INTRODUCTION

Clashes between the human and wild life have happened since the dawn of humanity. These
conflicts occur in all continents, in developed as well as developing countries, however the
problems vary according to the particular environment and people’s way of life .Conflict is
already one of the biggest conservation challenges and in India it is particularly acute because of
the high human population. That population of 1.3 billion is still growing, and as it does it is
increasingly encroaching into the country’s traditional wild spaces and animal sanctuaries, where
people compete with wildlife for food and other resources. The data shows that about one person
has been killed every day for the past three years by roaming tigers or rampaging elephants. In
India, wild elephants probably kill far more people than tiger, leopard or lion. But, surprisingly,
human conflict involving leopard draws great amount of public attention compared to other
animals.

Human-wildlife conflict exists everywhere wildlife come into conflict with people, when they
damage property or threaten human safety. A further reason for conflict is that wildlife are
carriers of disease that can be harmful to people and their domestic animals. In response to this
perceived wildlife damage or threat, people may retaliate in a manner that may be ineffective or
biologically unsustainable. These conflicts affect not only its population but also have broadened
environmental impacts on ecosystem equilibrium and biodiversity conservation. Laws are man-
made, hence there is likelihood of anthropocentric bias towards man, and rights of wild animals
often tend to be of secondary importance. But in the universe man and animal are equally placed,
but human rights approach to environmental protection in case of conflict, is often based on
anthropocentricity1. Human-Wildlife Conflict is any interaction between wildlife and humans
which causes harm, whether it is to the human, the wild animal, or property (Property includes
buildings, equipment, livestock and pets, crops fields or fences.) 2 . Some of the examples of
these types of conflicts include:

• Predation on livestock or domestic animals by wildlife

• Ungulate damage crops and fences

1
T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad Vs. UOI and Ors., AIR2012SC1254
2
www.env.gov.yk.co/wildlifebiodiversity /human_wildlife_conflict
• Flooding caused by beavers

• Wildlife strewing about residential garbage

• Squirrels or bats in home attics

• Birds nesting in undesirable residential locations

• Vehicle/wildlife collisions

The main reasons for human-animal conflict are encroachment of human being in wildlife
habitat for development purpose & survival purpose as well as allowing livestock for grazing
purpose in the forest area, forest fire. This conflict leads to loss to both human & animal.
Typically, the human-animal conflict can be classified into four types—competition for space,
crop raiding and destruction, attacking the livestock, and injury or death of humans. The result of
this conflict is severe which result into the loss to crops of farmers and decline in wildlife
conservation as well.

This paper provides insights into HWC and it highlights common problems and solutions.

WHY HUMAN WILDLIFE CONFLICT HAPPEN

The main cause of human wildlife conflict worldwide is the competition between growing
human populations and wildlife for the same declining living spaces and resources. As a
consequence of the increasing demand for land, food production, energy and raw materials there
has been transformation in the forest ecosystems into agrarian areas and urban build up, which
has led to dramatic decrease in the wildlife habitats.

 Increased fragmentation, increasing conflicts:

The gradual loss of habitats has led to increasing conflict between the humans and wildlife. As
wildlife range has become more and more fragmented and wildlife is confined into smaller
pockets of suitable habitat, humans and wildlife are increasingly coming into contact and in
conflict with each other. Conflicts are particularly common in reserve buffer zones where healthy
wildlife populations stray from the protected area into the adjacent cultivated fields or urban
dwellings. Apart from fragmentation, roads are becoming a serious threat to wildlife as several
wild animals are killed on a daily basis by speeding vehicles. Vehicles today travel at high
speeds and combined with poor eyesight and slow response time of animals results in the death
of innumerable wildlife. Scores of reptiles, birds and amphibians are killed due to vehicular
traffic in protected areas.3

 Impact of human activities:

Human activities such as animal husbandry, agriculture, development of infrastructure, tourism
has contributed to dramatically modify wildlife habitats either directly or indirectly. The
construction of hydroelectric projects results in submergence of nearby forest lands and
fragmentation of habitats. The clearance of lands for mining and industries also leads to breaking
of large natural habitats into small patches4.
With increase in geographical extensions of human activities, especially animal husbandry and
agriculture it has become common for livestock and wild ungulates to share the same grazing
fields. Grazing by livestock has severely threatened our wildlife and their habitats in various
ways. The most noticeable effect is the decline of wild herbivore populations as they have to
compete with livestock for their food source. As livestock eliminate palatable native plant
species often unpalatable species of plants invade the area 5 . Scientific studies conducted in
Bandipur Tiger Reserve have shown how wild ungulates decline in areas where grazing
pressures are high. Also in recent years the successful recovery of the declining or near extinct
species through wildlife management and protection from poaching and overexploitation has
created new conflicts. Effective protection and habitat management with in the national parks has
increased the population of wild animals which has resulted in straying out of the park
boundaries into the local villages in search of food, water and space.

 Natural factors:
Droughts, bush fires, climatic changes and other unpredictable natural hazards also add to the
decrease in suitable wildlife habitat and therefore affect the occurrence and extent of human -

3
Guidelines for Human-leopard Management, April 2011, Ministry of Environment & Forests Government of India
4
2 http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy/water/paper
5
www.conservationthreates.org
wildlife conflicts. Similarly, the seasonal modification of habitats due to rainfall can also have an
impact on human-wildlife conflict. One of the principle result of the loss of habitats is the
decrease in natural resources available for wildlife. The destruction of natural vegetation around
protected areas and in some cases the total vanishing of buffer zones force herbivore species to
feed in cultivated fields. This phenomenon is on the increase because the growth rate of
cultivated areas is high at the periphery of protected areas. The decrease in the numbers of
natural prey is one of the major reasons why carnivores shift their diets to livestock which are
easier to capture and have limited possibilities of escape.

HUMAN WILDLIFE CONFLICT – ISSUES

In India, man-animal conflict is seen across the country in a variety of forms, including monkey
menace in the urban areas, crop raiding by ungulates and wild pigs, depredation by elephants,
and cattle and human killing by tigers and leopards. Human-wildlife conflict has also given rise
to many problems like the conservation of wildlife, and livestock, damage to crops and property
of farmers
1. Damage of crops
Incidents of crop damage are of the most prevalent manifestation for human wildlife conflict
across the world. The occurrence and frequency of crop raid by the wild animal is dependent
upon a multitude of conditions such as availability, variability and type of food sources in the
area, the level of human activity on a farm, and the type and maturation time of crops as
compared to natural food sources. Wild animals that damage crops may also injure or kill the
farm worker in retaliation.
2. Livestock Depredation
Another adverse effect of the human-wildlife conflict is the killing of domestic animals by
predators. The number and type of domestic animals killed by wildlife varies according to the
species, the time of year, and the availability of natural prey. In places where pastoralism
remains the main source of livelihood for many people, attacks on livestock is a major concern.
In India, interactions between the humans and the large predators are increasing as the ever
increasing demand for development is resulting in occupation of forest land. Also due to
demographic pressure rural people are progressively moving into the wild lands. Pastoralists are
gaining access to the protected lands and villagers are farming right up to the boundaries of
National Parks/ Sanctuaries containing large predators, thereby increasing the possibility of
carnivore attack on the livestock and people.
3. Human Death and injuries:
Human death and injuries, although less common than crop damage, are the most severe
manifestation of human – wildlife conflict. Large mammalian carnivores are responsible for
numerous fatal attacks on humans and livestock. Attacks on large herbivores like elephants,
Rhino also results in unfortunate loss of human life every year. Wild animals rarely deliberately
attack humans since they have a natural tendency to avoid interactions with humans. In most
cases deaths occur accidently while people are protecting their crops against raiding animals
(usually at night); or when people accidentally come into close contact with the animals,
especially on paths near water at night; or when people encounter injured animals whose normal
sense of caution is impaired
4. Road kills
Highways passing through wildlife reserves, national parks and sanctuaries have adverse impact
on wildlife and their habitats. These roads have been identified as the source of disturbance to
the wildlife species directly (road kills) and indirectly (noise and disturbance). Road kills are
significantly higher on highway stretches along rivers than those without water bodies nearby.
5. Poaching
Poaching is nothing but unauthorized trade of wild flora and fauna. Poaching is a big business
run by sophisticated, well organized and most dangerous international networks; wildlife, animal
parts are trafficked much like illegal drugs and arms. Tigers, elephants and rhinos are particularly
vulnerable. The problem is that poaching is a lucrative business. The insatiable demand for ivory
has led to the annihilation of tuskers in their prime and as a result the ratio of tuskers and females
has fallen to an alarming low. Similarly tigers are hunted to elimination for their skin, bones,
teeth and claws which are highly valued for their use in the illegitimate market. As per the
wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, Poaching is a crime punishable up to 7yeasrs of rigorous
imprisonment.
6. Transmit diseases or disease causing parasites
Serious diseases are known to be transmitted by wildlife to domestic livestock and possibly also
to humans (i.e. rabies). Scavengers and predators, such as wild dogs, jackals, lions and vultures,
also play a role in disseminating pathogens by opening up, dismembering and dispersing parts of
infected carcasses. Also foraging by domestic cattle in wildlife habitats results in transmission of
diseases such as foot and mouth disease

Consequences for Humans

The aftermaths of the human-wildlife conflict are more serious in the tropics and in developing
nations where livestock holdings and agriculture are an important part of rural people’s
livelihoods and earnings. In these regions, local people with a low standard of living are
especially at risk as they are agro-pastoralists who depend only on production of livestock and
income from their land.

Injuries to people mostly happen due to chance encounters with elephants, wild boars, tigers and
leopards, usually along paths between dwellings and a water source in forest areas and also when
these wild animals stray out of the park boundaries in search of food. Most of the encounters
results in permanent injuries and in some cases death of humans. The dramatic consequences of
these attacks go well beyond the unfortunate victim, for they have a repercussion on the whole
community. The death of a family member caused by a wild animal is a traumatic experience.
For a poor peasant family in a developing country, the death or injury of the bread-winner can
mean the difference between a secure life for all and one of destitution where simple day-to-day
survival becomes a priority. The elephant is one of the wild species that can jeopardize the
livelihoods of the entire families by causing substantial damage to crops. Elephant raids can be a
lot more dramatic when compared to other species which causes more insidious losses. Likewise,
the loss of a family’s small herd of cattle to predators or carnivores can effectively destroy that
family’s wealth and way of life. For rural populations, domestic animals are not only their main
resource through production of manure, milk, meat, and live sales, but are also their only source
of wealth. Wild animals destroying crops and large felines killing numerous domestic animals
can devastate the household’s food security among the rural populations.

The killing of wild animals in retaliation for incidents of human-wildlife conflict is a common
reaction, even though the identification of the real culprit is seldom possible. This is particularly
true for predators, but also for other species. Several species of larger carnivore such as tiger and
leopards have been eliminated from a large part of their home ranges because of human wildlife
conflict. In the present day illegal persecutions of predators, including poisoning, shooting and
trapping is the greatest threat to the wildlife.
Human-wildlife conflict also has several indirect consequences. The transmission of diseases
from domestic animals to wildlife, competition over grazing land, habitat fragmentation or
pollution; all pose threats to the survival of wildlife populations or even the species as a whole.
When a wild animal raids the agriculture land or kills or injures a human, the human response is
to kill or remove not just the individual animal responsible, but the whole local population. This
not only affects the population viability of some of the endangered species but also has a broader
environmental impact on the ecosystem equilibrium and bio diversity preservation.

The conflict between animal and human can be reduced by following steps-

1. Improvement of Habitat- It is duty of Ministry of Environment & Forest to Prove assistance

to State Governments for improvement of habitat to augment food and water availability and to
minimize the animal movement from the forests to the habitations.

2. Training programmes: To address the problems of human- wildlife conflict it is essential to

train the police offices and local people. It is duty of forest department to frame the guidelines
for management of human-leopard conflict & publish the same in the local community.

3. Awareness programmes: To sensitize the people about the Do‘s and Don‘ts to minimize
conflicts it necessary to aware the local people.

4. Technical & financial support- Providing technical and financial support for development of
necessary infrastructure and support facilities for immobilization of problematic animals through
tranquilization, their translocation to the rescue centers or release back to the natural habitats.

5. Boundary walls- Providing assistance to State Governments for construction of boundary

walls and solar fences around the sensitive areas to prevent the wild animal attacks.

6. Eco-development activities – Providing assistance to the State Governments for eco-

development activities in villages around Protected Areas to elicit cooperation of local
community in management of the Protected Areas.

Law and Policy by Government of India

India is a mega-diverse country owing to its large climatic and topographic gradient. With only
2.4% of the world's land area, it harbors around 8% of all recorded species including 91,000
species of animals and 45,000 of plants (MoEFCC, 2014). Out of 34 global 'Biodiversity
Hotspots', four fall fully or partly within Indian political boundaries. With more than 100
National Parks and more than 500 Wildlife Sanctuaries, the country has an extensive
network of protected areas and wildlife reserves. The protection of forests and wild life
by the State has been mandated by the Indian Constitution through its article 48A of part IV
as Directive principles and as citizens of India it is also one of our fundamental duties as laid
down by the Constitution of India in article 51A of part IVA

Forest and wildlife are subjects listed in the Concurrent List of the Constitution. The Union
Ministry of Environment and Forest at Central Level is responsible for all framing and
implementation of policy regarding wildlife conservation. The Forest Departments at State level
are responsible to maintain and manage the forest as well as implement the national policies.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India department is consisting of the
Director, Wildlife Preservation, who is also designated as the Additional Director General of
Forests (Wildlife) to the Government of India.

Wildlife Protection Act of 1972

The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 provides the statutory framework for protecting wild
animals, plants and their habitats. The Act follows a two pronged conservation strategy:
specified endangered species and protected species regardless of location and all species and
protected in designated areas, called sanctuaries and national parks. The Wildlife Protection Act
of 1972 was passed after wildlife was moved to the concurrent list after the Forty Second
Constitutional Amendment was passed. The wildlife protection act provides for setting up of
Advisory Boards6 and the appointment of Wardens and other members to implement the Act7. It
has six schedules which give varying degrees of protection. Schedule I and part II of Schedule II
provide absolute protection - offences under these are prescribed the highest penalties. Species
listed in Schedule III and Schedule IV 8 are also protected, but the penalties are much lower.

6
Section 6 of The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
7
Section 3 and 4 The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
8
Section 7 The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
Schedule V includes the animals which may be hunted. The plants in Schedule VI are prohibited
from cultivation and planting. Under the Act; the State Government may declare any area of
adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphologic, natural or zoological significance ‘a
sanctuary9 or a national park10. In both sanctuaries and national parks public entry is restricted11
and destruction of any wildlife or habitat is prohibited12. The court has also gone to the extent of
upholding restrictions on the plying of vehicles in the sanctuary. in the case of Bombay Burmah
Trading Corporation v Field Director(Project Tiger)13.The offender of the Act is not subject to
very harsh penalties. It is up to 3 years imprisonment or a fine of Rs. 25,000 or both.

Protected Areas and Elephant reserves

There are 661 Protected Areas in the country covering around 4.8% geographical areas. There
are 100 National Parks, 514 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 43 Conservation Reserves and 4 Community
Reserves in the country. State wise details are placed at Annexure I. In recent time, 27 Elephant
Reserves (ERs) extending over about 60,000 sq km have been formally notified by various State
Governments.14

Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) Programme

Objectives of the MIKE are -

a) to measure levels and trends in the illegal hunting of elephants;

b) to determine changes in these trends over time; and

c) to determine the factors causing or associated with such changes, and to try and assess in
particular to what extent observed trends are a result of any decisions taken by the Conference of
the Parties to CITES.

The National Wildlife Action Plan 1983

9
Section 18 The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
10
Section 35 The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
11
Section 27 and 35(8) The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
12
Section 29 and 35(6) The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
13
AIR 2000 Mad 163 The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
14
http:/www.envfor.nic.in/pe/pe.html (
The National Wildlife Action Plan is intended to provide adequate protection to wildlife in
multiple use areas such as Government forests outside Protected Areas, various Community
Conserved Areas like sacred groves, community and panchayat forests, identified private forests
such as interspersed forests in tea, coffee and cardamom gardens and other protection
landscapes, farm lands, wastelands, wetlands, coastal habitats, heronries, wintering wetlands of
birds, catchment forests, turtle nesting sites, pastures for livestock and wild herbivore, deserve
ecosystems etc.

CONCLUSION

Human wildlife conflict is a significant problem in India. The conflict has important
consequences for local populations in terms of safety and well-being, food security, for the micro
and macro economy and also for the wildlife conservation. Considering the current human
population growth rate, the increasing demand for natural resources and growing pressure to
access land, it is clear that the human wildlife conflict is difficult to be eradicated in the near
future. More development activity causes more interference in forest and the privacy of wild
life.15 These ultimately cause conflict with wildlife. Development of people is always welcome
but not at the cost of negative ecological aspect in the ecosystem.

A series of measures are available to prevent or mitigate human wildlife conflict. Well-designed
human wildlife conflict management plans which integrate different techniques, which are
adapted to the nature of the problem can be successful. Potential solutions can be selected based
on their effectiveness, cost and human and social responsibility. The most sensible approach in
addressing human wildlife conflict is to implement a combination of short term mitigation tools
alongside long term preventive strategies. In this way immediate problems can be addressed
while the rapid development of innovative approaches is fostered to address future issues and
eradicate the problem in the long term.

However a headway towards conflict management can be made only when we accept that
humans and wildlife will have to share space with each other. The way to a sustainable future
requires the adoption of the fact that wildlife should stay in the protected areas and human
dwelling should be off the limits of the wildlife dominated and protected forest areas.

15
Man-Animal conflict in India, Ministry f Environment and forest,23rd Sept 2011