Biology Notes

Environmental Variation
Variation – means difference between organisms
Variation can be caused by two factors environmental and inherited/genetic factors
Environmental variation – variation that is caused by environmental factors
Inherited or Genetic variation – variation caused by genetic factors
Examples –
Environmental: height, weight, hair length, ears pierced, language (continuous – can be measured)
Inherited: eye colour, natural hair colour, blood group (discontinuous – few possibilities)

- All organisms can be classified into different groups. The biggest groups are called kingdoms. And the
smallest are called species
- Kingdoms: plants, bacteria (prokaryotes), fungi, protoctists, animals
- 9a: Environmental variation can cause differences in organisms which makes classification difficult

Animal Behaviour
Innate – inherited
Learned – environmental
Innate behaviour is inherited or behaviour that is already there. Animals carry out this behaviour
instinctively. E.g. Spiders building webs with the same pattern, or bird building nest or protecting her
children. These behaviours are not taught
Learned behaviour is when animals develop behaviour through environment, they look at the environment
and learn something. Experience and repetition help to learn. E.g. cats using litter tray or pigs not going
near electric fences
Reflex response is when there is an automatic response to something, for example, danger. Like turtles.

Working Scientifically
Types of graphs: Line graph, bar chart, histogram, pie chart, scatter graph.
Probability is the chance of something happening. It can help decide the importance of scientific results.

Inherited Variation
Inherited variation is variation in features that has been passed onto us by our parents or genetic inheritance
from our parents. For example: eye colour, hair colour, skin colour.
Children usually look like their father and little like their mother but not identical because they inherit half
features from each parent.
How they are formed - Each egg and sperm cell contains half of the genetic information. They each contain
23 chromosomes. So when they join during fertilisation and the genetic information is mixed. Then a new
cell is produced – zygote - with all the genetic information. This forms a similar organism. The genetic
information is located in the nucleus or on the chromosome. Also gametes are all different, so each offspring
produced by the same parents will be different.

DNA
DNA molecule has two long strands which are wound together into a double helix.
Each gene codes for a different characteristic. Genes work in pairs. There are different versions of each
gene, one is often dominant over the others,

How it was discovered - Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind franklin took photos of DNA crystals using x-rays
then franklin told james Watson and francis crick that their first thought of the structure of DNA was wrong.
Maurice then showed Watson and crick one of franklins pictures of DNA. Watson then knew that only spiral
molecules gave this type of picture. Watson and crick worked out that the bases hold to 2 strands together
and made a model. Maurice altered and worked on their model.

Importance of DNA - DNA is a molecule that controls what the cell does, and contains code that gives cell
instructions on what to do. Also contains information to make a new organism. DNA does these jobs in all
organisms. Changes in DNA can cause many genetic diseases: cancer, down syndrome, colour blindness

Link between all of them - Chromosomes contain many genes that code for our characteristic. Genetic
material is found in the nucleus of each cell. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of a body
cell. DNA is a molecule made up of 4 DNA bases. We inherit our genes from our parents. Each gene is a
short section of a chromosome. Chromosomes are made up of long coiled chains of DNA. DNA has a
special structure called a double helix. Our characteristics are made up of genes.

All chromosome are made from single molecules of tightly coiled DNA. Genes are a short section of the
chromosome so are part of DNA molecule. DNA M has a spiral shape called double helix. Each rung of the
ladder is made from bases paired together which hold the 2 strands of DNA together. Bases contain genetic
information. 2 backbone strands support the base pairs. Do not carry genetic information.
Genes and extinction
Extinction – when all members of a species have been completely wiped out
Organisms get endangered or extinct when they cannot adapt to their environment anymore, causes being:
- changes in environment
- competition w/ other species
- disease
- human activities – hunting, deforestation

Endangered Species
 Endangered species are those that are poorly adapted to their environment and have a less chance of
surviving. They also reproduce less than normal. Causes being
 changes to the environment, such as a change in climate
 destruction of habitats
 hunting
 pollution
 competition from other species.

Natural Selection
Natural selection means when nature selects the organism best suited to the environment.
The best suited organism survives and reproduces.
9a: They pass on genes that helped them adapt to their environment to their offspring, overtime the
appearance and features of the species will change – evolution.

Reaction in plants
Photosynthesis – when plants make their own food using energy from light
Carbon dioxide + water (light + chlorophyll)  glucose + oxygen
6Co2 + 6h2o  c6h12 + 6o2
Light provides energy for reaction and chlorophyll is a chemical that traps light energy – found in
chlorophlasts
Rate of photosynthesis means the speed of reaction and can be measured by volume of oxygen produced in a
certain time
Limiting factor – less light/carbon dioxide/temperature
A limiting factor is something that slows down rate of photosynthesis

Measuring photosynthesis
Cytoplasm – where chemical reactions occur
Nucleus – contains chromosomes that have information to control cell
Vacuole – stores cell sap
Cell membrane – controls entry and exit from cell
Mitochondrion – where (aerobic) respiration occurs
Chlorophlast – where photosynthesis occurs
Cell wall – protects cell from bursting
Limiting factor is something that stops reaction from going faster so a reaction will stop if the limiting factor
finishes so if we add more the rate of reaction will increase until another factor is limitng
- light intensity
- carbon dioxide concentration
- temperature
if we increase concentration of carbon dioxide the reaction goes faster. Eventhough there is a lot of carbon
dioxide the reaction rate doesn’t change because another factor is limiting the reaction
Plant adaptations
Plants take carbon dioxide from the air into the leaves and take water from the soil through the roots. They
take minerals from soil to grow properly and they need to release oxygen through leaves from
photosynthesis
Transpiration – loss of water from leaves.
As water leaves the leaf it pulls more water up the xylem in the stem. So 1) the water enters the roots 2)then
the water travels up the xylem tubes 3)the water evaporates from cells in leaf and water diffuses out of leaf
through stomata
When a plant loses more water from its leaves than it takes through roots, it wilts. As all cell become flaccid
(soft) instead of turgid (hard) giving no support to stem or leaves.
Roots support a plant and absorb mineral salts and water
Root hair cells give roots a large surface area
Water is transported up stem in xylem vessels
Xylem vessels are adapted for their because they are hollow tubes
Water enters leaf for photosynthesis
Leaves are thin to allow diffusion of gases in and out of leaf

Measuring transpiration
Putting plastic bag over plant – water enters roots and goes up stem into leaves where it evaporates and
diffuses through stomata and condenses on bag.
Amount of transpiration – measuring decrease in mass of plant
Rate of transpiration – measure decrease in mass of plant every hour/day

Plant product
Plants make glucose carbohydrate from photosynthesis then they make all the other molecule they need . to
make proteins from amino acids, add nitrates. Starch is a polymer made by joining glucose molecules
together.
Seeds are used to store all food molecules that a new plant needs until its leaves are formed, adding water tp
seed starts reaction needed to break down these molecules for use.
Nitrates importance – for making amino acids to make protein

Testing plant products

Starch blue to black – by adding iodine solution
Protein blue to purple – by adding biuret reagent

Growing plants
Plants require minerals to grow healthy
For example nitrate is needed to make amino acids and magenesium for chlorphyll which is needed for
photosynthesis. Potassium is needed to help plants absorb water from soil. If plants lack minerals they will
grow slower and discolour. Plants get mineral from soils through roots, minerals can be added to to soil as
manure or articial fertilisers.
Increase food production
Fertiliser – more minerals for plants Pesticides Herbicides Fungicides Intesticides Plant varities with
improved characteristics

New plant varieties

Plant variety – type of plant that has been bred to have certain characteristics
It is not a new species just show variation
New plant features –
Disease resistant – less likely to be infected
Attractive appearance – bright coloured – more people buy
Taste
Size – long thin stems is fragile to wind so varieties with short stem and long roots.
There are two ways of producing plant varieties
Cross breeding and selective breeding
Cross breeding - two varieties with different features are bred with each other and the offspring sometimes
get both of the parents’ features
This is done by transferring pollen from one plant’s anther to another plant’s stigma

Selective breeding
Selective breeding – desirable charcteritsics in an organism are developed by careful selection of individuals
for breeding.
How is it done – decide which charcter is important, take to parent plants that show this characteristic and
breed them together, select offspring that show this characteristic and breed them together, repeat.
Result – chosen characteristic becomes exaggerated in organism

Farming problems
Fertiliser washes into lakes/rivers, extra fertiliser causes algae to grow and cover surface, algae blocks
sunlight to water plants which need to photosynthesise, algae and water plants die. Decomposer bacteria in
water breaks down dead organisms – use up oxygen in water as it happens – plants and animals die.
Bioaccumulation - Increase in concentration of a pollutant in an organism
Biomagnification – increase in concentration of a pollutant in food chain
Farmers could encourage more frogs to live near the corn plants to keep the numbers of grasshoppers down
= biological control
Fertiliser – causes eutrophication and death of water plants and animals
Herbicide – may not break down and accumulate in organisms’ body
Fungicide – may harm top predator in food chain disturbing food webs
Insecticide – bioaccumulation and biomagnification

Organic farming
Farming which doesn’t use chemicals
Instead use animal manure and rotate crops planted in field after few years
Pesticides – use natural substances – sulfur or use natural predators of pest organisms.
More space and expensive food