Use Eq. (4.35):
VO = 12 V ± 1 V (ripple)
1
(i) îD = IL 1 + 2π √ = 192 mA
2 (0.1) RL = 200
1 (a) VO = Vp − VD − 1
(ii) îD = IL 1 + 2π √ = 607 mA
0.02
⇒ Vp = 13 + 0.7 = 13.7 V
Vp − 2VD 13.7
4.79 (i) Vr = 0.1 Vp − VD × 2 = Vrms = √ = 9.7 V
2fCR 2
Vp − 2VD 1 Vp − VD
C=
= 83.3 μF (b) Vr =
Vp − 2VD 2 (0.1) fR fCR
1 13.7 − 0.7
(ii) C = = 833 μF 2=
2 (0.01) fR 60 × C × 200
1 13
(a) VO = Vp − 2VD − Vr ⇒C= = 542 μF
2 2 × 60 × 200
Vp
PIV
Vs 0.7 V C R vO 4.82
120 Vrms
60 Hz
Vs 0.7 V D4 C D1
120 Vrms R
D2 vS
60 Hz vO
(a) VO = Vp − VD − 1 D2 D3
⇒ Vp = VO + VD + 1 = 13 + 0.7 = 13.7 V
(a) VO = Vp − 2VD − 1
13.7
Vrms = √ = 9.7 V ⇒ Vp = VO +2VD +1 = 12+2×0.7+1 = 14.4 V
2
14.4 12 V
Vrms = √ = 10.2 V
2 11.3
Vp − 2 VD 11.3 Vr } Vr 1.13 V
(b) Vr = 10.2 V
2fCR
14.4 − 1.4 0 T
⇒C= = 271 μF 4
2 × 2 × 60 × 200
(c) The maximum reverse voltage across D1
occurs when Vs = −Vp = −14.4 V. At this time t
D3 is conducting, thus (c)
Maximum reverse voltage = −Vp + VD3
During the diode’s off interval (which is almost
= −14.4 + 0.7 = −13.7 V
equal to T ) the capacitor discharges and its
The same applies to the other three diodes. In voltage is given by
specifying the PIV rating for the diode we use a
v O (t) = 11.3 e−t/CR
factor of safety of 1.5 to obtain
where C = 100 μF and R = 100 , thus
PIV = 1.5 × 13.7 = 20.5 V
CR = 100 × 10−6 × 100 = 0.01 s
Vp − 2 VD
(d) iDav = IL 1 + π At the end of the discharge interval, t T and
2 Vr
v O = 11.3 e−T /CR
12 14.4 − 1.4
= 1+π Since T = 0.001 s is much smaller than CR,
0.2 2×2
T
= 400 mA v O 11.3 1 −
CR
Vp − 2 VD
(e) iDmax = IL 1 + 2π The ripple voltage Vr can be found as
2 Vr
T
Vr = 11.3 − 11.3 1 −
12 14.4 − 0.7 CR
= 1 + 2π
0.2 2×2 11.3T 11.3 × 0.001
= = = 1.13 V
= 740 mA CR 0.01
The average dc output voltage is
Vr 1.13
4.83 v O = 11.3 − = 11.3 − = 10.74 V
2 2
To obtain the interval during which the diode
conducts, t, refer to Fig. (c).
vI C R vO 12 Vr
100 =
100 F T /4 t
t iCav × t = C Vr
C Vr 100 × 10−6 × 1.13
⇒ iCav = = = 4.8 A
t 23.5 × 10−6
12 V iDav = iCav + iLav
iDav = 4.8 + 0.113 = 4.913 A iDmax = IL (1 + 2π (Vp − 0.7)/2 Vr )
Finally, to obtain the peak diode current, we use = 0.1(1 + 2π 12.5/2 )
iDmax = iCmax + iLmax = 1.671 A
dv I 11.3 To determine the required PIV rating of each
=C +
dt R diode, we determine the maximum reverse
12 11.3 voltage that appears across one of the diodes, say
=C× +
T /4 R D1 . This occurs when v S is at its maximum
negative value −Vp . Since the cathode of D1 will
12 × 4 11.3
= 100 × 10−6 × + be at +12.5 V, the maximum reverse voltage
1 × 10−3 100 across D1 will be 12.5 + 13.2 = 25.7 V. Using a
= 4.8 + 0.113 = 4.913 A factor of safety of 1.5, then each of the four
diodes must have
which is equal to the average value. This is a
result of the linear v I which gives rise to a PIV = 1.5 × 25.7 = 38.6 V
constant capacitor current during the diode
conduction interval. Thus iCmax = iCav = 4.8 A. 4.85 Refer to Fig. P4.85. When v I is positive, v A
Also, the maximum value of iL is approximately goes positive, turning on the diode and closing the
equal to its average value during the short negative feedback loop around the op amp. The
interval t. result is that v − = v I , v O = 2v − = 2v I , and
v A = v O + 0.7. Thus
4.84 Refer to Fig. P4.76 and let a capacitor C be
(a) v I = +1 V, v − = +1 V, v O = +2 V, and
connected across each of the load resistors R. The
v A = +2.7 V.
two supplies v + −
O and v O are identical. Each is a
full-wave rectifier similar to that of the (b) v I = +3 V, v − = +3 V, v O = +6 V, and
tapped-transformer circuit. For each supply, v A = +6.7 V.
4.86 v I > 0: D1 conducts and D2 cutoff (b) See figure (b) on next page. Here v O = v I for
v I ≥ 2.5 V. At v I = 2.5 V, v O = 2.5 V and the
v I < 0: D1 cutoff,
diode begins to conduct. The diode will be
vO conducting 1 mA and exhibiting a drop of 0.7 at
D2 conducts ∼ = −1
vI v O = 2.3 V. The corresponding value of v I
v I = v O − iR = 2.3 − 1 × 1 = +1.3 V
vO
As v I decreases below 1.3 V, the diode current
increases, but the diode voltage remains constant
at 0.7 V. Thus v O flattens at about 2.3 V.
slope 1
vI (c) See figure (c) on next page. For v I ≤ −2.5 V,
the diode is off, and v O = v I . At v I = −2.5 V the
diode begins to conduct and its current reaches 1
(a) v I = +1 V mA at v I = −1.3 V (corresponding to v O = −2.3
vO = 0 V V). As v I further increases, the diode current
increases but its voltage remains constant at 0.7 V.
v A = −0.7 V Thus v O flattens, as shown.
Keeps D2 off so no current flows through R (d) See figure (d) on next page.
⇒ v− = 0 V
4.88
Virtual ground as feedback loop is closed 3 V
through D1
(b) v I = +3 V
vO = 0 V D1
v A = −0.7 V R = 0.5 k
v− = 0 V vI vo
(c) v I = −1 V i
v O = +1 V
D2
v A = 1.7 V
v− = 0 V
∼ Virtual ground as negative feedback loop is
3 V
closed through D2 and R.
(a)
(d) v I = −3 V ⇒ v O = +3 V
v A = +3.7 V From Fig. (a) we see that for
−3.5 V ≤ v I ≤ +3.5 V, diodes D1 and D2 will be
v− = 0 V cut off and i = 0. Thus, v O = v I . For v I ≥ +3.5
V, diode D1 begins to conduct and its voltage
reaches 0.7 V (and thus v O = +3.7 V) at
i = 1 mA. The corresponding value of v I is
4.87 (a) See figure (a) on next page. For
v I ≤ 3.5 V, i = 0 and v O = v I . At v I = 3.5 V, the v I = v O − iR
diode begins to conduct. At v O = 3.7 V, the diode
v I = 3.7 + 1 × 0.5 = +4.2 V
is conducting i = 1 mA and thus
For v I ≥ 4.2 V, the voltage of diode D1 remains
v I = v O + i × 1 k = 4.7 V
0.7 V and v O saturates at +3.7 V.
For v I > 4.7 V the diode current increases but the
A similar description applies for v I ≤ −3.5 V.
diode voltage remains constant at 0.7 V, thus v O
Here D2 conducts at v I = −3.5 V and its voltage
flattens and v O vs. v I becomes a horizontal line.
becomes 0.7 V, and hence v O = −3.7 V,
In practice, the diode voltage increases slowly at i = 1 mA (in the direction into v I )
and the line will have a small nonzero slope. at v I = −4.2 V. For v I ≤ −4.2 V, v O = −3.7 V.
3.7
3 V 3.5
D
i
vI vO vI (V)
R 1 k 3.5 4.7
slope 1
(a)
vO (V)
3 V
2.5 slope 1
2.3
D
i
vI vO
R 1 k
vI (V)
1.3 2.5
(b)
vO (V)
2.5 1.3
vI (V)
R 1 k
vI vO
i
D 2.3
2.5
3 V
slope 1
(c)
vO (V)
R 1 k
vI vO 4.7 3.5
vI (V)
i
D
slope 1
3 V 3.5
3.7
(d)
3.7
3.5
4.2 3.5
0 3.5 4.2 vI (V)
slope 1
3.7
(b)
D1 D2
vI vO D2 D3
R 0.5 k
(a)
(a)
vO (V)
3.7 The limiter thresholds and the output saturation
3.5 slope 1 levels are found as 2 × 0.7 + 6.8 = 8.2 V. The
transfer characteristic is given in Fig. (b). See
2.5 (Not to scale) figure on next page.
2.3
4.91 1 k
vI vO
vI (V)
1.8 2.5 3.5 4.2
D1 D2
D1 ON D1 & D1 OFF
D2 OFF D2 OFF D2 ON
(b)
Z
Z All diodes and zener are OFF
iD
= e(v O −0.7)/VT
1 mA
iD = 1 × 10−3 e(v O −0.7)/VT
iD vI (V)
v O = 0.7 + VT ln 2 1 1 2
1 mA
v I = v O + iD × 1 k
Using these equations, calculate v I for the
different values of v O . For D2 , 0.8
v I = v O − iD × 1 k
4.92
(a)
10 k
vI vO
When VA > 0, D1 and D2 are cut off and D3 and 0.4 0 – 0.8 – 0.8
D4 conduct a current I2 . Since the diodes are 0.5 0 –1.0 –1.0
0.1-mA devices, the current I2 is related to the
diode voltage VD as follows: 0.6 0.002 –1.2 –1.21
t
3 k
VB
1 vI vO
2 i2
3 i2 D2
4
5
1 k
i3 D3
i4
Figure 3 2 V
Figure 2
4.95 Refer to the circuit in Fig. P4.95. For
v I > 0, D2 and D3 are cut off, and the circuit Here, for v I < −2.5, D2 will be cut off, i2 0
reduces to that in Fig. 1. and D3 also will be cut off, and
3 k vO = vI
vI vO As v I reduces below about −2.5 V, D2 begins to
i1 i D1 conduct and eventually D3 also conducts. The
1
details of this segment of the v O − v I
1 k characteristic can be obtained using the following
1 V relationships:
i3
v D3 = 0.7 + 0.025 ln
Figure 1 1
v D3
i4 = = v D3
Now, for v I < 1.5 V, diode D1 will be off, i1 0, 1 k
and i2 = i3 + i4
vO = vI i2
v D2 = 0.7 + 0.025 ln
1
As v I exceeds 1.5 V, diode D1 will turn on and
v O = −2 − v D3 − v D2
i1
v D1 = 0.7 + 0.025 ln (1) v I = v O − 3i2
1
slope 1
4
2
1 slope 1
All diodes are
cutoff
vt (V)
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1
slope 0.013 3
3.6
Figure 3
In all these equations, currents are in mA and The complete transfer characteristic v O versus v I
voltages are in volts. The numerical results can be plotted using the data in the tables above.
obtained are as follows: The result is displayed in Fig. 3.
Slopes: For v I near +10 V the slope is
i3 v D3 , i 4 i2 v D2 vO vI approximately determined by the voltage divider
0 0.01 0.01 0.585 −2.60 −2.63 composed of the 1 k and the 3 k,
1
0 0.05 0.05 0.625 −2.68 −2.85 Slope = = 0.25 V/V
3+1
0 0.1 0.1 0.642 −2.74 −3.04 For v I near −10 V, the slope is approximately
0 0.2 0.2 0.660 −2.86 −3.46 given by
rd 2 + rd 3
0 0.3 0.3 0.670 −2.97 −3.87 Slope −
rd 2 + rd 3 + 3 k
0 0.4 0.4 0.677 −3.08 −4.28
From the table above,
0 0.5 0.5 0.683 −3.18 −4.68 25
i3 1.5 mA ⇒ rd 3 = = 16.7
0.01 0.585 0.595 0.687 −3.28 −5.07 1.5
25
0.1 0.642 0.742 0.693 −3.35 −5.56 i2 2.21 mA ⇒ rd 2 = = 11.3
2.21
0.2 0.660 0.860 0.696 −3.36 −5.94 Thus
0.5 0.682 1.182 0.704 −3.38 −6.93 11.3 + 16.7
Slope = = 0.009 V/V
11.3 + 16.7 + 3000
1.0 0.700 1.700 0.713 −3.41 −8.51
which is reasonably close to the value found from
1.5 0.710 2.210 0.720 −3.43 −10.06 the graph.
4.96 At = T1 = T , v O = V1
C = V1 e−T /RC
vI D v
O V1 V1́
0 t
V2 V2́
vI 5 2 vO
0 t T1 T2
0 t
5 2
where for T CR
V1 V1 (1 − T /CR) = V1 (1 − α)
where α 1
From the figure we see that
√ During the interval T2 , we have
v Oav = −5 2 = −7.07 V
|v O | = |V2 | e−t/(CR/2)
At the end of T2 , t = T , and v O = |V2 |
4.97
where
(a)
10 V |V2 | = |V2 | e−T /(CR/2)
T
|V2 | 1 − = |V2 | (1 − 2α)
RC/2
10 V
Now
V1 + |V2 | = 20 ⇒ V1 + |V2 | − αV 1 = 20 (1)
(b)
20 V and
V2 + V1 = 20 ⇒ V1 + |V2 | − 2α |V2 | = 20 (2)
0V From (1) and (2) we find that
V1 = 2|V2 |
(c) Then using (1) and neglecting αV1 yields
0V
3 |V2 | = 20 ⇒ |V2 | = 6.67 V
V1 = 13.33 V
20 V
The result is
(d) 13.33 V
0V
6.67 V
20 V
(g)
(e) 18 V
10 V
2 V
10 V
(h) Using a method similar to that employed for
case (f) above, we obtain
(f) Here there are two different time constants
involved. To calculate the output levels, we shall 13.33 V
consider the discharge and charge wave forms.
During T1 , v O = V1 e−t/RC 6.67 V