BIOLOGY FINALS REVIEWER | © DE MATA & VASQUEZ

REVIEW GUIDE

TEST TYPES

I. True or False - 15 points

II. Multiple Choice - 35 points
III. Short Response - 15 points
IV. Essay - 5 points
Total - 70 points

TOPICS

I. Bioethics
- Application

II. Biomolecules
- Structures and Functions
- Properties of Enzyme and Lock-and-Key Model
- Factors Affecting Enzymatic Activity

III. Cell Structures

- Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
- Functions of cell structures

IV. Cell Transport

- Passive and Active Transport
- movement of solute and solvent across a membrane

V. Aseptic Techniques and Media Preparation

- pour plating, streaking, test tube and petri dish cultures, autoclaving

VI. Cell Cycle and Cell Division

- phases of cell cycle
- similarities and differences of equational and reductional cell division
- significant events and arrangements of cell parts in mitosis

© Sir Cheo <3

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BIOETHICS
Autonomy
- Respect for own or the person’s
decision

Beneficence
- Most good with the least harm
possible

Non-Maleficence
- Do NOT be the direct cause of
harm
- Minimize harm caused towards
others and community
Justice
- Treat everyone fairly and equally
- Sharing of resources, risks, and
costs according to what is due to
each person
RULE: choose the situations that violate
the least number of bioethical principles
BIOMOLECULES
FORMATION OF POLYMERS
Polymerization
- Dehydration Synthesis (Releases
𝐻2 0)
CARBOHYDRATES
- Monomer: monosaccharide (C, H,
O)
- Bond: glycosidic bond
- Function: main source of energy
- monosaccharide (glucose,
galactose, fructose) →
disaccharide (sucrose, lactose,
maltose) → Polysaccharide [
starch (energy for plants)
glycogen (energy for animals),
cellulose (cell walls)
LIPIDS
- Monomer: fatty acids 1
- Bond: ester bond
- 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids
- saturated (solid, animal fats),
unsaturated (oils, plant fats),
phospholipids, steroids, some
carotenoids

PROTEINS
- Monomer: amino acids or
peptides
- Bond: peptide bond
- Function: largest variety of
functions
- Amino group + carboxyl group +
side chain
Breakdown
- Hydration Synthesis (Adds 𝐻2 0)
NUCLEIC ACIDS
- Monomer: nucleotide
- Bond: phosphodiester
- Function: heredity, energy

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- phosphate group + pentose +
nitrogenous base
CELLS: THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
- A cell is the smallest structure
that has life that makes up living
things
- The basic unit of STRUCTURE and
FUNCTION of all living things
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT
- Robert Hooke: cell walls of a cork
- Robert Brown: all plants have a
nucleus
- Matthias Schleiden: all plants are
made up of cells
- Theodor Schwann: all animals are
made up of cells
- Rudolf Virchow: all cells come
from existing cells
Cell Theory
1) All living things are made up of
cells
2) Cells are the basic unit of
structure and organization in
cells
3) Cells come from pre-existing cells
Modern Addenda
1) Energy flow occurs within cells
2) Hereditary information (DNA) is
passed from cell to cell
3) All cells have the same basic
CHEMICAL composition
Function of Cells
- Energy productions (ATP and
protein) which can be for itself or
for the body
- Transport of materials in the body
- Reproduction
- Growth and development
TYPES OF CELLS
PROKARYOTIC
- Nucleoid region for DNA
- One circular chromosome +
plasmids
- usually unicellular organisms
(exception: cyanobacteria)
- Simplest forms of life
- DNA is folded and condensed
then supercoiled around
tetrameters of the HU protein
- UNIDIRECTIONAL transfers of
DNA
- Flagella is submicroscopic; only
one fiber
- Size is 1-10 um
- Produce without the fusion of
gametes
● Transfer of DNA facilitates
the continuity of species
● Can “infect” host cells:
pathogenicity
- Characterized by lack of cellular
compartments and membrane
bound organelles
Parts
- Layers of Protective Media
1. plasma membrane
(phospholipid bilayer)
2. cell wall (peptidoglycan)
3. Capsule/Glycocalyx (lipids;
outermost)
- Fimbriae: attachment structure
on the surface
- Flagella: locomotion oranalle of
prokaryotes
- Nucleoid Region: region where
DNA is concentrated
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Divided into 2 Domains
1) Archaea
2) Bacteria
Archaebacteria
- First forms of life to exist
- Can exist in extreme
environments such as areas with
high salt concentration and no
oxygen
- Adaptive mechanisms
● Walls of their cells are
different w/c help them
survive extreme temp.
● Do not use oxygen during
cell respirations; methane
instead
Eubacteria
- Pathogenic to humans
- Like normal temperatures (body
temp)
- Common bacteria and mostly
helpful
EUKARYOTIC
- Contains a nucleus
- More than 1 chromosome
- Multicellular organisms
- Membrane bound organelles
- DNA wrapped around proteins
called HISTONES
- Genetic combination through
meiosis and fusion of gametes
- Flagella is microscopic in size
- Cell size is around 10-100 um
- Basic parts: cell membrane,
cytoplasm, nucleus
- Nucleus contains DNA, protected
by a nuclear membrane
- Cell membrane is a selective
barrier w/c allows passage of
OXYGEN, NUTRIENTS, and
WASTE
● Made out of a
phospholipid bilayer
Plant Cell
- Cell wall made of CELLULOSE
● Porous to allow water to
pass through easily
- Does not have: CENTRIOLES,
CYTOSKELETON
- Central vacuole acts as a storage
for water and nutrients
● Also performs some
functions of lysosomes
(digestion)
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Animal Cell
- Do not have: CELL WALL,
CENTRAL VACUOLE,
CHLOROPLASTS
- Possesses a cytoskeleton
composed of microtubules,
intermediate filaments, and
microfilaments
- As has a centrosome made of 2-3
3) Nucleus
centrioles
- contains DNA (blueprint of life)
a) Nuclear envelope - double
membrane
b) pore complex - intricate
protein structure that lines
each pore and plays a role
in the ENTRY & EXIT of
macromolecules, RNA, and
proteins
c) nuclear lamina - netlike
array of intermediate
protein filaments that
mechanically support the
shape of the nucleus
d) nuclear matrix - framework
of protein fibers that
extend throughout the
nuclear interior
e) Chromatin - complex of
DNA and proteins that
CELL PARTS & STRUCTURE make up chromosomes
1) Cell membrane - protects the f) Nucleolus - prominent
cell; is selectively permeable and structure made up of DNA
controls the entrance and exit of and proteins within non
materials dividing nucleus
2) Cell wall - semi-permeable; also g) mRNA - product of
protects and keeps the cell shape transcription that carries
genetic message of DNA
4) Ribosome
- synthesizes polypeptides
(protein); made up of ribosomal
DNA; NOT an organelle
a) free ribosomes: synthesizes
proteins used outside of
the body

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b) bound ribosomes:
synthesizes proteins used
inside the cell
5) Endoplasmic Reticulum
- extensive network of membranes
- consists of cisternae (network of
membranous tubules and sacs)
and cisternae
a) Rough ER - responsible for
the production and
transfer of proteins and
membranes
b) Smooth ER - synthesizes
lipids, metabolizes
carbohydrates, stores
calcium, and detoxifies
poison and drugs
6) Golgi apparatus
- sorting and packaging of
proteins for transport in the cell,
modification of products of ER,
manufactures certain
macromolecules
- Consists of flattened
membranous sacs called
cisternae
- cisface (receiving) and transface
(shipping)
- 3 types of Coatmer
a) COPI - retrograde; trans →
cis → ER
b) COPII - anterograde; ER →
cis → trans
c) Clathrin-Coated
7) Lysosome
- engulfs other cells through
phagocytosis
- uses enzymes to recycle the cell’s
own organelles and
macromolecules through
autophagy
8) Vacuole
- food vacuoles are formed by
phagocytosis
- contractile vacuoles pump excess
water out of the cell
- central vacuoles are found in
plants cells, holds reserves of
organic compounds and water; is
large in plant cells
9) Mitochondria
- powerhouse of the cell; produces
energy in the form of ATP
- consists of:
a) smooth outer & inner
membrane folded into
cristae
b) intermembrane space
c) mitochondrial matrix
(space inside inner
membrane)
10) Chloroplasts
- site of photosynthesis; where
glucose molecules are produced
- includes THYLAKOIDS
(membrane sacs) stacked into
GRANA (singular: granum) in the
STROMA (internal fluids)
11) Peroxisome
- contain enzymes which act as
molecular scissors that degrade
compounds
- specialized metabolic
compartment bounded by a
single membrane
- detoxifies alcohol and other
harmful compounds by
producing hydrogen peroxide
and converting it to water
12) Cytoskeleton
- provides structure and keeps
cellular components in place
- dense network of protein fibers
for mechanical strength and cell
shape extending throughout the
cytoplasm
13) Centrioles
- forms spindle fibers and
microtubules during cell division
- 2 to 3 centrioles form a
centrosome
14) Cytoplasm
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- area where organelles float
within the cell
15) Cytosol
- semi-fluid structure that
contains cellular materials
16) Nucleoid region
- where DNA in prokaryotic cells
are found
17) Flagella
- whip like structure used for
locomotion; long projections for
movement of unicellular
organisms
18) Plasmid
- extra chromosomal DNA
responsible for pathogenicity;
DNA for infection
19) Pili
- transfer of genetic materials
from one cell to another; extends
outside of the cell
20) Cilia - hair-like structures that
surround the cell; responsible for
movement and locomotion
21) Fimbriae - sticky extensions on
the outside of the cell; attaches to
DNA but doesn’t extend unlike
the pili
ENZYMES
- Each chemical reaction that
occurs in a living thing is
controlled by an enzyme
- Characteristics:
1) Speed up chemical
reactions
2) Have specific substrate
(lock and key method)
3) Are not degraded on the
reaction and can be
recycled
- Rate of enzyme action is
influenced by several factors
● Temperature
● pH level
● Relative concentration
- Each enzyme has an optimum
temperature and pH, when it
functions most efficiently and its
rate of activity is greatest
● optimum temperature:
usually around low or
otherwise known as body
temperature 37.5 ∘ 𝐻
● optimum pH level: prefers
neutral (7), but generally
favors basic (>7)
CELL MEMBRANE & CELLULAR
TRANSPORT
Plant Cells
- Cell membrane - for protection
- Cell Wall - rigidity and to contain
water as pressure increases; plant
cells do not burst
Animal Cells
- Cell membrane is sufficient to
maintain the structure (no water
pressure)
CELL MEMBRANE
Properties
1) Selective permeability
- phospholipid is an amphipathic
(with polar and nonpolar regions)
molecule
2) Fluid mosaic
- Hugh Davson & James Danielli:
Sandwich Model
- S.J. Singer & G. Nicolson: Fluid
Mosaic Model
- Small molecules pass through
the phospholipids (ex. oxygen)
- Large molecules such as glucose
use carrier proteins (doorways)
*unsaturated → KINKED to prevent
packing, enhancing fluidity
* saturated → to pack together,
increasing viscosity
3) Has functional proteins
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- Integral proteins - embedded in
bilayer
- Peripheral proteins (Glycolipid &
- Glycoprotein) - only found on the
surface whether inside or outside
of the membrane
- Transmembrane - spans entirety
of biological membrane
- Aquaporins - water channel
* transport proteins:
- channel proteins = always open
- carrier proteins = open for a time
4) Can fuse to form vesicles
5) Asymmetrical
- If freeze-fracturing technique is
applied and the membrane is cut
horizontally, proteins will attach
to one side of the membrane
only
6) Has different functions
- Selectively permeable
- Keeping cytoplasm compact
- Allows communication with
other cells
- Allows recognition of external
substances
- Allows mobility of organisms
- Site of various chemical reactions
- Serves as physical barrier of the
cell from the outside
environment
- Support and protection
- Regulates what enters and leaves
the cell
- - movement of
Components
- Carbohydrate chains attach to
protein molecules embedded in
the lipid bilayer
- Protein form channels w/c act as
doorways in order to ID
substances which enter/exit the
cell
- Proteins used in cell transport are
intrinsic (embedded)
CELL TRANSPORT
- Refers to the movement of
materials across the cell
membrane of the cell
- Cell must obtain nutrients from
their environment and eliminate
wastes in order to survive
- Cell membrane possesses
properties that enable it to
regulate the movement of
materials in and out the cell
Passive Transport
- Without ATP or energy
- Follows the concentration
gradient
- Diffuses from high to low
concentration
- Movement of gases and water
Types:
1) DIFFUSION
- solute moves
2) FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- requires carrier
proteins/membrane
proteins embedded
3) OSMOSIS:
water/solvent across a
selectively permeable
membrane following the
concentration gradient
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- water passes through the
bilayer and aquaporins in
order to reach equilibrium
- Has to do with TONICITY =
SOLUTE CONCENTRATION
- Animal cells
hypertonic: high solute →
flow outside the cell
hypotonic: low solute →
flow inside the cell
isotonic: same solute →
equal flow in and out
Active Transport
- Plant cells
Types:
plasmolyzed: (hypertonic)
flaccid: (isotonic)
turgid: (hypotonic)
- Water flows to the
direction with high solute,
considering solutes are not
allowed to pass through
the membrane
- Within the blood, an
isotonic environment is
desirable
Examples:
1) Hypoglycemia
● happens when the blood is
lacking in electrolytes
(hypotonic)
● Causes blood cells to bloat
and may burst
● Called LYSIS
2) Diabetes
● Blood has too much sugar
(hypertonic)
● Causes blood cells to
shrivel which is a sign of
disease
● Called CRENATION
- Requires ATP
- Against the concentration
gradient
- Low to high concentration
- Compared to a pump (sodium
out and potassium in pump)
required in ATP production
1) SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
(𝐻𝐻− − 𝐻+ )
2) COTRANSPORT PROTEINS:
- Uniport: one substance in
one direction
- Symport: two substances
in the same direction
- Antiport: two substances in
opposite directions
Example: Sucrose-H + Pump
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- Removal for large amounts of
material out of the cell. The
membrane of the vacuole fuses
to the cell membrane forcing the
material to be expelled out of the
cell

GENETICS AND THE CONCEPT OF

GENES

TERMS AND CONCEPTS

3) BULK TRANSPORT: bulk
transport IN (ENDOCYTOSIS) &
OUT (EXOCYTOSIS) the cell

Endocytosis
- Taking materials like large
molecules or clumps of food into
the cell by infoldings or pockets
of the cell membrane. The
pockets break from the cell
membrane and forms a vacuole
(vesicle) in the cytoplasm
- two chromatids form a
PHAGOCYTOSIS: extension of the
chromosome
cytoplasm that engulfs particles
- kinetochore: provides protection
into the cell
for the chromatids from the
PINOCYTOSIS: extension of the
microtubules
cytoplasm that engulfs fluids into
- centromere region: area where
the cell
chromatids join together
RECEPTOR-MEDIATED: inward
- locus: specific area on a
budding of a portion of the
chromosome occupied by a gene
plasma membrane when a
or gene marker
receptor receives a signal like a
● same locus = same gene
ligand
- Karyotype: whole set of
chromosomes of an organism
● 1-22 autosome: any
chromosome that isn’t a
sex chromosome
● 23: X or Y, sex chromosome

Exocytosis

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- homologs: have the same genes
in the same loci (singular: locus)
positions
- homologous pair: chromosome
pair of the same length and
centromere position
THE CELL CYCLE
- Why do cells divide?
● Primarily for growth and
development
● Also for reproduction, both
sexual and asexual
● For repair and
regeneration
2 TYPES OF CELLS
1) Somatic cells - body cells that
are DIPLOID (2n = 46); 2 sets of
chromosomes; paternal &
maternal; mitosis
2) Sex cells - aka gametes that are
HAPLOID (n = 23); one set of
chromosomes; meiosis
● Sex cells are haploid
because the sperm and
egg will meet to combine
into the complete # of
chromosomes
STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE
Interphase
- most of a cell’s life is spent in
INTERPHASE
- absence of cell division
- regulative metabolic processes
and growth; synthesizes
necessary biomolecules (lipids
and proteins
1. 𝐻0 - non-dividing cells,
resting stage
- 𝐻1 checkpoint: check
for nutrients,
growth, and DNA
damage
2. 𝐻1 - transcription,
translation, duplication of
organelles; growth and
normal metabolism
3. 𝐻 - duplication of DNA
(chromatin fibers) &
histone proteins are
synthesized
- 𝐻2 checkpoint:
check for cell size
and DNA replication
4. 𝐻2 - movement of
centrosome, extension of
microtubules; increased
protein synthesis; double
checking of cell for cell
division
Mitosis
- for somatic cells (body cells)
- equational division: 2n = 46 → 2n
= 46
- produces two diploid
daughter cells
- cell division in one phase
I. Prophase
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III. Anaphase

- coiling/condensation of
chromatin (DNA) into
- separation of sister chromatids at
chromosomes; each pair of
their centromeres to poles
chromatids attach to one
- when separated, each chromatid
centromere
is now called a chromosome
- nucleolus disappears; nuclear
membrane disintegrates
IV. Telophase
- centrosomes move to opposite
ends/poles
- ideal time to study chromosomes

II. Metaphase

- nuclear membrane starts to

reform, nucleoli reappear,
chromosomes unwind into
chromatin
- chromosomes are grouped at
- chromosomes align along
poles
metaphase plate
- spindle microtubules disappear
- centrosomes extend and attach
microtubules to sister chromatids
Cytokinesis
via kinetochores
- actomyosin contractile ring
- individual chromosomes are
attaches to the plasma
most obvious during this time
membrane
● Karyotype (chromosome
- ring encircles the cell at the
composition) is checked
equatorial region & constricts the
for abnormalities)
cell
- cohesin proteins begin to
- cleavage furrow deepens until
dissociate with each other
cytoplasm separates
- Metaphase checkpoint: check for
chromosome spindle attachment

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- division of cell/cytoplasm into 2
daughter cells are formed
*sex cells - longer 𝐻 phase
*cells with other functions - longer 𝐻1
phase
MITOSIS
- for sex cells or gametes
- Reductional division: 2n=46 →
n=23 → n=23
- produces 4 genetically unique,
Aseptic Technique
haploid, daughter cells
- cell division in two phases
BACTERIAL CELL DIVISION
Bacteria
- have plasmid (circular DNA)
- chromosomal DNA
Bacterial Cell Replication
- no mitosis or meiosis → genetic
material doesn’t condense
- Bacteria just doubles up then
splits quickly
LABORATORY ACTIVITIES
Media Preparation
- Volume of nutrient agar (NA)
needed:
- If agar solidifies, you may reheat
in bath water
- pour plating must be done in
presence of fire
- test tubes may have agar
when being prepared for
autoclaving
- inoculating loop or needle
may be not put in the
autoclave
- loop for petri dish and slant
tube; needle for agar stab
tube; sterile swab for
environment
- during streaking, minimize
opening of petri dish
- always work near the fire;
sterilize inoculating loop using
fire
- for incubation, the petri dish
must be placed upside down
or inverted to prevent
moisture
- sterilize the loop/needle in
region where the fire is hottest
(blue)

𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻: 20𝐻𝐻 ∗ (𝐻)

= 𝐻 𝐻𝐻
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻: 𝐻 𝐻𝐻
+ 10 % = 𝐻 𝐻𝐻
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻: 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻𝐻
(23 𝐻 𝐻𝐻 )( 𝐻 𝐻𝐻)
=
1000 𝐻𝐻

- autoclave temperature: 121.5∘ 𝐻

- cotton plus foil must be put to
cover the flask
- flask must not be full when
placed in the autoclave

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