Math 102: Lecture 2

M. K. Vemuri

Tuesday, 8 January, 2019

Groups (review)

Definition
Suppose that:
i. G is a set and ∗ is a binary operation on G ,
ii. ∗ is associative,
iii. ∃e ∈ G such that x ∗ e = e ∗ x = x, ∀x ∈ G , and
iv. ∀x ∈ G , ∃y ∈ G such that x ∗ y = y ∗ x = e.
Then G , together with the binary operation ∗, is called a group.
The element e is called an identity element in G . The element y is
called an inverse of x. We’ll soon see that they are unique, so we
can dispense with the indefinite article.
We don’t assume that ∗ is commutative. If ∗ is commutative, then
G is called abelian.
Fundamental Theorems about Groups

Theorem (Uniqueness of identity element)

If (G , ∗) is a group, then there is only one identity element in G .

Proof.
We must show that if e, e1 ∈ G both satisfy the defining property
of an identity element in G , then e = e1 .
Assume that x ∗ e = e ∗ x = x and x ∗ e1 = e1 ∗ x = x for all
x ∈ G . From the first equation (with x = e1 ), we get
e1 ∗ e = e ∗ e1 = e1 . Similarly, from the second equation (with
x = e), we get e ∗ e1 = e1 ∗ e = e. Thus e1 = e ∗ e1 = e.
Fundamental Theorems about Groups (contd)

Theorem (Uniqueness of inverses)

If (G , ∗) is a group and x ∈ G , then x has only one inverse in G .

Proof.
We must show that if both y1 and y2 satisfy the definition of an
inverse of x, then y1 = y2
Assume that x ∗ y1 = y1 ∗ x = e and x ∗ y2 = y2 ∗ x = e. Then
y2 = e ∗ y2 = (y1 ∗ x) ∗ y2 = y1 ∗ (x ∗ y2 ) = y1 ∗ e = y1

Theorem
If (G , ∗) is a group, then for any x ∈ G we have (x −1 )−1 = x.

Proof.
Since x −1 is an inverse of x, we know that x −1 ∗ x = x ∗ x −1 = e.
By these equations, x satisfies the definition of (x −1 )−1 , so
x = (x −1 )−1 by the uniqueness of inverses.
Fundamental Theorems about Groups (contd)

Theorem
If (G , ∗) is a group and x, y ∈ G , then (x ∗ y )−1 = y −1 ∗ x −1 .

Proof.
(x ∗ y ) ∗ (y −1 ∗ x −1 ) = x ∗ (y ∗ (y −1 ∗ x −1 )) =
x ∗ ((y ∗ y −1 ) ∗ x −1 ) = x ∗ (e ∗ x −1 ) = x ∗ x −1 = e.
Similarly (y −1 ∗ x −1 ) ∗ (x ∗ y ) = e.
It was tedious to have to check both (x ∗ y ) ∗ (y −1 ∗ x −1 ) = e and
(y −1 ∗ x −1 ) ∗ (x ∗ y ) = e in the previous proof. The next theorem
shows that we only need to check one.
Fundamental theorems about groups (contd)

Theorem
Let (G , ∗) be a group and let x, y ∈ G . Suppose that either
x ∗ y = e or y ∗ x = e. Then y = x −1 .

Proof.
Assume x ∗ y = e. Multiplying on the left by x −1 , we get

x −1 ∗ (x ∗ y ) = x −1 ∗ e
∴ (x −1 ∗ x) ∗ y = x −1
∴ e ∗ y = x −1
∴ y = x −1 .
Fundamental theorems about groups (contd)

Theorem (Cancellation laws)

Let (G , ∗) be a group and let x, y , z ∈ G . Then
i. if x ∗ y = x ∗ z, then y = z; and
ii. if y ∗ x = z ∗ x, then y = z.

Proof.
Exercise
Subgroups
Definition
A subset H of a group (G , ∗) is called a subgroup of G if the
elements of H form a group under ∗.
It is worth emphasizing the “under ∗”. For example (Q+ , ·) is a
group and (Q, +) is a group and Q+ ⊆ Q but (Q+ , ·) is not a
subgroup of (Q, +).
Theorem
Let H be a nonempty subset of a group G . Then H is a subgroup
of G if and only if
i. for all x, y ∈ H, xy ∈ H, and
ii. for all x ∈ H, x −1 ∈ H.

Proof.
Exercise.
Examples of subgroups:
1. (Z, +) is a subgroup of (Q, +) is a subgroup of (R, +).
Subgroups (contd)

2. (Q+ , ·) is a subgroup of (R+ , ·) is a subgroup of (R \ {0}, ·).

3. SL(2, R) is a subgroup of GL(2, R).
4. Let G = GL(2, R). Let  H be  the subset of G consisting of
a b
matrices of the form , where ad 6= 0. We claim that
0 d
H is a subgroup of G . Clearly H is nonempty. We just need
to check the two conditions of the previous theorem. Indeed,
if x, y ∈ H then there exista, b, d,
e, f , h ∈ 
R withad 6= 0
a b e f
and eh 6= 0 such that x = , y= .
0 d 0 h
 
ae af + bh
Therefore xy = ∈ H. Similarly
0 dh
 
1/a −b/ad
x −1 = ∈ H.
0 1/d