Acta mater.

49 (2001) 683–697
www.elsevier.com/locate/actamat

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF THE WELDABILITY OF

SUPERALLOYS
D. DYE, O. HUNZIKER and R. C. REED*
University of Cambridge/Rolls-Royce University Technology Centre, Department of Materials Science and
Metallurgy, Pembroke Street, Cambridge CB2 3QZ, UK

( Received 13 September 2000; accepted 10 October 2000 )

Abstract—When manufacturing fusion welds, the potential exists for defects to be introduced. The possi-
bilities include the formation of a centreline grain boundary, interdendritic microporosity, constitutional liqu-
ation and solidification cracking. In this paper, numerical analysis is carried out in order to predict the
processing conditions necessary to cause the occurrence of these phenomena. Although the models developed
are of general applicability, their behaviour is examined particularly with respect to the tungsten–inert gas
(TIG) welding of the nickel-based superalloy IN718. Weldability maps are presented, on which the conditions
for successful processing are identified.  2001 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All
rights reserved.

Keywords: Nickel alloys; Welding; Theory & modelling (defects)

1. INTRODUCTION weld centreline, since low-melting-point phases

accumulate there; (2) solidification cracking, i.e., sep-
The drive to increase the efficiency and to reduce the
aration at the centreline due to low ductility and posi-
cost, weight and emissions associated with the very
tive transverse stress; and (3) liquation cracking,
latest generation of gas turbine engines demands the
which is due to incipient melting in the heat-affected
use of improved grades of superalloy which are weld-
zone (HAZ) in the vicinity of carbides or nitrides
able, and a greater understanding of the influence of
which remain undissolved by the action of the weld-
the joining processes on material behaviour and
ing torch. Figure 1 shows weld micro- and macrog-
component integrity. This is particularly the case for
raphs of these defects. One can see that there is a
combustor liner and casing alloys. Unfortunately, the
considerable number of micro-mechanical phenom-
improvements in high-temperature strength and creep
ena which must be accounted for, each of which
resistance which are being sought make the pro-
depends in a complicated way upon the thermal
duction of structurally sound welds more difficult.
cycles that are induced and hence the processing con-
Furthermore, experience has shown that during the
ditions, the thermal–mechanical response of the
production of welds in high-integrity structures such
material, the microstructural evolution that occurs and
as compressor and combustor assemblies, component
the interdendritic fluid flow which must compensate
rework and scrap can be generated. This is very
in part for the solidification shrinkage. At this stage
costly, since the welding process is so far down the
there does not appear to be a unified treatment of all
manufacturing stream.
of the relevant phenomena; possibly this is because
In order to remedy this situation, at least in part, it
of the number and complexity of these different
is desirable to formulate mathematical models [1] for
effects. In this paper, we develop a suite of numerical
the defects that might arise during the welding of a
models that is designed to predict the occurrence of
superalloy. By doing this, it is hoped that the degree
these phenomena. This is done by coupling together
of empiricism which is usually associated with the
models for heat transfer, microstructure evolution,
choice of welding parameters might be reduced or
stress analysis and fluid flow. Particular attention is
even eliminated [2–5]. For superalloys, the pertinent
paid to the simulation of the welding of IN718, one
effects are: (1) formation of a grain boundary at the
of the commonest forms of superalloy.

2. BACKGROUND
* To whom all correspondence should be addressed. Tel.:
⫹44-1223-334-320. Fax: ⫹44-1223-331-956. In this section a brief review will be presented of
E-mail address: rcr@cus.cam.ac.uk (R.C. Reed) the important phenomena that must be accounted for

1359-6454/01/$20.00  2001 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 5 9 - 6 4 5 4 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 3 6 1 - X
684 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS
Fig. 1. Three of the different defects observed in superalloy
welds: (a) solidification cracking, (b) formation of a centreline
grain boundary and (c) constitutional liquation around carbides
in the heat-affected zone.
in any numerical treatment of the weldability of
superalloys. The first is solidification cracking, which
might be expected to occur when the two-phase
liquid–solid region experiences a tensile stress during
solidification. When the fraction of solid fs is still sig-
nificantly smaller than unity (typically fs⬍0.7 [6] or
⬍0.9 [7]), the flow of liquid between the dendrites
can compensate for the solidification shrinkage and
any induced strains, thus restricting the stresses to
very small values. However, when the fraction of
solid approaches unity, flow of the interdendritic
liquid can no longer act to reduce the strain and the
remaining liquid films can act as crack initiators,
since they offer little mechanical resistance. It has
been appreciated for some time that the cracking sen-
sitivity correlates strongly with the solidification
interval, since dilute and eutectic alloys display little
tendency to solidification crack [6]. Unfortunately, for
welding applications it is not the equilibrium solidi-
fication interval which is relevant, rather the actual
solidification range which can be significantly larger.
Therefore a model for microsegregation is highly
desirable. It has been suggested [7, 8] that a cracking
sensitivity criterion be defined as the ratio of a time
of vulnerability to a time during which the vulnerable
region can relax. The relaxation time was defined [7],
for any given point in the assembly, as the time when
the solid fraction fs lies between fs ⫽ 0.4 and 0.9.
Similarly, the time of vulnerability corresponds to the
time between fs ⫽ 0.9 and 0.99. This criterion was
developed to evaluate the effect of alloy composition
on cracking sensitivity during casting and is largely
based on empirical considerations. Its major draw-
back is that mechanical effects are not taken into
account, so it has its limitations for welding appli-
cations. Furthermore, so far only binary alloys have
been considered and it is usually multicomponent
alloys which are of most interest.
Other workers have emphasised the importance of
developing a suitable mechanical treatment of the
stresses and strains to be anticipated during welding;
a review is given in [6]. When such models are com-
pared with experimental observations, it has been
concluded that the propensity for solidification crack-
ing is a sensitive function of strain [6, 9]. Cracking
can therefore be assumed to occur at a given strain (or
accumulated strain) during solidification. However, it
is felt that this approach is not very realistic since it
considers damage accumulation due to strains in the
region of the mushy zone where the solid fraction is
low and the strains may be compensated by liquid
flow. This serves to emphasise the importance of a
numerical treatment of the interdendritic flow which
is driven by the solidification shrinkage, since this
must serve to reduce the rate at which damage is
accumulated. Feurer [10] has developed a model for
solidification cracking based on a comparison
between the feeding capacity of the mushy zone and
the mass flow required by shrinkage. Cracking is then
expected when the feeding cannot compensate for the
shrinkage strain. The feeding capacity is calculated
using the Darcy law and an estimate of the per-
meability of the mushy region. The effect of shrink-
age is governed by the evolution of solid fraction with
temperature during solidification, which in turn
depends upon the microsegregation behaviour of the
alloy. In this model, the influence of both thermal
conditions and alloy composition is taken into
account in a consistent way. In a similar approach,
Rappaz et al. [11] have made calculations of the fluid
flow and the corresponding pressure drop in the
mushy zone; however, here both the solidification
shrinkage and the strain rate perpendicular to the
growth direction are accounted for. It is then assumed
 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS
that at a certain critical pressure, a void nucleates and
a crack is initiated. The main difference with the pre-
vious model is that a strain rate in the mushy zone
can be taken into account. It appears that such
approaches have yet to be applied to welding simula-
tions.
Finally, there exists a different but related phenom-
enon that is significant for the welding of superalloys:
constitutional liquation around second phases such as
carbides in the heat-affected zone. During processing,
the thermal cycles experienced by the HAZ may be
extremely intense and there can be insufficient time
for the particles to dissolve into the surrounding
matrix. Consequently, it may be possible for liquid to
form at the interface between the second phases and
the matrix, even though the temperature does not
exceed the bulk melting temperature of the alloy. This
phenomenon has been studied in detail by Radhak-
rishnan and Thompson in a series of related articles
[12–14]. It is possible to envisage circumstances in
which constitutional liquation leads to grain boundary
cracking, if the stress field is favourable for its occur-
rence. Indeed, liquation cracking has been reported
by a number of workers [15–17]. We do not attempt
to model other weldability-related phenomena such as
ductility-dip cracking [18] and reheat cracking [19]
in this paper.
3. NUMERICAL MODELLING
In the present paper, we develop a modelling
framework that is capable of estimating the welding
conditions at which the various welding defects are
expected. At this stage, it appears that only very few
attempts have been made to do this. For this reason,
we do not attempt to introduce excessively complex
assumptions; instead we limit the modelling to a sim-
plified geometry—i.e., a thin sheet in which a state
of plane stress can be expected to exist. The thermal
field transferred to it is assumed to quasi-stationary—
i.e., it remains invariant in the moving frame. In the
interests of keeping the computational cost of the cal-
culations to a minimum, a semi-analytical solution for
the temperature field is adopted.
3.1. Heat transfer to workpiece
We assume that a steady-state temperature field has
been reached with respect the movement of the heat
source. In three dimensions, the temperature field for
a point source moving on the surface of a semi-infi-
nite plate is [20]:
q
T{x, y, z} ⫽ T0 ⫹ (1)
2p␬√x ⫹ y2 ⫹ z2
2 3.2. Criterion for the occurrence of constitutional
⫻ exp ⫺ 再 v
2a
(x ⫹ √x2 ⫹ y2 ⫹ z2) , 冎
where x, y and x are coordinates relative to the heat
685
source (moving frame)—x being the welding direc-
tion, y the coordinate in the transverse direction and
z the through-thickness coordinate, T0 is the far-field
temperature, q is the effective power, v is the welding
speed, ␬ is the thermal conductivity and a is the ther-
mal diffusivity. In order to take into account the
extent of the heat source and to avoid the mathemat-
ical singularity of the point source which equation (1)
implies, the following solution for a circular Gaussian
distribution of power on the surface centred at the
origin has been employed [21]:
qa
T{x, y, z} ⫽ T0 ⫹ (2)
p3/2␬
冕
⬁
exp{⫺[(x ⫹ vt)2 ⫹ y2]/(s2 ⫹ 4at)⫺(z2/4at)}
⫻ dt,
√at(s2 ⫹ 4at)
0
where s is the distance from the heat source at which
the power density falls to a fraction 1/e of its
maximum value. Use of equation (2) demands a
numerical calculation of the integral, but is more
realistic than the point source model given by equ-
ation (1). Far from the source it should be noted that
equation (2) reduces to equation (1) and this simpli-
fication has been used to speed up the computation.
To apply equation (2) to a plate of infinite length
in the x direction but of finite width y and/or thickness
z, the method of images is used [22]. To the three-
dimensional (3D) solution, equation (2), the contri-
butions of an infinite set of fictitious heat sources are
added. These are located in such a way that the sur-
faces of the plate become symmetry planes; their
adiabatic nature is thus respected. This involves locat-
ing the fictitious sources at the mirror reflections of
the real source with respect to the adiabatic surfaces.
In this way, the temperature at any point within the
plate of thickness ez and width ey is given by:
T{x, y, z} ⫽ T0 ⫹ (3)
冘 冘
⬁ ⬁
(T⬘{x, y ⫹ 2iey, z ⫹ 2jez}⫺T0),
i ⫽ ⫺⬁ j ⫽ ⫺⬁
where T⬘{x, y, z} is evaluated using equation (2). In
practice, only a small number of terms of the sum are
required to obtain a satisfactory result, the number
depending on the accuracy required and the size of
the domain under consideration.
liquation
We assume that liquation in the heat-affected zone
occurs due to the eutectic reaction γ ⫹ NbC→γ ⫹
L ⫹ NbC, and is therefore due to the incomplete dis-
solution of NbC during the heating cycle. The phase
686 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS

diagram for a section of the Ni–Nb–C ternary system

is shown in Fig. 2.
We assume that any remaining carbide at the eutec-
tic temperature will result in the formation of liquid
between the carbide and γ-Ni, and hence of consti-
tutional liquation. The problem is thus one of model-
ling the dissolution of the carbide during the heating
cycle. We use the simple isokinetic approach
described by Christian [23] and recently used by
Grøng et al. [24, 25]. Dissolution of the NbC particle
is assumed to be controlled by diffusion of niobium
in nickel. In this case if the diffusivity of Nb is
assumed to be constant, then an analytical solution
for the rate of particle dissolution in one dimension
at constant temperature is given by Whelan [26]:

冪pt,
dB k D
⫽⫺ (4)
dt 2
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of carbide dissolution in a binary
alloy.

where B is the particle half-width, k ⫽ 2(Ci⫺

C0)/(Cp⫺Ci), D is the diffusivity of Nb in nickel, t is particle size B. Substitution of equation (5) into equ-
time, T is temperature and the concentrations Cp, Ci ation (4) gives
and C0 are those of Nb in the carbide particle, its
solubility in the γ phase and its composition at infin- dB ⫺B20
⫽ ∗ , (6)
ity, respectively, as shown in Fig. 3. After integration, dt 2t (B0⫺B)
the time at which the particle size has reduced to B
can be shown to be
where the time constant t∗{T} ⫽ B20p/k2D is a func-
t⫽ 冉 冊
p B0⫺B
D{T} k{T}
.
2
(5)
tion only of temperature and is equal to the time
required for the original particle to dissolve at a tem-
perature T. Integration of this first-order separable dif-
ferential equation gives
If the reaction is additive in the sense defined by

冉冕 冊
t
Christian [23], then the shape of the diffusion field 1/2
B dt
can be neglected and an incremental scheme derived, ⫽ 1⫺ (7)
where the particle dissolution ⌬B in time increment B0 t∗
0
⌬t is given only by the temperature and the current

as shown by Bjørneklett et al. [25]. This equation sat-

Fig. 2. Binary section of the Ni–Nb–C ternary phase diagram
between pure Ni and the face-centred cubic (fcc) NbC carbide,
produced using Thermocalc.
isfies the criterion for additivity given by Christian
[23] and so the incremental form given in equation
(6) is expected to provide a reasonable approximation
to the behaviour. Comparison to finite difference
models by Bjørneklett et al. [25] for one-dimensional
(1D) dissolution of precipitates indicates that these
solutions are likely to provide reasonable results on
heating.
The model is implemented by taking the equilib-
rium carbide content and matrix compositions from a
phase diagram model [27, 28] and assuming a starting
carbide size based upon empirical estimates from
microscopy. The liquidus temperature of the alloy is
also taken from this model. The constants for Ci and
Cp as a function of temperature are taken from the
binary section of the Ni–Nb–C phase diagram shown
in Fig. 2, along with the eutectic temperature Teut. The
diffusivity of Nb in Ni is taken from the literature
[17]. The actual composition of IN718 is shown in
 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS
Table 1 and the constants used are given in Appen-
dix B.
This approach accounts for the factors known to
influence liquation: the thermal cycle which depends
on the physical properties of the alloy and the welding
conditions, the diffusivity of the rate-limiting species,
the original composition of that species in the matrix
phase, and the particle size. Therefore it should be
useful for predicting the effects of process, micro-
structural and compositional variables on the occur-
rence of liquation. As yet, this model has not been
coupled to the mechanical model, see Section 3.3,
because the properties at high temperatures in the
heat-affected zone are not well known and the tem-
perature to which the liquid persists is uncertain.
However, liquid film formation makes the material
sensitive to strain rate, and the combination of a
liquid film and tensile stress would be expected to
lead to cracking. Therefore this approach is conserva-
tive with respect to liquation cracking.
3.3. Criterion for solidification cracking
Solidification cracking arises when separation
occurs at the weld centreline during solidification
under the influence of a positive transverse stress, Fig.
1(a). The treatment of solidification cracking
employed here requires two separate calculations to
be performed. First, a multicomponent Gulliver–
Scheil analysis [29] is carred out to estimate the liqui-
dus temperature and variation of the solid fraction
with decreasing temperature. The Thermocalc
software (see, e.g., [27]) and a database of thermo-
dynamic parameters [28] are used for this purpose.
Next, a model for the mechanical response of the
workpiece to the action of the arc is invoked to com-
pute the stress field in the vicinity of the weld pool
and, in particular, just behind it. A detailed descrip-
tion of this model and its advantages and limitations
are given in [29]; brief details are given in Appendix
A. Here, it is sufficient to note that it involves a ther-
mal elastic–plastic analysis in two dimensions,
assuming a state of plane stress; therefore the model
is well suited to the treatment of a thin plate. The
Eulerian or steady-state condition is assumed—i.e.,
we proceed directly to the solution in the moving
frame with no consideration of the transients associa-
ted with start-up or cool-down. Stress and plastic
strain are set to zero within the weld pool (fraction
solid fs⬍0.7). The data required for the calculations
are given in Appendix B.
The criterion used to predict the onset of solidifi-
cation cracking is as follows. The transverse stress
is evaluated behind the heat source, along the weld
Table 1. The composition of sheet IN718, in wt%
Alloy Ni Cr Fe Mo
IN718 Bal. 18.2 18.5 2.96
687
centreline, at positions where the solid fraction lies
between 0.7 and 0.98. Solidification cracking is
assumed to occur if the transverse stress is tensile in
this region. The choice of 0.7 as the fraction of solid
after which strains cannot be compensated for by
liquid flow is to some extent arbitrary, but is an
assumption often made in the literature [6, 9]. It
should be recognised that it may be possible to model
feeding via interdendritic fluid flow, which sets this
lower limit, and this is discussed in Section 5.
3.4. Criterion for the formation of a centreline
grain boundary
The criterion used for the formation of a centreline
grain boundary is a geometrical one, with attention
focused on the isotherms at the trailing edge of the
weld. Consider a relatively elliptical pool, as shown
in Fig. 4. Provided that the plate is thin so that the
temperature field does not vary considerably through
its thickness, the dendrites at the back of the pool
grow at a speed corresponding to the welding velo-
city. In this case, the envelope describing the location
of the dendrite tips is curved; in fact it is constrained
in a geometrical sense to lie between two isotherms,
one corresponding to the liquidus Tliq and the other
to a temperature ⌬T beneath this, where the undercoo-
ling ⌬T represents that corresponding to dendrites
growing at the welding speed. The distance between
these two isotherms, measured on the weld centreline,
is denoted ⌬xund. The undercooling ⌬T can be evalu-
ated from the dendrite-tip growth law [30] which is
generally found to be of the form v ⫽ a⌬Tn, where
the exponent n is around 2 to 3. For the alloy IN718,
Hunziker et al. [31] have developed a multicompo-
nent dendrite-tip growth model which yields a ⫽
1.2754⫻10⫺7 m s⫺1 K⫺n and n ⫽ 3.05. For a weld-
ing velocity of v ⫽ 1 mm s⫺1 the undercooling is
then 苲17°C and at v ⫽ 10 mm s⫺1, 苲40°C. Then, in
Fig. 4. Illustration of the analytical model for centreline forma-
tion based upon the ratio between the length of the undercooled
region ⌬xund and the radius of curvature of the trailing edge of
the weld pool r in the case where centreline formation is not
expected.
Ta Nb Ti Al C B
0.01 5.10 1.06 0.52 0.055 0.003
688 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS

order to define the processing conditions at which a

grain boundary centreline is expected, one compares Tpara ⫽ T0 ⫹
q
冑 a
2␬d pv√x2 ⫹ 2r(x⫺xliq)
(12)
the distance ⌬xund to the radius of curvature of the
liquidus isotherm at the trailing edge, which is
denoted r. When the ratio ⌬xund/r is small, the envel-
⫻ exp ⫺ 再 v
2a
[x ⫹ √x2 ⫹ 2r(x⫺xliq)] . 冎
ope of dendrite tips has a large radius of curvature
and a centreline grain boundary is avoided. Con-
versely, when ⌬xund/r is large, the dendrites struggle The temperature gradient along the parabolic path
to turn towards the welding direction and a centreline must be zero for it to be the required isotherm, which
grain boundary is formed. allows a solution for r to be found, from
It remains to find suitable expressions for ⌬xund and
r. When the plate is thin, it is sufficient to consider ∂Tpara
Rosenthal’s two-dimensional (2D) solution which is
given by [20]
∂x | x ⫽ xliq
⫽0⇒
1 v 1
⫽ ⫺ .
r a xliq
(13)

T⫺T0 ⫽
q
2π␬d
exp ⫺
vx
K 再 冎再 冎
vr
2a 0 2a
, (8) Finally, combining equations (10), (11) and (13)
gives the required ratio ⌬xund/r:

where d is the plate thickness, v the welding speed,

K0 is the Bessel function of zeroth order and second
⌬xund
r
⫽
v
a 冉冊 冋 1/n
q2
2p␬2d2(Tliq⫺T0)3
(14)
kind, r ⫽ √x2 ⫹ y2 and the other symbols take the
meanings used in equation (1). For small s, the Bessel
function K0{s} can be approximated by √p/2s
⫹
2
册
(Tliq⫺T0)
.

exp{⫺s} to an accuracy of 10% for s>1. For most
alloys of interest and for practical welding speeds it
can be shown that this approximation is very reason-
able. Thus along the centreline behind the weld
where r ⫽ ⫺x, the liquidus temperature Tliq is found
at a position xliq which is given by
⫺q2a
xliq ⫽ . (9)
4p␬ d v(Tliq⫺T0)2
2 2
Some thought needs to be given to an appropriate
value for the ratio ⌬xund/r. Detailed numerical calcu-
lations in [31] have shown that the formation of a
centreline grain boundary occurs when ⌬xund/r takes
a value of the order of unity. Since we require here
only approximate results and since the exact value is
likely to depend upon the alloy under consideration,
a value of unity is accepted for the purposes of the
present paper.

The temperature gradient at xliq can then be used, 4. RESULTS

along with a suitable growth–undercooling relation- We have found that the criteria presented here
ship, v ⫽ a⌬Tn, to find the maximum size of the allow weldability maps to be constructed with effec-
undercooled region, ⌬xund, according to tive welding power plotted against welding speed. On

冒|
these, a "weldable" regime can be found where
∂T defects are not expected, Fig. 5. Effective power is
⌬xund⯝⌬T{v} , (10)
∂x defined as the actual power delivered by the welding
x ⫽ xliq
torch, reduced by a factor h which corresponds to
the thermal efficiency. For IN718, a value of 0.55 is
where by differentiation and substitution it can be appropriate [32]. These calculations have been made
shown that for 2 mm thick, 50 mm wide sheet of IN718. For
liquation, an initial carbide particle size of 2 µm
∂T 2p␬2d2v(Tliq⫺T0)3 (B0 ⫽ 1 µm) has been assumed. The diffusivity of Nb
∂x | x ⫽ xliq
⫽
q2 a
. (11) in nickel has been obtained from [17]. A line is also
plotted where a fully penetrating weld bead is
expected to be achieved from the thermal model
In order to find an expression for r, one can assume given in Section 3.1. The properties used in the mod-
that the isotherm is locally parabolic—i.e., that its els are given in Appendix B. We now discuss the
position can be described by the equation x ⫽ predictions obtained for each defect type in greater
xliq ⫹ by2. The radius of curvature of such a parabola detail.
at x ⫽ xliq is given by r ⫽ 1/2b. Hence the term r
4.1. Constitutional liquation
can be replaced by √x2 ⫹ 2r(x⫺xliq) in the approxi-
mation to Rosenthal’s 2D solution, so that the tem- Figure 6 illustrates the dissolution predicted for a
perature Tpara along the parabola is 4 µm thick (B0 ⫽ 2 µm) carbide 2.7 mm from the
 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS
Fig. 5. Weldability map illustrating the "weldable" regime for-
med by excluding regions where (1) full penetration of the weld
bead does not occur, (2) a centreline grain boundary is pre-
dicted, (3) liquation occurs around carbides in the heat-affected
zone or (4) solidification cracking is predicted.
Fig. 6. Evolution of temperature and particle size versus time
for a welding cycle resulting in the formation of liquid at the
eutectic temperature. The welding speed is 10 mm s⫺1, the
effective power 1000 W, and the y-position away from the weld
centreline 2.7 mm. The eutectic and liquidus temperatures are
denoted Teut and Tliq, respectively.
weld centreline, for an effective power of 1000 W
and a speed of 10 mm s⫺1. It can be seen that the
dissolution is not appreciable until the temperature is
quite high, above 900°C. In this case the melting tem-
perature Tliq is not reached, but the temperature at
which the eutectic reaction begins (Teut) is attained
before the carbide fully dissolves, and therefore it is
predicted that liquation will occur.
The calculations suggest that the carbide dissol-
ution rate decreases rapidly once the temperature
starts to decrease and the carbide begins to dissolve.
This is because the dissolution rate is proportional to
the inverse of the amount of carbide dissolved, as
indicated by equation (6). This manifests itself in Fig.
7, for the same welding conditions, by the flat con-
tours of B behind the weld pool. It has been noted
[25] that once the temperature starts to decrease, the
isokinetic solution departs from that predicted by a
finite difference model. This is because the solubility
of niobium in nickel starts to decrease and therefore
689
Fig. 7. Contour plot of the evolution of carbide size around the
stationary weld pool for the same conditions as Fig. 6. Liqu-
ation in the heat-affected zone is expected where the tempera-
ture exceeds the eutectic temperature Teut and some carbide
remains undissolved, but where melting at the liquidus tem-
perature Tliq never occurs. The contours of carbide size B (thin
lines) are in increments of 0.4 µm.
a maximum can develop in the diffusion field away
from the carbide/matrix interface, rather than at the
interface as is assumed when the solution for iso-
thermal dissolution is used. Therefore the results in
Fig. 6 are not strictly valid for cooling beyond the
eutectic temperature. However, for the purposes of
predicting the occurrence of constitutional liquation
at a carbide particle, the behaviour on cooling is not
relevant, and therefore this model is felt to be
adequate.
The shape of the line indicating the threshold
where liquation is expected to occur in Fig. 6 is gov-
erned by the thermal field in the heat-affected zone.
The strongest effect is that of welding speed, which
most strongly affects the heating rate. At high powers,
diffusion of heat ahead of the moving weld begins to
be significant, reducing the heating rate and thereby
allowing more time for the carbide to dissolve before
the eutectic temperature is reached. This has the effect
of shifting the liquation line to higher speeds. Thus
the form of the results obtained are in accordance
with those that might be expected from a simple
analysis based upon Rosenthal’s solutions [equation
(8)] and simple results from diffusion theory [equ-
ation (4)].
In order to optimise the processing of materials that
are intended to be welded, these results suggest that
the weldability window is a strong function of the
carbide size. In Fig. 8, part of the weldability diagram
from Fig. 5 is plotted using three different values for
the initial carbide size—B0 ⫽ 1 µm, the value used
in Fig. 5, and 2 and 3 µm. The effect on the size
of the weldable region is large, especially when one
considers that the distortions are likely to be greater
for welds made at lower welding speeds and that the
region of tensile longitudinal residual stress is also
expected to be greater under such conditions. Hence
an alloy with a carbide size of 6 µm is expected to
suffer liquation under almost all reasonable welding
conditions. Decreasing the matrix composition of
niobium C0, for example by raising the carbon con-
tent and hence increasing the amount of niobium used
by the carbide phase, leads to a rise in the rate con-
stant k and thereby to a decrease in the dissolution
time for a given carbide size. Hence raising carbide
690 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS
Fig. 8. Weldability map illustrating the effect of changing the
carbide half-wdith B0 from the value of 1 µm used for the
calculations in Fig. 5 to 2 or 3 µm.
volume fraction by increasing the carbon content of
the alloy may lead to an improvement in the weld-
ability of the alloy with respect to liquation if the
carbide size is controlled. The analysis performed
here could be repeated for other carbide-forming
metal species, such as tantalum, tungsten or titanium
in an identical way in order to produce a liquation
line for an alloy containing different or multiple car-
bide forms.
The model used is an analytical approximation to
one based upon a phenomenological treatment using
mobility and free energy calculations to estimate the
diffusive flux in the matrix around a dissolving car-
bide particle. IN718 contains many other elements,
including iron, aluminium, titanium, chromium and
molybdenum, which may alter the observed diffusiv-
ity of niobium in the γ phase. The presence of other
precipitate phases, such as γ⬘ and γ⬙, will tend to
depress the observed diffusivity of niobium since
components of ordered intermetallics tend to have
lower diffusivities and via the so-called ‘labyrinth
effect’ [33]. However, the data required to support
such a model are extensive and, in many cases, sim-
ply not available, especially outside the Ni–Al–Ti
system and at the high temperatures experienced dur-
ing welding that are of interest here. A realistic model
would also have to account for any local depletion of
Nb around the carbide in the starting condition. Gen-
eral conclusions about the effect of process variables
such as welding speed and power would not, it is felt,
be made any stronger by the use of a complex model
that attempted to incorporate these effects. However,
it should be noted that the major simplifications used
are: (1) that the problem can be assumed to be one
of the diffusion of Nb in Ni away from an NbC car-
bide; (2) that the diffusivity of Nb in Ni is constant;
and (3) that the thermodynamic term k is adequately
obtained from a binary section of the Ni–Nb–C ter-
nary. One aspect of particle dissolution that has been
ignored in this analysis is that while the carbide may
fully dissolve, the local concentration of niobium and
carbon in the γ phase is still raised, depressing the
local melting point from that of the homogeneous
alloy. This situation is analogous to that of grain
boundary liquation [15], which occurs where
elements such as boron and carbon that segregate to
grain boundaries can also cause constitutional liqu-
ation.
4.2. Formation of a grain boundary at the centreline
The centreline formation line shown in Fig. 5 cor-
responds to ⌬xund/r ⫽ 1. The form of the solution
with respect to welding speed and power closely
agrees with that derived from an analysis based upon
dendrite growth theory reported in [31]. For IN718,
if the power is of order 103 W, then the first term in
equation (14) is approximately 20 times larger than
the second. So to a good approximation
⌬xund/r⬀q2 n冑v, which indicates that centreline forma-
tion is very much more sensitive to power than speed,
since n苲3. Similarly, under these conditions the cur-
vature of the liquidus isotherm, r, is given by
r⯝a/v, which is a potentially useful result for weld
modelling.
In Fig. 9 lines are shown illustrating the effect of
a ±50°C variation in the liquidus temperature, Tliq.
Raising Tliq is expected to decrease ⌬xund/r for given
welding conditions and hence to decrease the likeli-
hood of the formation of a grain boundary at the
centreline. This is because the temperature gradient
at the liquidus temperature is raised by increasing the
liquidus temperature. This in turn implies that the
length of the undercooled region ⌬xund is decreased,
so a greater curvature (1/r) of the isotherms can be
tolerated. Since, to a first-order estimate, 1/r is inde-
pendent of Tliq, this implies that raising the melting
temperature decreases the propensity of an alloy to
centreline grain boundary formation. This ignores any
secondary effects on the physical properties, and also
Fig. 9. Weldability map illustrating the effect of changing the
alloy liquidus temperature on the position of the line for
centreline formation.
 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS
it should be noted that the 50°C variation in Tliq
shown in Fig. 9 does not have a large effect.
It should be noted that this treatment is not
expected to be accurate in the case of a non-penetrat-
ing weld, since heat is not then confined to flow
within the plane of the plate, so a 3D solution is to
be preferred. Neither is the behaviour of equation (14)
of interest at very high powers and low speeds,
because of the upper bound that complete melting of
the plate must eventually occur. In practice the melt
pool collapses before complete melting occurs
because surface tension is no longer sufficient to sup-
port the weight of the molten pool. However, neither
the "complete melting" or the "non-penetrating"
regions are of the greatest relevance to the present
paper.
4.3. Solidification cracking
Figure 10 shows the evolution of the fraction solid
fs with temperature for IN718, as determined from the
Scheil calculation. The liquidus temperature is pre-
dicted to be 1354°C. The temperature range defined
by a variation of fs from 0.70 and 0.98, which is
assumed to define the region of vulnerability, is given
by Tfs ⫽ 0.7 ⫽ 1236°C and Tfs ⫽ 0.98 ⫽ 1030°C. This
range is an upper bound, since the Scheil approach
overpredicts the solidification range due to the
assumption that there is no back diffusion occurring
within the solid [34]. The reader should note that pre-
dictions for IN718 made using the Scheil approach
have been compared with experimental data for
microsegregation in [29], where it is shown that the
approach yields very reasonable results.
Typical steady-state temperature, longitudinal and
transverse stress fields are illustrated in Fig. 11, in
this case for a weld with an effective power of 320
W and welding speed of 1.59 mm s⫺1. The transverse
stress and temperature at the weld centreline for the
same welding conditions are shown in greater detail
in Fig. 12. Several important points have arisen from
the analyses. Behind the weld pool, the longitudinal
Fig. 10. Evolution of remaining liquid fraction during solidifi-
cation according to the multicomponent Scheil model.
691
stresses quickly become significant and are of yield
stress magnitude on the centreline, consistent with
related analyses that have been reported elsewhere
[32]. The transverse stresses are smaller but it is these
which are relevant to solidification cracking. Far
ahead of the welding torch, tensile transverse stresses
are predicted due to the more significant total thermal
expansion of the material which is less far ahead of
the heat source; here constrained thermal expansion
causes a compressive stress to develop, which is suf-
ficient to cause the material to yield. However, the
rapid decrease in the yield stress at high temperatures
causes a decrease in the compressive stress just before
melting. The condition that the stress is zero in the
weld pool means that the pool walls become distorted
by the compression ahead of the weld. This produces
a region of tensile transverse stress adjacent to the
weld pool and in turn a region of compressive trans-
verse stress directly behind it. Further behind the heat
source, the weld metal develops a tensile transverse
and longitudinal stress due to thermal contraction.
Material in the heat-affected zone returns to a state
of compression due to (1) the requirements of stress
equilibrium, (2) the constraint caused by colder
material in the far field and (3) continued thermal
expansion. In the far field behind the torch the trans-
verse stresses return to close to zero, because all
material at a given distance y from the centreline has
experienced an identical mechanical cycle. For the
case shown in Fig. 11 solidification cracking is not
predicted, since the transverse stress remains com-
pressive on the weld centreline between Tfs ⫽ 0.7 ⫽
1236°C and Tfs ⫽ 0.98 ⫽ 1030°C.
This explanation for the evolution of stress around
the weld pool suggests a rationale for the possibly
surprising result that solidification cracking is
expected at low welding speeds in wide welds, see
Fig. 5. This is as follows. The state of tensile trans-
verse stress required to pull the dendrite network
apart can only occur when continued thermal expan-
sion of material in the heat-affected zone does not
compensate for the shrinkage of the weld metal. This
occurs when the isotherms are elongated in the weld-
ing direction, under conditions of low power and high
speed. We have found also that the testpiece width
has a strong influence on whether solidification crack-
ing is expected to occur, see Fig. 13 which illustrates
the effect of increasing the testpiece width to 100
mm, which is to decrease the size of the weldable
region. This is because there is then greater constraint
exerted by cold material on the weld metal, and this
acts to compress the weld during solidification, which
is in accordance with the explanation above. This also
implies that the behaviour of excessively small
testpieces with respect to solidification cracking can-
not be representative of that of a real component of
significant geometry. This effect is made use of in the
trapezoidal-shaped testpiece designs used in recent
experimental studies of solidification cracking sus-
ceptibility using the Varestraint test [9, 35].
692 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS

Fig. 11. Maps of transient stress and temperature during welding from the plane stress Eulerian mechanical
model, for a weld with an effective power of 320 W and a welding speed of 1.59 mm s⫺1.

Fig. 13. Weldability map illustrating the effect of changing the

plate half-width from the value of 25 mm used in the main
calculations (solid lines) to 50 mm (dotted lines) on the position
of the solidification cracking and non-penetrating lines.

There is one further point that needs to be empha-

Fig. 12. (a) Diagram showing the weld and mushy zone around
the weld pool predicted by the thermal model and Scheil calcu-
lation and (b) evolution of transverse stress and temperature
along the weld centreline during welding, showing the liquidus
temperature Tliq and the vulnerable region where the fraction
solid lies between 0.7 and 0.98. Both figures have the same x-
axis.
sised. We have found that the transverse stress field
in the vicinity of the weld pool is altered very sig-
nificantly when the stress field in the weld pool is not
set to zero and furthermore when one fails to reset the
plastic strain in the weld pool to zero upon melting.
It does not appear to be possible to make realistic
calculations for solidification cracking unless these
boundary conditions are respected. Nevertheless, it
must be recognised that several significant assump-
tions have been introduced which might influence the
accuracy of the computations. First, the solution
method used in the mechanical model is both a "small
strain" and "small deformation" scheme, which may
 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS 693

introduce errors. Furthermore, plane stress analyses

have been employed, and it has been shown [32] that
bending during welding can have a small but signifi-
cant effect on the stress state behind the weld pool.
Also, the high-temperature mechanical properties are
not well known, and this may affect the results to
some extent. Finally, one should note that creep relax-
ation is possible at very high temperatures and this
may alter the state of stress; this effect is not
accounted for at present.

5. DISCUSSION

The model for solidification cracking developed Fig. 14. Illustration of the dendrite network under conditions
here is based upon mechanical criteria, and it is worth where void formation might occur.
considering other factors which might contribute to
where ⌬pc is the critical pressure drop for micropo-
the occurrence of this kind of defect. Of significance
rosity formation. Note that this argument does not
is the formation of interdendritic microporosity due
account for any contribution to the pressure drop aris-
to a lack of feeding. This results from a decrease in
ing from external mechanical deformation of the solid
pressure at the latest stages of solidification due to
skeleton; although this should ideally be accounted
shrinkage of the dendrites and an inability of the
for, the properties of this for IN718 are at this stage
remaining liquid to flow from the fully molten region,
not well known.
as a consequence of the low permeability of the den-
For numerical calculations, a major difficulty is
dritic network. Assuming that the pressure field
that many of the terms in the expression for ⌬pmax
obey’s Darcy’s law and that it varies only in one
depend upon the processing conditions. Nevertheless,
dimension along which the appropriate integration
one can gain some insight by continuing in the fol-
can be carried out, one has [11]
lowing way. The temperature gradient G ⫽ ∂T/∂x is
given by equation (11), assuming that Rosenthal’s 2D

冕
L
(1⫺fs) solution is appropriate at the weld pool boundary. The
⌬pmax ⫽ vbm dx, (15) secondary dendrite arm spacing can be estimated
␬
0 according to [30]
166⌫D ln(Cml /C0⬘)
l32 ⫽ t, (18)
where b is a shrinkage factor equal to (rs/rl)⫺1, rs m(1⫺k)(C0⬘⫺Cml ) f
and rl are the densities of the solid and liquid phases
respectively, m is the viscosity of the liquid, fs is the where Cml is the composition of the last solid to form,
fraction solid, L is the distance from the dendrite tips C0⬘ is the composition of the first solid to form, m is
and ␬ is the permeability of the dendrite network, the gradient of the liquidus line, k is the partition
given by coefficient between the solid and liquid, D is the
diffusivity of the liquid, ⌫ is the Gibbs–Thompson
l22 (1⫺fs)3 coefficient and tf is the freezing time. Unfortunately,
␬⫽ (16)
180 f 2s for IN718 we have found that this expression under-
predicts the observed secondary dendrite arm spacing
by a factor of 20 [36], but nonetheless the form of
according to the Carman–Kozeny approximation [11], the equation appears to be valid. The freezing time is
where l2 is the secondary dendrite arm spacing. A a function of the welding speed and is given by
schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 14. Taking the tf ⫽ (Tliq⫺Ts)/Gv, where Ts is the temperature at
temperature gradient G to be constant within the which the last liquid freezes. Therefore l2 must be
mushy zone of a weld fabricated under any given set replaced in equation (17) to give
of welding conditions, the maximum pressure drop
⌬pmax is then given by p
qv2>
106a

⌬pmax ⫽
180vbm
冕
Tliq

f2
s
dT. (17)
⫻ 冉
⌫D␬d(Tliq⫺Ts) ln(Cml /C0⬘)
m(1⫺k)(C0⬘⫺Cml ) 冊
2
(19)
l22G (1⫺fs)2 3

冢冕 ⌬pc(Tliq⫺T0)
冣
Ts
⫻ Tliq
.
2 2
bm [f /(1⫺fs) ] dT
s
We expect microporosity to occur when ⌬pmax>⌬pc, Ts
694 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS
Many of the terms given in equation (19) are
poorly known, especially those relating to the physi-
cal properties of the liquid. Furthermore, it is assumed
that the pressure drop can be calculated by integration
along the length of the mushy zone, whereas in a weld
the mushy zone is often longer than the sheet thick-
ness of 2 mm. However, we believe that the physical
prediction of this derivation, that void formation will
occur when qv2>const., should be correct. On the
weldability diagram, one then expects loci beyond
which the formation of microporosity is to be
expected, see Fig. 15. It is notable then that such loci
would intersect the weldable region on Fig. 5 from
above. Experimental confirmation of these predictions
is required, and this represents the subject of future
research.
Finally, one should note that a different approach
to cracking susceptibility in castings has been
developed by Clyne and Davies [7], based upon a
comparison between the vulnerable time tv, when
thermal contraction of dendrites cannot be compen-
sated for by liquid flow, and the relaxation time tr
when liquid flow can compensate for contraction.
These times are related to the temperature ranges ⌬Tv
and ⌬Tr, which can be obtained from equilibrium
phase diagram models. Assuming that the thermal
gradient in the mushy zone is constant for any given
welding conditions, such that equation (11) can be
applied, then Clyne’s cracking susceptibility coef-
ficient CSC ⫽ tv/tr is given to a first approximation by
tv ⌬Tv ∂T/∂x 1
CSC ⫽ ⫽v , (20)
tr ∂T/∂x ⌬Tr v
so that welding hot cracking susceptibility is inde-
pendent of welding speed and power. This kind of
approach would therefore seem to have only limited
use for the analysis of the optimum conditions by
which any given alloy should be welded.
Fig. 15. Weldability map incorporating a schematic illustration
of the form of the line expected for the formation of interden-
dritic microporosity, with the form qv2 ⫽ 0.008.
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Numerical procedures have been presented for the
prediction of the processing conditions at which
defects are to be expected during fusion welding. Cri-
teria have been presented for (1) the formation of a
centreline grain boundary, (2) constitutional liquation
at second phases and (3) solidification cracking. Con-
sideration has been given to the possibility of the for-
mation of interdendritic microporosity. It is believed
that the models have quite general applicability, but
for the purpose of demonstrating the their behaviour,
numerical calculations have been made for the TIG
welding of the IN718 superalloy. When the various
criteria are plotted on a "weldability map" of welding
power versus welding speed, a "weldable region"
emerges within which defects are not expected.
The following more specific conclusions can be
drawn from this work.
1. The occurrence of constitutional liquation is
strongly sensitive to the welding speed, and is pro-
moted when the welding speed is excessive. Liqu-
ation is also favoured by a large average carbide
size.
2. Provided that full penetration occurs and a reason-
able weld width is produced, the formation of a
centreline grain boundary is strongly dependent
upon the welding power and only weakly depen-
dent on the welding speed. Excessive welding
powers lead to the formation of a centreline
grain boundary.
3. Solidification cracking is assumed to arise due to
the generation of a positive transverse stress at the
point behind the heat source where the liquid frac-
tion is still significant. On this criterion, numerical
calculations indicate that solidification cracking is
expected at low speeds and high powers; however
there is a great sensitivity to the plate width, with
smaller plates reducing the size of the weldable
region.
4. Some consideration has been given to a criterion
for the formation of interdendritic microporosity,
which is potentially related to the onset of solidi-
fication cracking. Denoting the welding power by
q and the welding speed by v, microporosity is
expected when the quantity qv2 exceeds a certain
value—i.e., qv2>const.
Future work should address the sensitivity of the
computations to the compositional, microstructural
and mechanical variables. It is recognised too that tar-
geted experimentation is required for the purposes of
model validation. However, the concepts developed
here are potentially very useful since, for any given
alloy, a computation of the size of the weldable
region allows a quantitative estimate of the weld-
ability to be made.
Acknowledgements—The authors would like to acknowledge
the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS 695

(EPSRC), Rolls-Royce plc and the Defence Evaluation and
Research Agency (DERA) for sponsoring this work.
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APPENDIX A
Eulerian steady-state mechanical model
The stress and strain fields developed during weld-
ing are estimated using a plane stress assumption in
the Eulerian frame of reference—i.e., with a fixed
mesh and an imposed steady-state temperature field.
The small strain assumption is employed. The mesh
is graded and displacements are defined at nodes
whereas strains e and stresses s are calculated at inte-
gration points located at the centre of each element.
The mechanical equilibrium conditions are
∂sxx ∂sxy ∂sxy ∂syy
⫹ ⫽ 0, ⫹ ⫽0 (A1)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
and the steady-state condition is given by
∂exx 

 
all. Trans. A, 1994, 25A, 1733.
∂x

冢冣
16. Vincent, R., Acta metall., 1985, 33(7), 1205. 1
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A. Johnson, H. B. Smartt and T. Debroy. ASM Inter- ∂exy
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18. Yeniscavich, W., in Superalloys II, ed. C. T. Sims, N. S.  ∂x 
Stolof and W. C. Hagel. John Wiley & Sons, New York, ∂sxx 

 
∂x
1987, p. 509.

冢 冣 
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ing, 1987, 27, 239. 1 ∂syy
20. Rosenthal, D., Trans. ASME, 1946, 68, 849. ⫹ ⫺n 1 0   (A2)
21. Geissler, E. and Bergmann, H. W., Opto Electronik Maga-
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0 0 1⫹n
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22. Carslaw, H. S. and Jaeger, J. C., Conduction of Heat in
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1 ⫺ 0
 
23. Christian, J. W., The Theory of Transformations in Metals 2

冢 冣
and Alloys, Part 1, 2nd ed. Pergamon, Oxford, UK, 1975. sxx
24. Grong, Ø., Metallurgical Modelling of Welding, 2nd ed. ∂epl/∂x 1
The Institute of Materials, London, 1997. ⫹ ⫺ 1 0  syy ,


sMises 2
25. Bjørneklett, B. I., Grong, Ø., Myhr, O. R. and Kluken, A. sxy
O., Acta mater., 1998, 46(17), 6257. 3
26. Whelan, M. J., J. Met. Sci., 1969, 3, 95. 0 0
27. Sundman, B., Report D53, The Royal Institute of Tech-
 2
nology, Stockholm, 1984.
28. Saunders, N., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. A, 1995, 351, 543.
29. Hunziker, O., Dye, D., Roberts, S. M. and Reed, R. C., where am is the thermal expansion coefficient, T is
696 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS

the temperature, E the Young’s modulus, n the Pois- Table 2. Temperature-dependent mechanical properties used in analysis
son’s ratio, and with the condition: Temperature, T Young’s Yield strength, Hardening
(°C) modulus, E syield (MPa) coefficient, h
(GPa) (GPa)

冦
0 if sMises⬍syield
∂epl
⫽ 1 ∂sMises (A3) 0 197.3 300.0 1.97
∂x if sMises>syield 100 197.3 300.0 1.97
h ∂x 200 197.3 300.0 1.97
300 197.3 299.9 1.97
400 197.1 299.6 1.97
500 196.5 298.6 1.96
h is a hardening coefficient which is temperature- 600 194.4 295.3 1.94
700 187.1 283.4 1.87
dependent but strain-independent, and the Mises 800 165.0 247.8 1.65
stress sMises is defined according to 850 145.0 215.1 1.47
900 130.0 173.8 1.29
1000 103.4 96.2 1.03
sMises ⫽ √s2xx ⫹ s2yy⫺sxxsyy ⫹ 3s2xy. (A4) 1100 95.0 51.1 0.94
1200 90.0 36.1 0.91
1236 90.0 33.7 0.91
The calculation is performed as follows. The total 1300 90.0 31.7 0.90
strains are calculated from the displacement fields ux 1400 90.0 30.5 0.90
and uy using 1500 90.0 30.1 0.90
1600 90.0 30.0 0.90

exx ⫽
∂ux
∂x
, eyy ⫽
∂uy
∂y
, exy ⫽ 冉
1 ∂ux ∂uy
2 ∂y
⫹
∂x
, 冊
(A5)
smallest element size. The calculation converges
which are related to the stresses by when the steady state is reached and the residual
forces fall below a given tolerance.

冢 冣 冢 冣冢 冣
exx⫺am⌬T⫺epl
xx 1 ⫺n 0 sxx
1 APPENDIX B
eyy⫺am⌬T⫺epl
yy ⫽ ⫺n 1 0 syy ,
E Thermal and mechanical properties used in the calcu-
exy⫺epl
xy 0 0 1⫹n sxy
lations
(A6)
Properties used in the analyses, results from the
Scheil calculation and thermal model fitting para-
where the superscript "pl" indicates the plastic strains.
meters:
An iterative process is used to calculate the increment
thermal conductivity ␬ 20.77 W m⫺1 K⫺1
of plastic strain ⌬epl so that, if sMises>syield,
thermal diffusivity a 4.6⫻10⫺6 m2 s⫺1
thermal expansion eth 12.5⫻10⫺6⌬T ⫹
sMises⫺(syield ⫹ hepl
old)
⌬epl ⫽ (A7) 4.5⫻10⫺9(⌬T)2
h Poisson’s ratio n 0.33
Tliq 1354°C
T(fs ⫽ 0.7) 1236°C
and T(fs ⫽ 0.98) 1030°C
heat source width s 4 mm
 1  thermal efficiency h 0.55
⫺
 
1 0
2 starting temperature T0 20°C

冢 冣 冢 冣
⌬epl
xx sxx
⌬epl 1 C0 2 wt%
⌬e pl
yy ⫽ ⫺ 1 0  syy , (A8) Cp 50 wt%


sMises 2
⌬e pl
sxy Ci(600°C) 3.12 wt%
xy
3 Ci(1300°C) 4.88 wt%
0 0
 2 Teut 1297°C

DNb 0.3 exp[⫺

which states that the plastic strain increment is pro-
portional to the deviatoric stress tensor.
The convergence is performed by an explicit
scheme: the displacements are adjusted in order to
minimise the residual forces at each node. Mean-
while, the plastic strain is shifted along the mesh
every 25 convergence steps by a distance equal to the
252,000/R(T ⫹
273.16)] m2 s⫺1
The thermal expansion coefficient am is related to the
thermal strain eth by am ⫽ eth/⌬T. The reference tem-
perature for thermal expansion is T0. The thermal
efficiency h relates the effective power to the actual
 DYE et al.: WELDABILITY OF SUPERALLOYS 697

power used. Celsius are used throughout as the units derived from a phase diagram model. The tempera-
of temperature. The solubility of Nb in Ni, denoted ture-dependent mechanical properties used in the
Ci, varies continuously with temperature using values analyses are shown in Table 2.