 The staff is the foundation upon which notes are drawn.

 The modern staff comprises five lines and four spaces.

 Every line or space on the staff represents a white key on the keyboard.

 Clefs assign individual notes to certain lines or spaces.

 Two clefs are normally used: The Treble and Bass clefs.

 First, we will discuss the Treble Clef (also called the G Clef).
 The staff line which the clef wraps around (shown in red) is known as G.
Any note placed on this line becomes G.

 The note on the space above G is A. (Remember, there is not an “H”

note).

 The note on the line above A is B.

 This process continues.

 Uh-oh. We just ran out of room to place notes, what happens now?
 Ledger Lines will solve our dilemma.

 A ledger line is a small line that extends the staff when we run out of room.

 With the ledger line drawn, we can place the A.

 Next, let's discuss the Bass Clef (also called the F Clef).

 The staff line in between the two dots of the clef is F.

 We can now fill the rest of the staff with notes.

 Finally, we will discuss the Grand Staff, a theoretical staff consisting of
eleven lines.

 Watch what happens when we eliminate the middle line – we end up with
two regular staffs.

 By adding a Treble Clef to the top staff and a Bass Clef to the bottom staff,
we can see the relationship between the two staffs.

 Notice how the two clefs are “joined” by the C (shown in red).
 This C is commonly called “middle C” since it corresponds to the middle
staff line on the Grand Staff.

 The length of time that a note is played is called its note duration, which
is determined by the type of note.

 The semibreve has the longest note duration in modern music.

 The minim has half the duration of a semibreve.

 Two minims occupy the same amount of time as one semibreve.

 The crotchet is a fourth of a semibreve.

 Four crotchets occupy the same amount of time as one semibreve. Two
crotchets equal the duration of a minim.

 Notes smaller in duration than a crotchet have flags. Each flag halves the
value of a note.

 A quaver has one flag.

 Therefore, two quavers occupy the same amount of time as one crotchet.
 A semiquaver has two flags, halving the value again.

 Two semiquavers equal the duration of a quaver.

 Four semiquavers occupy the same amount of time as one crotchet.

 Although it is possible to have notes with three or more flags, they are
seldomly used.

 This chart displays the relationship of all five note types discussed in this
lesson.
 Vertical black bars called bar lines divide the staff into bars (or
“measures”).

 This stave has been split into two bars.

 Time signatures define the amount and type of notes that each bar
contains.

 The first bar is in 4/4 time and the second bar is in 3/4 time.

 The first bar (4/4) contains four crotchets.

 The second bar (3/4) contains three crotchets.

 Next, we will discuss non-crotchet time signatures.

 6/8 time contains six quavers.

 3/2 time contains three minims.

 This chart displays all of the time signatures that we discussed.

 Rests represent periods of silence in a bar.

 Each type of rest shares a duration with a certain type of note.

 For example, both a crotchet rest and a crotchet occupy the same
amount of time.
 While the note would make a sound, the rest is silent.

 To demonstrate this, let's fill a bar of 4/4 time with crotchets.

 When played, all four notes sound.

 Next, we will replace the second crotchet with a crotchet rest.

 When played, the second beat is now silent.

 Next, let's discuss the other types of rests.

 A semibreve rest occupies the same amount of time as a semibreve.

 It is drawn as a box descending from the fourth stave line.

 A minim rest occupies the same amount of time as a minim.

 It is drawn as a box ascending from the middle stave line.

 Like notes, rests can have flags.

 With one flag, an quaver rest has the same duration as a quaver.

 With two flags, a semiquaver rest has the same duration as a

semiquaver.

 Although rarer, rests can have three or more flags.

 Use this chart for reference to rest duration.

 Augmentation dots and tenuto ties are two types of markings used to
alter a note's duration.

 A dot increases duration by one half.

 Since a quaver is half the duration of a crotchet, we will substitute it for the
1/2 symbol.
 As you can see, a dotted crotchet is equal to a crotchet plus a quaver.

 A dotted crotchet can also equal three quavers.

 Ties merge multiple notes of the same pitch.

 They are used to let the duration of a note travel across barriers (such as
the bar line in this example).

 The fourth and fifth notes are now combined.

 If the bar line were not there, we could have written a minim instead.

 Use this chart for reference to augmentation dots.

 A semitone (or “half step”) is the distance from one key on the keyboard
to the next adjacent key.

 Key 1 to Key 2 is a semitone since they are next to each other.

 A semitone is not always from a white key to a black key.

 In this example, Key 1 and Key 2 are still next to each other.

 A whole tone (or “whole step” or simply “tone”) is the same distance as
two half steps.

 Key 1 to Key 3 is a whole tone.

 Key 1 to Key 2 is the first semitone. Key 2 to Key 3 is the second

semitone.
 An accidental is a sign used to raise or lower the pitch of a note.

 The first accidentals that we will discuss are the flat and the sharp.

 The flat lowers a note by a semitone while the sharp raises a note by a
semitone.

 When typing, you can use a # to represent a sharp and a b to represent a

flat.

 Let's examine the black key in between C and D.

 This key could be called C# since it is a semitone above C.

 It could also be called Db since it is a semitone below D.

 Another example would be E and F.

 E could also be called Fb since it is semitone below F.

 Likewise, F could be called E#.

 Whenever a certain pitch has multiple names, it is called an enharmonic

spelling.

 Next, let's discuss the double flat and the double sharp.

 While flats and sharps alter a note by a semitone, the double flat and
double sharp alter a note by a whole tone.

 When typing, you can use a x to represent a double sharp and a bb to

represent a double flat.

 For example, both D and Ebb have the same pitch since you can reach D
by going a whole tone (or two semitones) down from E.
 D also sounds the same as Cx since it is a whole tone above C.

 Finally, a natural cancels out any accidental and returns a note to its
original white key.

 We will learn more about naturals in an upcoming lesson.

 Each time signature can be classified into a certain meter.

 The terms duple, triple, and quadruple refer to the number of beats in a
bar.

 The term simple means that each of these beats can be broken into two
notes.

 For example, 2/4 time is classified as simple duple.

 “Duple” refers to the two beats per bar.

 “Simple” states that each of these beats can be divided into two notes.

 2/2 and 2/8 are also simple duple.

 3/4 time is classified as simple triple.

 “Triple” refers to the three beats per bar.

 Again, “simple” states that each of these beats can be divided into two
notes.
 3/2 and 3/8 are also simple triple.

 4/4 time is classified as simple quadruple due to its four beats which can
be divided into two notes.

 4/2 and 4/8 are also simple quadruple.

 Notice that a time signature in simple meter will always have a 2, 3, or 4

for the top number.

 While beats in simple meter are divided into two notes, beats in compound
meter are divided into three.
 To demonstrate this, we will examine 6/8 time.

 The six quavers can either be grouped into two beats (compound duple)
or three beats (simple triple).

 Since the simple triple pattern already belongs to 3/4 time, 6/8 is
compound duple.

 Notice that each beat in 6/8 is a dotted crotchet. In fact, all compound
meters will have some dotted note as its beat.

 Any time signature with a 6 on top is compound duple. 6/8 and 6/4 are the
most commonly used.
 9/8 time is classified as compound triple.

 There are three beats (three dotted crotchets), thus making the meter
triple.

 Since each beat is made up of three notes, the meter is compound.

 Any time signature with a 9 on top is compound triple. Although 9/8 is the
most common; 9/2, 9/4, and 9/16 can also be used.

 Finally, 12/8 time is classified as compound quadruple.

 There are four beats, thus making the meter quadruple.

 Since each beat is made up of three notes, the meter is compound.

 Any time signature with a 12 on top is compound quadruple. 12/8 and

12/16 are the most commonly used.

 An odd meter is a meter which contains both simple and compound

beats.

 The first odd meter that we will discuss is 5/8 time. It contains one simple
beat and one compound.

 The order of the beats does not matter. If the compound beat comes first,
it is still 5/8 time.
 Next, we will discuss odd meters with three total beats.

 7/8 time contains two simple beats and one compound beat.

 Again, the order of the beats does not matter.

 The compound beat can even be positioned between two simple beats.

 8/8 time contains two compound beats and one simple beat.
 Sometimes, people confuse 8/8 with 4/4, since both have 8 quavers.

 Notice that 4/4 groups the measure into four beats of two quavers (simple
quadruple), while 8/8 groups it into three odd beats.

 Our last two odd meters have a total of four beats.

 10/8 time has two compound beats and two simple beats.

 11/8 time has three compound beats and one simple beat.
 A scale is a selection of certain notes within an octave. The first scale that
we will discuss is the major scale.

 The major scale is constructed with this formula. Each “T” represents a
whole tone. Each “s” represents a semitone.

 Let's build a C Major Scale. Our starting note will be C.

 From the C, we will take a whole tone to D.

 From the D, we will take another whole tone to E.

 Next, we will go up a semitone to F.

 From F, the whole tone will take us to G.

 Next is another whole tone to A.

 The last whole tone takes us to B.

 Finally, the semitone returns us to C.

 C major is: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C.

 Next, we will build the Eb Major Scale. Our starting note will be Eb.

 The first whole tone takes us to F.

 The second whole tone takes us to G.

 Notice that the semitone from G takes us to Ab, not A.

 The whole tone from Ab takes us to Bb.

 The next whole tone takes us to C.

 The next whole tone takes us to D.

 Finally, the semitone from D returns us to Eb.

 Eb major is: Eb, F, G, Ab, Bb, C, D, Eb.

 Notice that Eb Major has three flats (Both Eb's only count once).

 For our final scale, we will build the D Major Scale.

 The first whole tone takes us to E.

 From the E, the second whole tone takes us to F#.

 The semitone takes us to G.

 The whole tone takes us to A.

 From A, the whole tone takes us to B.

 From the B, the whole tone takes us to C#.

 Finally, the semitone returns us to D.

 D major is: D, E, F#, G, A, B, C#, D.

 Notice that D Major has two sharps.

 It is possible to build any major scale - just start on the first note and follow
the formula.

 While there is only one major scale, three different variations of the minor
scale exist.

 The first minor scale that will we discuss is natural minor. It is

constructed with this formula.

 Let's build an A Natural Minor Scale. Our starting note will be A.

 From A, we take a whole tone to B.

 Next, we take a semitone to C.

 From C, a whole tone takes us to D.

 Another whole tone takes us to E.

 From E, we go up a semitone to F.

 From F, a whole tone takes us to G.

 Finally, the last whole tone returns us to A.

 A Natural Minor is: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, A.

 Notice that the A Natural Minor Scale has no notes with accidentals.
 Let's build an G# Natural Minor Scale. Our starting note will be G#.

 From G#, we take a whole tone to A#.

 Next, we take a semitone to B.

 From B, a whole tone takes us to C#.

 Another whole tone takes us to D#.

 From D#, we go up a semitone to E.

 From E, a whole tone takes us to F#.

 Finally, the last whole tone returns us to G#.

 G# Natural Minor is: G#, A#, B, C#, D#, E, F#, G#.

 Notice that the G# Natural Minor Scale has five sharps.

 Next, we will construct the C Natural Minor Scale. Our starting note will be
C.

 The whole tone takes us to D.

 From D, a semitone takes us to Eb.

 The following whole tone takes us to F.

 From F, a whole tone takes us to G.

 The semitone from G takes us to Ab.

 From Ab, we take a whole tone to Bb.

 The final whole tone returns us to C.

 C natural minor is: C, D, Eb, F, G, Ab, Bb.

 Notice that the C Natural Minor Scale has three flats.

 Next, we will discuss harmonic minor.

 To convert any natural minor scale into harmonic minor, raise the seventh
note by a semitone.

 Let's convert C Natural Minor into C Harmonic Minor.

 Simply raise the seventh note (Bb) by a semitone, resulting in B.

 C harmonic minor is: C, D, Eb, F, G, Ab, B.

 Finally, we will discuss melodic minor.

 To convert a natural minor scale into melodic minor, raise both the sixth
and seventh notes by a semitone.

 For example, to convert C Natural Minor into C Melodic Minor, simply

raise the Ab and Bb a semitone to A and B.
 C melodic minor is: C, D, Eb, F, G, A, B.

 Usually, melodic minor is used only when ascending.

 When descending, composers prefer to use the natural minor scale.

 Each note of a scale has a special name, called a scale degree.

 The first (and last) note is called the tonic.

 The fifth note is called the dominant.

 The fourth note is called the subdominant.

 Notice that the subdominant is the same distance below the tonic as the
dominant is above it (a generic fifth).

 The prefix sub is Latin for “under” or “beneath”.

 The third note is called the mediant since it is in the middle of the tonic
and dominant.

 Likewise, the sixth note is called the submediant since it is in the middle
of the upper tonic and subdominant.

 The second note is called the supertonic. Super is Latin for “above”.
 While the scale degrees for the first six notes are the same for both major
and minor scales, the seventh one is special.

 If the seventh note is a half step below the tonic, it is called a leading
note (or “leading tone”).
 Play the C Major Scale, notice how the seventh note wants to lead into the
tonic.

 Leading tones also occur in harmonic minor and melodic minor.

 In natural minor, the seventh note is a whole step below the tonic. In this
case, the note is called a subtonic (or “flattened leading note”).

 Play the C Natural Minor scale, notice how the seventh tone lacks the
desire to lead into the tonic.

 A number with a caret may also be used to indicate a scale degree.

 For example, the dominant of a scale (G in the above example), may be

labelled as a 5 with a caret.
 A key signature is a collection of every accidental found in a scale.

 To demonstrate this, we will use the key of C Minor, which has three flats.

 Instead of writing a flat next to every E, A, and B; we can simply add a key
signature to the beginning of the bar.
 Next, let's examine Db Major, which has five flats.

 Again, a key signature can be used instead of writing each accidental.

 As you may have noticed, the flats are arranged in a special order.
 Bb is first, followed by Eb, Ab, Db, and Gb.

 Next comes Cb and finally Fb.

 You can remember this order by using the following saying: “Battle Ends
And Down Goes Charles' Father”.

 Key signatures can also comprise sharps.

 Let's try A Major, which has three sharps.

 The C#, F#, and G# move into the key signature.

 Finally, let's try E Major, with four sharps

 The F#, G#, C#, and D# move into the key signature.
 Sharps are arranged in the opposite order of flats.

 F# comes first, followed by C#, G#, and D#.

 Next comes A#, E#, and finally B#.

 You can remember this order by using the following saying: “Father
Charles Goes Down And Ends Battle”.

 Use this chart to reference key signatures for both treble and bass clefs.

 30 different key signatures exist (15 for major scales and 15 for minor
scales). Most theory students are expected to memorize all 30.

 Fortunately, using the key signature calculation method, one only has
to memorize seven.

 In the calculation method, each key signature is assigned a numeric value

based on the number and type of accidentals. Sharps are positive; flats
are negative.
 The key of C Major has no accidentals; therefore, its numeric value is 0.

 The key of D Major has two sharps; thus, its numeric value is 2.

 The key of E Major has four sharps - a numeric value of 4.

 The key of F Major has one flat; therefore, its numeric value is -1.
(Remember: flats are assigned negative numbers)

 The key of G Major has one sharp. Its numeric value is 1.

 The key of A Major has three sharps - a numeric value of 3.

 Finally, the key of B Major has five sharps - giving it a numeric value of 5.

 These seven values must be memorized before we can proceed.

 Next, let's compare Cb, C, and C# Major.

 If we start at C Major and subtract 7, we end up at Cb Major.

 If we start at C Major and add 7, we end up at C# Major.

 These two numeric relationships can help us calculate keys that we do not
know.

 Let's figure out Eb Major. First, start with E Major, which has a numeric
value of 4.

 To convert to Eb Major, subtract 7.

 The result is -3; thus, Eb Major has 3 flats.

 Let's try F# Major. Start with F Major, which is -1.

 To convert to F# Major, add 7.

 The result is 6; thus, F# Major has 6 sharps.

 Next, we will examine minor scales. Compare C Major and C Minor.

 To convert a major scale into its parallel minor, simply subtract 3.

 Let's calculate D Minor. We will start with D Major, which is 2.

 Next, simply subtract 3.

 The result is -1. Therefore, D Minor has one 1 flat.

 Next, let's try F Minor. We will start with F Major, which is -1.
 Next, subtract 3.

 The result is -4. Thus, F Minor has 4 flats.

 Some key signatures require two conversions. For example, let's calculate
C# Minor.

 Start with C Major, which has a numeric value of 0.

 Next, add 7 to get to C# Major.

 Finally, subtract 3 to convert to C# Minor.

 The result is 4. C# Minor therefore has 4 sharps.

 Using the calculation method, it is possible to calculate key signatures
which have more than seven accidentals.

 While these exist in theory; in practice, they would not be used.

 For example, let's calculate G# Major.

 Start with G Major, which has a numeric value of 1.

 Next, add 7 to get to G# Major.

 The result is 8. G# Major therefore has 8 sharps - a double sharp and six
normal sharps.

 Again, this key is strictly theoretical. In practice, a composer would use the
enharmonic equivalent of Ab major.
 Use this chart for reference to the key signature calculation method.

 An interval measures the distance between two notes.

 We will first discuss generic intervals, which are measured on the staff.

 When two notes occupy the same line or space, they are a first (or a
prime) apart.

 C to C is an example of a first.

 D to D and E to E are also firsts.

 Accidentals are ignored when measuring generic intervals, only staff
position matters.

 C—C#, D—Db, and A#—Ab are still firsts.

 As the notes become further apart on the staff, the interval type increases.

 C—D, D—E, and E—F are all seconds.

 C—E, D—F, and E—G are all thirds.

 Notice that thirds will always share the same staff position type — either
both on a line or both on a space.

 C—F, D—G, and E—A are all fourths.

 C—G, D—A, and E—B are all fifths.

 C—A, D—B, and E—C are all sixths.

 C—B, D—C, and E—D are all sevenths.

 C—C, D—D, and E—E are all eighths.

 Use this chart to reference generic intervals.

 Specific intervals are measured both on the staff and in semitones on

the keyboard.
 As you learned in the previous lesson, C to D and C to Db are both
generic seconds. Specifically, however, C to D is one semitone larger than
C to Db.

 Let's learn a few specific intervals.

 A major second is made up of two semitones.

 C to D is a major second since it is a generic second on the staff and two

semitones on the keyboard.

 E to F# would be another example of a major second.

 A major third is made up of four semitones.

 C to E is a major third.

 E to G# is also a major third.

 A perfect fourth is made up of five semitones.

 C to F is a perfect fourth.

 F to Bb is also a perfect fourth.

 A perfect fifth is made up of seven semitones.

 C to G is a perfect fifth.
 B to F# is also a perfect fifth.

 A major sixth is made up of nine semitones.

 C to A is a major sixth.
 Eb to C is also a major sixth.

 A major seventh is made up of eleven semitones.

 C to B is a major seventh.

 D to C# is also a major seventh.

 Finally, a perfect eighth (or perfect octave) is made up of twelve
semitones.

 C to C is a perfect eighth.

 The terms “major” and “perfect” refer to the interval's quality.

 Only seconds, thirds, sixths, and sevenths can have a major quality.
Firsts, fourths, fifths, and eighths use “perfect” instead.

 Next, let's discuss minor intervals.

 A minor interval has one less semitone than a major interval.

 For example: since C to E is a major third (4 semitones), C to Eb is a
minor third (3 semitones).

 E to G is also a minor third (since E to G# is a major third).

 Since minor intervals transform from major intervals; only seconds, thirds,
sixths, and sevenths can be “minor”.

 An augmented interval has one more semitone than a perfect interval.

 Since C to F is a perfect fourth (5 semitones), C to F# would be an

augmented fourth (6 semitones).

 F to B is also an augmented fourth (since F to Bb is a perfect fourth).

 Major intervals can be augmented by adding a semitone.

 For example, since C to A is a major sixth (9 semitones), C to A# is an

augmented sixth (10 semitones).

 Db to B is also an augmented 6th (Since Db to Bb is a major sixth).

 A diminished interval has one less semitone than a perfect interval.

 Since C to G is a perfect fifth (7 semitones), C to Gb would be a

diminished fifth (6 semitones).

 B to F is also a diminished fifth (since B to F# is a perfect fifth).

 Minor intervals can also be diminished by subtracting a semitone.

 Recall that C to B is a major seventh (11 semitones) and C to Bb is a

minor seventh (10 semitones).

 C to Bbb is a diminished seventh (9 semitones).

 This chart shows the relationship among the different interval qualities.

 This chart shows the number of semitones that each specific interval
contains.
 When writing intervals on the staff, it is common to confuse intervals with
the same number of semitones.

 For example, one may accidentally write C to F# (an augmented fourth)

instead of C to Gb (a diminished fifth).

 Although both intervals sound the same and look identical on the
keyboard, one is a fourth and the other is a fifth.

 Fortunately, an easy three-step process exists to reduce the risk of this

mistake.

 Let's write a minor third from C.

 First, write the generic interval on the staff. For this example, we will write
a generic third.
 Next, figure out the number of semitones on the keyboard. Since a major
third is 4 semitones, our minor third will be 3 semitones.

 Finally, compare the staff and keyboard results. Add any needed
accidentals to the staff.
 C—Eb is a minor third.

 For our next example, let's try a major sixth from F#.

 First, write the generic sixth on the staff.

 Next, figure out the semitones on the keyboard. A major sixth is 9

semitones.
 Finally, add any needed accidentals.

 F#—D# is a major sixth.

 For our final example, we will write a diminished fifth from B.

 First, write the generic fifth on the staff.

 Next, figure out the semitones on the keyboard. Since a perfect fifth is 7
semitones, our diminished fifth has 6.

 Finally, add any needed accidentals. In this example, no accidental is

needed.
 B—F is a diminished fifth.

 Use this chart to reference the interval-writing process.

 In music, the verb invert means to move the lowest note in a group an
octave higher.

 In this lesson, we will be inverting intervals.

 For our first example, let's invert a perfect fifth: C to G.

 To invert this interval, move the lowest note (the C) an octave higher.

 The result is a perfect fourth: G to C.

 Next, let's invert a perfect fourth: F# to B.

 Move the lowest note an octave higher.

 The result is a perfect fifth: B to F#

 Perfect intervals will always invert to other perfect intervals.

 Fourths and fifths will invert to each other.

 Let's invert a major third: C to E.

 Move the lowest note an octave higher.

 The result is a minor sixth: E to C.

 Let's invert a minor third: E to G.

 Move the lowest note an octave higher.

 The result is a major sixth: G to E.

 Minor intervals and major intervals invert to each other.

 Thirds and sixths invert to each other.

 Let's invert a major seventh: C to B.

 Move the lowest note an octave higher.

 The result is a minor second: B to C.

 Seconds and sevenths invert to each other.

 Finally, diminished and augmented intervals invert to each other.

 To demonstrate this, let's invert an augmented fourth: C to F#.

 Move the lowest note an octave higher.

 The result is a diminished fifth: F# to C

 Use this chart to quickly invert intervals.

 A chord is a combination of three or more notes.

 Chords are built off of a single note, called the root.

 In this lesson, we will discuss triads. They are created with a root, third,
and fifth.

 A major triad (or major chord) is built with a major third and a perfect
fifth from the root.

 Let's write a C major triad. First, write the root (C) on the staff.

 Next, write the generic third and generic fifth from the root.
 We now need to determine the specific intervals on the keyboard.

 Since we need a major third, let's count up four semitones from the root.

 For the perfect fifth, go back to the root and count up seven semitones.
 Since the chord contains no black keys, we do not need to write any
accidentals on the staff.

 A C major triad is C—E—G.

 Next, let's try an Eb major triad.

 Write the generic third and fifth on the staff.

 Now, switch to the keyboard. Start at the Eb and count up four semitones
for the major third.
 Go back to the root and count up seven semitones for the perfect fifth.

 Finally, write any needed accidentals. In addition to the already-written Eb,

we need a flat next to the B.

 An Eb major triad is Eb—G—Bb.

 Next, let's try a B major triad.

 Write the generic third and fifth on the staff.

 Count the major third (4 semitones) and perfect fifth (7 semitones).

 Finally, write the needed accidentals on the staff. We need two sharps:
one for the D and one for the F.

 A B major triad is B—D#—F#.

 Next, we will discuss the minor triad. It is created with a minor third and a
perfect fifth from the root.

 Let's build a C minor triad.

 Write the generic third and fifth on the staff.

 Now, switch to the keyboard. Start at the C and count up three semitones
for the minor third.
 Go back to the root and count up seven semitones for the perfect fifth.

 Finally, write any needed accidentals.

 A C minor triad is C—Eb—G.

 Let's build an Eb minor triad.

 Write the generic third and fifth on the staff.

 Next, count the minor third (3 semitones) and perfect fifth (7 semitones).
 Finally, write any needed accidentals.

 An Eb minor triad is Eb—Gb—Bb.

 Let's build a B minor triad.

 Write the generic third and fifth on the staff.

 Next, count the minor third (3 semitones) and perfect fifth (7 semitones).

 Finally, write any needed accidentals.

 A B minor triad is B—D—F#.

 The augmented triad is built with a major third and an augmented fifth.

 Let's build a C augmented triad.

 Write the generic third and fifth on the staff.

 Now, switch to the keyboard. Start at the C and count up four semitones
for the major third.

 Go back to the root and count up eight semitones for the augmented fifth.
 Finally, write any needed accidentals.

 A C augmented triad is C—E—G#.

 Let's build an Eb augmented triad.

 Write the generic third and fifth on the staff.

 Next, count the major third (4 semitones) and augmented fifth (8

semitones).
 Finally, write any needed accidentals. In this example, no additional
accidentals are needed.

 An Eb augmented triad is Eb—G—B.

 Let's build an B augmented triad.

 Write the generic third and fifth on the staff.

 Next, count the major third (4 semitones) and augmented fifth (8

semitones).

 Finally, write any needed accidentals.

 A B augmented triad is B—D#—Fx.

 The last triad that we will discuss is the diminished triad. It is built with a
minor third and a diminished fifth.

 Let's build a C diminished triad.

 Write the generic third and fifth on the staff.

 Now, switch to the keyboard. Start at the C and count up three semitones
for the minor third.

 Go back to the root and count up six semitones for the diminished fifth.
 Finally, write any needed accidentals.

 A C diminished triad is C—Eb—Gb.

 Let's build an Eb diminished triad.

 Write the generic third and fifth on the staff.

 Next, count the minor third (3 semitones) and diminished fifth (6

semitones).

 Finally, write any needed accidentals.

 An Eb diminished triad is Eb—Gb—Bbb.

 Next, let's build a B diminished triad. Write down the root and generic
intervals.

 Write the generic third and fifth on the staff.

 Next, count the minor third (3 semitones) and diminished fifth (6
semitones).

 Finally, write any needed accidentals. No accidentals are needed.

 A B diminished triad is B—D—F.

 Use this chart to reference the four types of triads.

 Like intervals, triads can be inverted by moving the lowest note up an

octave.

 The lowest note, called the bass note, determines the name of the
inversion.
 When the lowest note is the root of the chord, the triad is in root position.

 Next, let's invert the chord.

 The bass note is now the third of the chord.

 This is called first inversion.

 Let's invert the chord again.

 Now, the fifth is the lowest note of the chord.

 This is called second inversion.

 Let's invert the chord one more time.

 Notice that the triad returns to root position.

 Use this chart for reference to triad inversion.

 A seventh chord is the combination of a triad and an interval of a
seventh.

 Five types of seventh chords are commonly used.

 A major triad and a minor seventh combine to form a dominant seventh

chord.

 Dominant seventh chords are abbreviated with a simple 7.

 Let's examine a C dominant seventh chord.

 C–E–G is the major triad.

 C–Bb is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form a C dominant seventh chord: C–E–G–Bb.

 Next, let's examine an F# dominant seventh chord.

 F#–A#–C# is the major triad.

 F#–E is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form an F# dominant seventh chord: F#–A#–C#–E.

 Next, let's examine an Ab dominant seventh chord.

 Ab–C–Eb is the major triad.

 Ab–Gb is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form an Ab dominant seventh chord: Ab–C–Eb–Gb.

 A major triad and a major seventh combine to form a major seventh

chord.

 Major seventh chords are abbreviated with a capital 'M' and a 7.

 Let's examine a C major seventh chord.

 C–E–G is the major triad.

 C–B is the major seventh.

 When combined, they form a C major seventh chord: C–E–G–B.

 Next, let's examine an F# major seventh chord.

 F#–A#–C# is the major triad.

 F#–E# is the major seventh.

 When combined, they form an F# major seventh chord: F#–A#–C#–E#.

 Next, let's examine an Ab major seventh chord.

 Ab–C–Eb is the major triad.

 Ab–G is the major seventh.

 When combined, they form an Ab major seventh chord: Ab–C–Eb–G.

 A minor triad and a minor seventh combine to form a minor seventh

chord (m7).
 Minor seventh chords are abbreviated with a lower-case 'm' and a 7.

 Let's examine a C minor seventh chord.

 C–Eb–G is the minor triad.

 C–Bb is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form a C minor seventh chord: C–Eb–G–Bb.

 Next, let's examine an F# minor seventh chord.

 F#–A–C# is the minor triad.

 F#–E is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form an F# minor seventh chord: F#–A–C#–E.

 Next, let's examine an Ab minor seventh chord.

 Ab–Cb–Eb is the minor triad.

 Ab–Gb is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form an Ab minor seventh chord: Ab–Cb–Eb–Gb.

 A diminished triad and a minor seventh combine to form a half-
diminished seventh chord.

 Half-diminished seventh chords are abbreviated with a slashed circle and

a 7.

 Let's examine a C half-diminished seventh chord.

 C–Eb–Gb is the diminished triad.

 C–Bb is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form a C half-diminished seventh chord: C–Eb–Gb–

Bb.

 Next, let's examine an F# half-diminished seventh chord.

 F#–A–C is the diminished triad.

 F#–E is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form an F# half-diminished seventh chord: F#–A–

C–E.
 Next, let's examine an Ab half-diminished seventh chord.

 Ab–Cb–Ebb is the diminished triad.

 Ab–Gb is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form an Ab half-diminished seventh chord: Ab–Cb–
Ebb–Gb.

 Finally, a diminished triad and a diminished seventh combine to form a

diminished seventh chord (or fully-diminished seventh chord).

 Diminished seventh chords are abbreviated with an open circle and a 7.

 Let's examine a C diminished seventh chord.

 C–Eb–Gb is the diminished triad.

 C–Bbb is the diminished seventh.

 When combined, they form a C diminished seventh chord: C–Eb–Gb–

Bbb.
 Next, let's examine an F# diminished seventh chord.

 F#–A–C is the diminished triad.

 F#–Eb is the diminished seventh.

 When combined, they form an F# diminished seventh chord: F#–A–C–Eb.

 Next, let's examine an Ab diminished seventh chord.

 Ab–Cb–Ebb is the diminished triad.

 Ab–Gbb is the diminished seventh.

 When combined, they form an Ab diminished seventh chord: Ab–Cb–Ebb–

Gbb.

 Use this chart to reference the five common types of seventh chords.
 Additional types of seventh chords can occur in popular music and jazz.

 Let's learn about three of these additional types.

 A minor triad and a major seventh combine to form a minor-major

seventh chord.

 Minor-major seventh chords are abbreviated with a lower-case 'm', capital

'M', and a 7.

 Let's examine a C minor-major seventh chord.

 C–Eb–G is the minor triad.

 C–B is the major seventh.

 When combined, they form a C minor-major seventh chord: C–Eb–G–B.

 Next, let's examine an F# minor-major seventh chord.

 F#–A–C# is the minor triad.

 F#–E# is the major seventh.

 When combined, they form an F# minor-major seventh chord: F#–A–C#–

E#.
 Next, let's examine an Ab minor-major seventh chord.

 Ab–Cb–Eb is the minor triad.

 Ab–G is the major seventh.

 When combined, they form an Ab minor-major seventh chord: Ab–Cb–Eb–
G.

 An augmented triad and a major seventh combine to form an

augmented-major seventh chord.

 Augmented-major seventh chords are abbreviated with a plus, capital 'M',

and a 7.

 Let's examine a C augmented-major seventh chord.

 C–E–G# is the augmented triad.

 C–B is the major seventh.

 When combined, they form a C augmented-major seventh chord: C–E–

G#–B.
 Next, let's examine an F# augmented-major seventh chord.

 F#–A#–Cx is the augmented triad.

 F#–E# is the major seventh.

 When combined, they form an F# augmented-major seventh chord: F#–
A#–Cx–E#.

 Next, let's examine an Ab augmented-major seventh chord.

 Ab–C–E is the augmented triad.

 Ab–G is the major seventh.

 When combined, they form an Ab augmented-major seventh chord: Ab–

C–E–G.
 Finally, an augmented triad and a minor seventh combine to form an
augmented seventh chord.

 Augmented seventh chords are abbreviated with a plus and a 7.

 Let's examine a C augmented seventh chord.

 C–E–G# is the augmented triad.

 C–Bb is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form a C augmented seventh chord: C–E–G#–Bb.

 Next, let's examine an F# augmented seventh chord.

 F#–A#–Cx is the augmented triad.

 F#–E is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form an F# augmented seventh chord: F#–A#–Cx–

E.

 Next, let's examine an Ab augmented seventh chord.

 Ab–C–E is the augmented triad.

 Ab–Gb is the minor seventh.

 When combined, they form an Ab augmented seventh chord: Ab–C–E–

Gb.
 Use this chart to reference the additional types of seventh chords covered
in this lesson.

 Like triads, seventh chords can be inverted by moving the lowest note up
an octave.

 Root position is the same as a triad – the root is the lowest (bass) note.
 Let's invert the chord.

 First inversion is also the same – the third is the lowest note.

 Let's invert the chord again.

 Second inversion is also the same – the fifth is the lowest note.

 Let's invert the chord again.

 Now, the seventh is the lowest note of the chord.

 This is called third inversion.

 Let's invert the chord one more time.

 Notice that the chord returns to root position.

 Use this chart for reference to seventh chord inversion.

 Every major and minor scale has seven special triads, called diatonic
triads, which are formed from that scale's notes.

 To discover the diatonic triads, a three step process must be used.

 First, construct the scale. We will be using the C major scale for our first
example.

 Next, stack two generic thirds on top of each note.

 Finally, analyze the resulting triads.

 The first triad is C–E–G, a major third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, the
triad is major.

 The second triad is D–F–A, a minor third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, it is
minor.
 The third triad is E–G–B, a minor third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, it is
also minor.

 The fourth triad is F–A–C, a major third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, it is
major.
 The fifth triad is G–B–D, a major third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, it is
also major.

 The sixth triad is A–C–E, a minor third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, it is
minor.

 The seventh triad is B–D–F, a minor third and a diminished fifth.

Therefore, it is diminished.
 The eighth triad is a repetition of the first (C–E–G), making it major.

 The first triad of a major scale will always be major, the second and third
triads will always be minor, etc.

 Next, we will uncover the diatonic triads of the C Natural Minor scale.
 First, the scale is constructed. Notice that we are using a key signature
rather than placing the accidentals by each note.

 Again, stack two generic thirds.

 Finally, let's analyze the resulting triads.

 The first triad is C–Eb–G, a minor third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, the
triad is minor.
 The second triad is D–F–Ab, a minor third and a diminished fifth.
Therefore, it is diminished.

 The third triad is Eb–G–Bb, a major third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, it is
major.
 The fourth triad is F–Ab–C, a minor third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, it is
minor.

 The fifth triad is G–Bb–D, a minor third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, it is
also minor.

 The sixth triad is Ab–C–Eb, a major third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, it is
major.
 The seventh triad is Bb–D–F, a major third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, it
is also major.

 The eighth triad is a repetition of the first (C–Eb–G), making it minor.

 Next, we will discuss the diatonic triads of harmonic minor.

 To convert natural minor to harmonic minor, the seventh tone is raised a
semitone. Therefore, each Bb (the seventh tone of C minor) is raised to a
B.

 Since the third, fifth, and seventh chords have been altered, they need to
be reanalyzed.

 The third triad is now Eb–G–B, a major third and an augmented fifth.
Therefore, it is augmented.

 The fifth triad is now G–B–D, a major third and a perfect fifth. Therefore, it
is major.
 The seventh triad is now B–D–F, a minor third and a diminished fifth.
Therefore, it is diminished.

 Finally, we will discuss the diatonic triads of melodic minor.

 To convert harmonic minor to melodic minor, the sixth tone is raised a

semitone. Therefore, each Ab (the sixth tone of C minor) is raised to an A.
 Since the second, fourth, and sixth chords have been altered, they need
to be reanalyzed.

 The second triad is now D–F–A, a minor third and an perfect fifth.
Therefore, it is minor.

 The fourth triad is now F–A–C, a major third and a perfect fifth. Therefore,
it is major.
 The sixth triad is now A–C–Eb, a minor third and a diminished fifth.
Therefore, it is diminished.

 Use this chart to reference the diatonic triads in each scale.

 When analyzing music, each diatonic triad is identified by a Roman
numeral.

 The first diatonic triad of a scale uses the Roman numeral for one.

 The second diatonic triad uses the Roman numeral for two.
 This pattern continues.

 In addition, the modern Roman numeral system uses different styles for
each triad type.

 Upper-case numerals represent major triads.

 Lower-case numerals represent minor triads.

 Upper-case numerals with a small plus sign represent augmented triads.

 Lower-case numerals with a small circle represent diminished triads.

 Let's apply Roman numerals to the C major scale.

 Since the first triad is major, its numeral is upper-case.

 The second triad is minor. Its numeral is lower-case.

 The third triad's numeral is also lower-case.

 The fourth triad's numeral is upper-case.

 The fifth triad's numeral is also upper-case.

 The sixth triad's numeral is lower-case.

 The seventh triad is diminished. Its numeral is lower-case with a small
circle.

 The last triad is the same as the first.

 Next, let's apply Roman numerals to the C natural minor scale.

 Since the first triad is minor, its numeral is lower-case.

 The second triad is diminished. Its numeral is lower-case with a small

circle.

 The third triad's numeral is upper-case.

 The fourth triad's numeral is lower-case.

 The fifth triad's numeral is also lower-case.

 The sixth triad's numeral is upper-case.

 The seventh triad's numeral is also upper-case.

 Again, the last triad is the same as the first.

 Next, let's apply Roman numerals to the C harmonic minor scale.

 The third triad is now augmented. Its numeral is upper-case with a small
plus sign.

 The fifth triad is now major. Its numeral is upper-case.

 The seventh triad is now diminished. Its numeral is lower-case with a
small circle.

 Next, let's apply Roman numerals to the C melodic minor scale.

 The second triad is now minor. Its numeral is lower-case with no circle.
 The fourth triad is now major. Its numeral is upper-case.

 The sixth triad is now diminished. Its numeral is lower-case with a small
circle.

 The Roman numeral system can also indicate inversions.

 First inversion is represented by a small 6 after the numeral. This is due to
the root being a generic sixth above the bass note.

 Second inversion is represented with both a small 6 and 4. This is due to

the root and third being a generic sixth and fourth above the bass note.
 Some theorists use both a 6 and a 3 to represent first inversion.

 Although we will use the 6 and 6/4 numeric system, you should be aware
that the others exist.

 Use this chart to reference the Roman numerals for each scale.

 Use this chart to reference the Roman numerals for inversions.

 In addition to diatonic triads, every major and minor scale has seven
diatonic seventh chords.

 Let's examine the diatonic seventh chords of the C major scale.

 First, construct the scale.

 Next, stack three generic thirds on top of each note.

 Finally, analyze the resulting seventh chords.

 The first chord is C–E–G–B, a major triad and a major seventh. Therefore,
it is a major seventh chord.

 The second chord is D–F–A–C, a minor triad and a minor seventh.

Therefore, it is a minor seventh chord.
 The third chord is E–G–B–D, a minor triad and a minor seventh.
Therefore, it is also a minor seventh chord.

 The fourth chord is F–A–C–E, a major triad and a major seventh.

Therefore, it is a major seventh chord.
 The fifth chord is G–B–D–F, a major triad and a minor seventh. Therefore,
it is a dominant seventh chord.

 The sixth chord is A–C–E–G, a minor triad and a minor seventh.

Therefore, it is a minor seventh chord.

 The seventh chord is B–D–F–A, a diminished triad and a minor seventh.

Therefore, it is a half-diminished seventh chord.
 The eighth chord is a repetition of the first (C–E–G–B), making it a major
seventh chord.

 The first seventh chord of a major scale will always be a major seventh,
the second and third seventh chords will always be minor sevenths, etc.
 Next, we will uncover the diatonic seventh chords of the C Natural Minor
scale.

 First, construct the scale.

 Again, stack three generic thirds.

 Finally, let's analyze the resulting seventh chords.

 The first chord is C–Eb–G–Bb, a minor triad and a minor seventh.

Therefore, it is a minor seventh chord.
 The second chord is D–F–Ab–C, a diminished triad and a minor seventh.
Therefore, it is a half-diminished seventh chord.

 The third chord is Eb–G–Bb–D, a major triad and a major seventh.

Therefore, it is a major seventh chord.
 The fourth chord is F–Ab–C–Eb, a minor triad and a minor seventh.
Therefore, it is minor seventh chord.

 The fifth chord is G–Bb–D–F, a minor triad and a minor seventh.

Therefore, it is also a minor seventh chord.

 The sixth chord is Ab–C–Eb–G, a major triad and a major seventh.

Therefore, it is a major seventh chord.
 The seventh chord is Bb–D–F–Ab, a major triad and a minor seventh.
Therefore, it is a dominant seventh chord.

 The eighth chord is a repetition of the first (C–Eb–G–Bb), making it a

minor seventh chord.
 Next, we will discuss the diatonic seventh chords of harmonic minor.

 To convert natural minor to harmonic minor, the seventh tone is raised a

semitone. Therefore, each Bb (the seventh tone of C minor) is raised to a
B.

 Each chord which contained a Bb needs to be reanalyzed.

 The first chord is now C–Eb–G–B, a minor triad and an major seventh.
Therefore, it is minor-major seventh chord.

 The third chord is now Eb–G–B–D, an augmented triad and an major

seventh. Therefore, it is augmented-major seventh chord.
 The fifth chord is now G–B–D–F, a major triad and a minor seventh.
Therefore, it is a dominant seventh chord.

 The seventh chord is now B–D–F–Ab, a diminished triad and a diminished

seventh. Therefore, it is a fully-diminished seventh chord.
 The eighth chord is a repetition of the first (C–Eb–G–Bb), making it a
minor-major seventh chord.

 Finally, we will discuss the diatonic seventh chords of melodic minor.

 To convert harmonic minor to melodic minor, the sixth tone is raised a

semitone. Therefore, each Ab (the sixth tone of C minor) is raised to an A.

 Each chord which contained an Ab needs to be reanalyzed.

 The second chord is now D–F–A–C, a minor triad and an minor seventh.
Therefore, it is a minor seventh chord.
 The fourth chord is now F–A–C–Eb, a major triad and a minor seventh.
Therefore, it is a dominant seventh chord.

 The sixth chord is now A–C–Eb–G, a diminished triad and a minor

seventh. Therefore, it is a half-diminished seventh chord.
 The seventh chord is now B–D–F–A, a diminished triad and a minor
seventh. Therefore, it is also a half-diminished seventh chord.

 Use this chart to reference the diatonic seventh chords in each scale.

 In addition to triads, the Roman numeral analysis system also identifies

diatonic seventh chords.

 Let's discover these analysis symbols of the major and harmonic minor
scales.

 A three step process is used.

 First, write the analysis symbols for the corresponding diatonic triads.
 Next, add a small seven.

 Finally, add a slash through the circle of each half-diminished seventh

chord.

 Some theorist use a variation of this system.

 They prefer to add an upper-case 'M' to each seventh chord which uses a
major seventh.

 Although we will not use their system, you should be aware of its
existence.

 Next, let's look at inverted seventh chords.

 The previously-discussed 7 identifies a root position seventh chord.

 6 and 5 identify a first inversion seventh.

 4 and 3 identify a second inversion seventh.

 A lone 2 identifies a third inversion seventh chord.

 Let's arrange the symbols in a different way. Notice anything unusual?

 The inversion numbers are in numeric order from 7 to 2.

 You can use this pattern to remember the inversion numbers for seventh
chords.
 Unlike the major scale, three different minor scales exist.

 Composers will often merge two of these scales, natural minor and
harmonic minor, for a more pleasing sound.

 Recall the diatonic triads of both scales.

 Notice that many of the triads are the same.

 Three pairs of triads (III–III+, v–V, and VII–viio) are different due to
harmonic minor's raised seventh degree.
 III is prefered to III+. This is because III+, being an augmented chord, has a
peculiar sound.

 V is preferred to v since V contains a leading note (and therefore is

stronger). This does not mean that v cannot be used.
 VII and viio are both used equally. As you will later learn, each has a
different function.

 The merged minor scale contains nine different diatonic triads.

 Composers will often arrange the notes of a chord in numerous ways in

order to vary its sound. This process is called voicing.

 To demonstrate this, we will voice an F major triad in root position.

 Notice that we can arrange the notes in any order as long as F, A, and C
are used and F is the lowest note.

 Play and listen to these examples.

 Next, we will voice an F major triad in first inversion.

 By definition, a chord is in first inversion when the third is the lowest note.
Thus, we need to make sure that each of our voicings uses A for the
bottom note.

 Play and listen to these examples.

 Finally, we will voice an F major triad in second inversion.

 The process is the same; however, we must be certain that the fifth (C) is
used as the lowest note.

 Play and listen to the final examples.

 Analyzing the notes and chords of a song is a major part of music theory.

 In this analysis, we will be looking at the first four bars of O Canada!, the
national anthem of Canada.

 The first step in analysis is to determine the key. Since the key signature
contains three flats, we have two possibilities: Eb major or C minor.
 The first chord contains an Eb, Bb, Eb, and G - an Eb major triad. Since
this is I in Eb Major, we are most likely in that key.

 The second chord contains a D, Bb, F, and Bb - a Bb major triad. This is V

in Eb Major. Since the third is the lowest note, the triad is in first inversion.
 Since the third chord is the same as the previous one, we do not have to
repeat the analysis symbol.

 The first chord of the second bar contains a C, G, C, and Eb - a C minor

triad. Thus, it is vi.

 The second chord contains a Bb, Bb, D, and F - another Bb major triad.
This time, it is in root position.
 The first chord of the third bar contains an Eb, Bb, Eb, and G - an Eb
major triad. Thus, it is another I chord.

 The second chord contains a C, Ab, Eb, and Ab - an Ab major triad in first
inversion.
 The third chord contains a G, G, Eb, and Bb - an Eb major triad in first
inversion.

 The fourth chord contains an Ab, C, Eb, and C - another Ab major triad.
Notice that it is now in root position.

 The final bar contains a Bb, Bb, D, and F - a Bb major triad. Thus, we end
with a V.
 Listen to these bars of O Canada!.

 Non-harmony notes (or nonharmonic tones) are notes that do not

belong in a certain chord.

 In this example, the F is a non-harmony note because it does not fit into
the I chord (which contains C, E, and G).
 Before discussing the different types of non-harmony notes, we need to
define two terms:

 A step is equal to an interval of a generic second.

 A leap is equal to an interval of a generic third or more.

 A passing note is approached by step and then continues by step in the

same direction.
 If a passing note occurs with the second chord (instead of in the middle of
the two chords), it is called an accented passing note.

 An auxiliary note (or neighbour note) is approached by step and then

returns by step to the original note.
 If it occurs with the second chord, it is called an accented auxiliary note
(>NT).

 An anticipation is approached by step and then remains the same. It is

basically a note of the second chord played early.

 Anticipations are not accented.

 An appoggiatura is approached by leap and then steps in the opposite

direction.
 Appoggiaturas are accented – they occur with the second chord.

 A suspension keeps a note the same and then resolves by step

(commonly downward).

 Suspensions can also resolve upward. Sometimes this is classified as a

“retardation”.
 In either case, the suspension is an accented non-harmony tone.

 While the named non-harmonic tones discussed in this lesson are the
most common, composers may choose to use others.

 A phrase is a series of notes that sound complete even when played

apart from the main song.

 We will use this musical example to demonstrate phrases.

 Play the first two bars, notice how they sound incomplete.
 Now play the first four bars, they sound more complete.

 These bars could be considered a phrase.

 Play the fifth through eighth bars.

 Due to their completeness, they also form a phrase.

 A cadence is a two-chord progression that occurs at the end of a phrase.

 If a phrase ends with any chord going to V, an imperfect cadence

occurs.
 Replay the first four bars and notice the sound of the imperfect cadence.

 Most people will hear an imperfect cadence as sounding incomplete.

Hence, composers usually follow them with a phrase ending in a perfect
cadence.

 An perfect cadence occurs whenever a phrase ends with V or viio going to

I (or i if minor).

 Play this example and notice the sound of both cadences.

 In addition to perfect and imperfect cadences, two other kinds exist.

 If a phrase ends with IV (or iv) going to I (or i), a plagal cadence (PC)
occurs.
 Play this example and notice the sound of the plagal cadence.

 If a phrase ends with V going to a chord other than I (or i), an interrupted
cadence occurs.

 An interrupted cadence is often used in place of a perfect cadence.

 Recall the musical example used at the beginning of this lesson. Let's
replace the perfect cadence at the end of the second phrase with an
interrupted cadence.
 Play the modified example. Notice how the cadence “deceives” you (since
you are expecting to hear a I).

 Use this chart to reference cadences.

 Root motion is the movement from one chord's root to another chord's
root.

 To demonstrate root motion, we will use a I and a vi chord in C Major.

 The root of the I chord (a C major triad) is C.

 The root of the vi chord (an A minor triad) is A.

 Therefore, the root motion between I and vi (C to A) is down a third.

 Due to interval inversion, the root motion could also be classified as up a

sixth.

 Let's try another example: a IV chord going to V.

 The root of the first chord (an F major triad) is F.

 The root of the second chord (a G major triad) is G.

 Therefore, the root motion of these two chords is up a second or down a

seventh.
 Let's try another example: a I chord in first inversion going to a root
position V.

 The root of the first chord (an C major triad) is C. Since the chord is
inverted, the root is not the lowest note.
 The root of the second chord is G.

 The root motion of these two chords is down a fourth or up a fifth.

 A circle progression occurs when root motion is equal to up a fourth or

down a fifth.
 Both I→IV and ii→V are circle progressions.
 iii→vi and IV→viio are also circle progressions.

 Let's work out all possible circle progressions for a major scale, starting at
I.

 I progresses to IV.
 IV progresses to viio.

 viio progresses to iii.

 iii progresses to vi.

 vi progresses to ii.

 ii progresses to V.

 V progresses to I.
 The major scale circle progressions are: I→IV→viio→iii→vi→ii→V→I.

 Next, we will work out all possible circle progressions for a minor scale.

 i progresses to iv.
 iv progresses to VII (not viio).

 VII progresses to III.

 III progresses to VI.

 VI progresses to iio.

 iio progresses to V (not v).

 V progresses to i.
 The minor scale circle progressions are: i→iv→VII→III→VI→iio→V→i.

 This chart displays the circle progressions for both major and minor
scales.

 Although hundreds of different chord progressions are possible, most tend

to follow a pattern.

 In a major key, the goal of any chord progression is the I chord.

 The rest of the pattern is based around the strongest ways to get to this
chord.

 An authentic cadence (V → I) or (viio → I) is the strongest way to

approach a I chord.
 Next, we use circle progressions.

 The strongest way to approach V is a circle progression from ii.

 The strongest way to approach viio is a circle progression from IV.

 The strongest way to approach IV is a circle progression from I; however,
since I is already on the chart, we will not repeat it.

 A circle progression from vi leads us to ii.

 A circle progression from iii leads us to vi.

 The strongest way to get to iii is a circle progression from viio, which is
already on the chart.
 Finally, since I is the main chord of the scale, it can go to any other chord.

 Now that the chart is complete, there are a few terms that you should
learn.

 Recall that the term “dominant” means the fifth scale degree. Since the V
chord is built on the dominant, it is a dominant chord.

 Since viio functions like V (by going to I), it can also be labeled as a
dominant.

 Hence, V and viio are dominants.

 Since ii and IV come before V and viio, they are usually labeled as
predominants.

 Let's work out a chord progression using the chart. We will start at I.

 Next, we can choose any chord. Let's go to vi.

 Now, we can choose either ii or IV.

 Let's go with IV.

 Now, we can choose either V or viio. Let's go with V.

 Finally, V takes us back to I.

 Our finished chord progression is: I→vi→IV→V→I.

 The chord progression chart for minor scales is very similar to the major
scale chart. There is only one main difference.
 The strongest way to approach III is not viio. Instead, it is a circle
progression from VII.

 A circle progression from iv to VII completes the chart.

 It should be noted that the charts do not have to be followed strictly. If a
progression is not presented, a composer is not banned from using it.

 In the previous lessons, we learned how to construct, identify, and analyze

first inversion triads. One question still remains: when exactly do we use
them?
 One use of first inversion is to smooth out the bass line.

 Look at the example. Notice how the bass line changes direction during
the second V chord.

 By placing this chord in first inversion, the bass line becomes smoother.

 We can also use first inversion when repeating a chord.

 In this example, the first two chords are duplicates. A composer may feel
that this passage needs more movement.

 Instead of altering the top voices, the chord is placed in first inversion.

 The diminished triad presents the final use for first inversion.

 Early composers did not like using augmented or diminished intervals.

 Notice that a root position diminished triad contains a diminished fifth.

 The second inversion of the same triad contains an augmented fourth.

 Only the first inversion contains no augmented nor diminished intervals.

 Because of this, composers prefer first inversion diminished triads.

 While root position diminished triads are used occasionally, second
inversion is rarely encountered.

 It should be noted that the examples presented in this lesson are not strict
rules. Sometimes, first inversion is used simply because a composer likes
its sound.

 While composers use root position and first inversion triads freely, second
inversion usually occurs in three situations.

 Like first inversion, second inversion may be used to smooth out a bass
line.

 Look at this example – notice the movement of the bass line.

 By using a second inversion V chord, the bass line moves by step and
becomes smooth.
 A second inversion triad used in this fashion is called a passing six-four
chord.

 Second inversion may also be used to straighten a bass line.

 Look at this example – notice how the bass line jumps up to the F and
then returns back to C.

 By using a second inversion IV chord, the movement in the bass line is

eliminated.
 A second inversion triad used in this fashion is called a pedal six-four
chord.

 The cadential six-four chord is the final and most noticeable use.

 In this form, the second inversion triad preceeds a V chord in a cadence.

 Often, the cadence will sound stronger due to the cadential six-four's
presence.

 Examine the cadential six-four chord and its resolution to V.

 Some theorists prefer to identify the cadential six-four chord as a V with
two nonharmonic tones.

 They often explicitly show the nonharmonic resolution in their analysis.

 Although we will use I, you should be aware of this alternate system.

 On the chord progression chart, the cadential six-four occurs in between
predominants and dominants.

 In this analysis, we will look at the first few bars of Auld Lang Syne, a
traditional Scottish ballad.

 First, we must determine the key. Since the key signature contains one
flat, two possibilities exist: F major or D minor.
 The first chord contains F–A–C, an F major triad. Since this is I in F Major,
we are most likely in that key.

 The next bar contains all F's, A's, and C's. Thus, all four chords are I.
Since we would be repeating an analysis symbol, there is no need to write
it again.
 The first chord of the next bar contains C–C–E–G, a C major triad. Thus, it
is a V chord.

 The second chord contains a C–C–D–F. This doesn't fit nicely into a triad
– let's skip it for now.
 The third chord is a duplicate of the first.

 The fourth chord contains a C–Bb–E–A. This chord also doesn't fit into a
triad. Let's skip it as well.

 The next bar contains F–A–C. Again, all four chords are I chords.
 The final bar contains a Bb–Bb–F–D, a Bb major triad. Thus, it is a IV
chord.

 Let's go back and analyze the chords that we skipped.

 If we consider nonharmonic tones, the first skipped chord can be analyze

as a continuation of the V with two neighboring tones.
 The second skipped chord is trickier.

 When voicing seventh chords, composers sometimes leave out the fifth.

 Notice that the bottom three notes are the root, third, and seventh of a C
dominant seventh chord. Only the G (the fifth) is missing.

 Hence, we can analyze it as V7 with a nonharmonic A.

 Since the A is approached by step and then skips, it is an escape tone.

 This analysis is reinforced by the fact that V chords commonly resolve to I.

 Play these bars of Auld Lang Syne.

 A Neapolitan chord is simply a major triad that is built on a special note.

 This note is the lowered second degree (the supertonic) of a major or

minor scale.

 Let's build the Neapolitan of C Minor.

 First, figure out the second scale degree. In C Minor, this is D.

 Next, we will lower it to Db.

 Now build a major triad. This results in Db–F–Ab.

 A Db major chord is the Neapolitan of C Minor.

 Next, let's build the Neapolitan of E Minor.

 Again, we need to figure out the second scale degree. In E Minor, this is
F#.

 Lower it to F natural.
 Now, build a major triad. This results in F–A–C.

 Thus, an F major chord is the Neapolitan of E Minor.

 Next, let's build the Neapolitan of Ab Major.

 In this key, the second scale degree is Bb.

 Lower it to Bbb.

 Now, build a major triad. This results in Bbb–Db–Fb.

 Thus, a Bbb major chord is the Neapolitan of Ab Major.

 For our final example, let's build the Neapolitan of A Major.

 In this key, the second scale degree is B.

 Lower it to Bb.
 Now, build a major triad. This results in Bb–D–F.

 Thus, a Bb major chord is the Neapolitan of A Major.

 In the previous lessons, we learned how to construct Neapolitan chords.

In this lesson, we will learn how to use them.

 Although root position and second inversion Neapolitans exist, first

inversion is normally used.
 In this inversion, the Neapolitan is called a Neapolitan sixth.

 Notice that the Neapolitan sixth's bass note is the same as a first inversion
iio (or ii) or a root position iv (or IV).

 For this reason, it often substitutes for these chords. Hence, it primarily
functions as a predominant.
 Consider this example.

 We can replace the ii6 chord with a Neapolitan sixth.

 Next, consider this example.

 This time, we will replace the IV with a Neapolitan sixth.

 Use this chart to reference the Neapolitan chord's usage.

 In this analysis, we will be examining bars 49-51 of Beethoven's
Moonlight Sonata (Opus 27, Number 2, Movement 1).

 Since we are starting in the middle of the piece, I will reveal the key
signature: it is in C# minor.

 The first half of bar 49 contains G#–B#–D#–F#, a G# dominant seventh

chord. Since the B# is the lowest note, the chord is in first inversion.
 The second half of bar 49 contains C#–E–G#, a C# minor triad.

 The first half of bar 50 contains D–F#–A, a D major triad in first inversion.
This is the Neapolitan sixth chord in C# minor.
 The second half of bar 50 contains G#–B#–F#, a G# dominant seventh
chord with a missing fifth.

 The first part of bar 51 contains C#–E–G#, another C# minor triad.

 Play these bars of Moonlight Sonata.