Ancient India PDF

ANCIENT INDIA WWW.IASBEE.
COM
ANCIENT INDIA
IAS BEE
PT-2018
Page 0
ANCIENT INDIA WWW.IASBEE.COM
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SL NO: CHAPTER PAGE
1. THE SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY 2
2. PREHISTORIC INDIA 6
3. THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION 9
4. THE VEDIC AGE 16
5. MAHAJANAPADAS TO NANDA 24
6. THE EVOLUTION OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 29
7. THE AGE OF MAURYAS 35
8. POST-MAURYAN INDIA 40
9. EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA 45
10. THE GUPTA EMPIRE 49
11. POST GUPTA PERIOD 55
12. SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY 63
13. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN ANCIENT INDIA 65
Page 1
1. THE SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
Broadly, the sources for ancient India's history can be classified under two main categories. The first is the
literary and the second archaeological. The literary sources include Vedic, Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit and other literature
besides foreign accounts. Under the broad head of archaeology we may consider numismatic, epigraphic and
architectural remains besides archaeological explorations and excavations which have opened great vistas of new
information.
Mound is an elevated portion of land covering remains of old habitations. These mounds are of different
types: single-culture, major-culture and multi-culture. When these mound sites are dug vertically they provide a
chronological sequence of material culture. Excavations at these mounds showed various material features like brick
structures, stone structures, layout of settlements, coins, tools, weapons, pottery etc.
TECHNIQUES OF DATING IN ARCHEOLOGY
Archeologists’ use techniques like Stratigraphy (study of different horizons of soils), Typology (comparison of
reference objects with objects found at the site), Radiocarbon dating (analysis of C14 in fossils), Dendrochronology
(study of rings of tree trunks) and Thermoluminescence (uses the physiochemical property of certain minerals
present in the objects). Also study of plant residues, pollen analysis, components of metal artifacts help in
understanding the history of climate, vegetation and cultures of a site.
COINS
Numismatics is the study or collection of currency, including coins, tokens, paper money, and related objects.
Ancient coins were made of metal – copper, silver, gold or lead. Our earliest coins contain a few symbols, but the
later coins mention the names of kings, gods or dates. Since coins were used for payment, donations, medium of
exchange, they throw considerable light on economic history. Portrayal of gods, religious symbols and legends throw
light on the art and religion of the time. Following are important points related to coins in Indian history.
 Punch marked coins also called as Karshapanas or panas are the early type of coinage in India dating back to 6th
century BC. The Arthashastra, mentions minting of punch marked coins.
 Early coins of India (400 BCE – 100 CE) were made of silver and copper, and bore animal and plant symbols on
them.
 Punch marked coins were replaced at the fall of the Maurya Empire by cast, die-struck coins. With the coming
of Indo-Greeks, gold coins were issued for the first time. Coin moulds of burnt clay have been discovered in
large numbers. Most of them belong to Kushan period. Kushanas issued the largest number of copper coins.
 Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in the Sangam age issued coins of gold and copper, but not of silver. Pon, Kasu and
Kanam were the words used for gold coins.
 Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins which indicates that trade and commerce flourished.The
percentage of gold in Indian coins under the reign of Gupta rulers showed a steady financial decline over the
centuries as it decreases from 90% pure gold under Chandragupta I (319-335) to a mere 75-80%
under Skandagupta. Post Gupta period only a few coins have been found indicating decline of trade and
commerce.
INSCRIPTIONS
Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions. Study of old writing used in inscriptions and other old records is called
Paleography. Inscriptions convey evidences like royal orders, decisions regarding social, religious and administrative
matters, land grants, donative records to temples, priests etc. Early inscriptions were recorded on stone, copper
plates, walls of temples and served as permanent records. The earliest inscriptions are found on the seals of Harappa
and the pictographic script used in it is not deciphered yet.
Page 2
Some notable inscriptions of ancient India:
 Ashokan inscriptions used Brahmi scripts in the whole country except for north-west India where Kharoshti
script was used.
 Nagarjuna hill cave inscription of Dasarath talks about the declaration of caves to Ajivikas.
 Junagarh inscription mentions that one of Chandragupta Maurya’s governors, Pushyagupta, was responsible for
building a dam on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Kathiawar at the order of the former.
 Sarnath inscription highlights the achievements of Kanishka, the Kushana ruler.
 Besnagar pillar inscription from Vidisa talks about the pillar constructed by Heliodorus in honor of god
Vasudeva.
 Hathigumpa inscription in Prakrit in Udayagiri hills of Orissa records achievements of Kharavela.
 Mehrauli Iron Pillar credits Chandragupta with conquest of the Vanga Countries, conquest of Vakatkas. This
pillar was established by Chandragupta-II of Gupta dynasty as Vishnupada in the honor of Lord Vishnu.
 Allahabad pillar inscription issued by Samudragupta and was composed by Harisena. It mentions about the
conquests of Samudragupta and boundaries of the Gupta Empire. Eulogy of Harisena described Samudragupta
as hero of 100 battles, performer of Ashvamedha Yajna and as Kaviraja for his patronization of arts.
 The achievements of Gutamiputra Satkarni were mentioned in Nasik Inscription that was composed by his
mother Gautami Balasri.
LITERARY SOURCES
The ancient literature and the religious books are important sources of information for the reconstruction of
ancient Indian history. Their classification is simple – religious, secular and historical literature, and foreign accounts.
a) RELIGIOUS LITERATURE
The literary sources depict the social and mental conditions of the people. India’s religious literature is very
extensive. It incorporates the Hindu Puranas, great epics such as Mahabharata and the Ramayana, the Upanishads
and the Vedas.The religious writings of the Buddhists and the Jainas are also extensive. They include the Angas and
the Jatakas and so on.
b) SECULAR LITERATURE
There are various types of non-religious or secular literature.The Smritis and the Dharmasutras which are
known as the ancient Indian law books belong to this group.The Arthasastra by Kautilya is a well-known work. It
speaks about the socio-economic system, polity and the state. Authors like Panini and Patanjali wrote about the
Sanskrit grammar.The dramas of Bhasa, Vishakhadatta and Kalidasa provide us useful information about the society
and the people.Many other Chronicles and the biographical works also contain information about the history.
c) FOREIGN ACCOUNTS
To India came the Greeks, Romans and Chinese either as travelers or religious converts. They left behind
accounts of the things that they saw. It is remarkable that Alexander’s invasion finds no mention in Indian sources
and it is entirely on the basis of Greek sources we have to reconstruct the history of his Indian exploits.
Author Book Subject
Valuable information on Administration and socio-

Magasthenes Indica
economic conditions of Mauryas
Page 3
Ptolemy Geography of India Geographical treatise on India in 2nd Century AD
Accounts trade relations between Rome and India in

Pliny Naturalis Historia
1st Century AD
Periplus of the
Anonymous Records personal voyage of Indian coasts in 80 A.D.
Erythrean Sea
Record of the
Fa-Hien Records the Gupta Empire in the 5thCentury AD
Buddhist Countries
Describes the social, economic andreligious

Buddhist Records of
Hiuen Tsang conditions of India in the 5thand 7th Century AD.
the Western World
(Harshvardhan)
Table 1 Contribution of foreign accounts to Indian history
ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORICAL SENSE
Ancient Indians are charged with lack of historical sense. Indian historical writers are accused of being full of
exaggerations and lack chronological sense. But, there are different eras used to record events in several texts. The
Vikram Samvat began in 57 B.C, the Shaka Samvat in 78 A.D, Gupta era in 319 A.D, Harsha era began in 606 A.D,
Lakshmana era of Bengal began in 1119 A.D, Saptarsi or Laukika era was used in Kashmir, Kollam era of Kerala begain
825 A.D.
Indians displayed considerable historical sense in biographical writings. Some examples are Harshacharita by
Banabhatta, Sandhyakara Nandi’s Ramacharita (narrates conflict between Kaivarta peasants and the Pala prince
Ramapala), Bilhana’s Vikramanakadevacharita (describes the achievements of Vikramaditya VI, the Chalukyan king
of Kalyan), Kalhana’s Rajatarangini (biographies of kings of Kashmir). These works possessed several traits of current
day history writing.
MODERN HISTORIANS OF ANCIENT INDIA
Colonialist View
Modern research in history of ancient India started in second half of 18thcentury because of needs of colonial
administration set up by the British. Following are the notable contribution from colonial empire:
 Manusmriti was translated into English asACode of Gentoo Laws in 1776.

 Asiatic Society of Bengal was setup in 1784 in Calcutta by Sir William Jones. He also translated the drama
Abhijnana Shakuntalam and Gita Govinda into English.
 Bhagvadgita was translated into English by Charles Wilkins. He also translated Hitopadesa.
 Bombay Asiatic Society was established in 1804.
 Asiatic Society of Great Britain was setup in 1823.
 F. Max Mueller published several works on Indological studies. He was the editor of book series called Sacred
Books of East.
 Vincent Arthur Smith wrote Early History of India which was the first systematic study of Indian history in
1904.
 James Mill in his book History of British India was the first to periodise Indian history on communal lines. He
classified ancient Indian history as Hindu history, medieval Indian history as Muslim history and the modern
Page 4
Indian history as British period. This classification has deeply embedded in the consciousness of those
studying India that prevails to this day.
 James Princep interpreted Brahmi script which helped in studying inscriptions of Ashoka.
 Alexander Cunnigham is considered as the Father of Indian Archeology. He was the first Archeological
Surveyor of India.
 John Marshall was the Director General of Archeological Survey of India (ASI) in whose time period Indus
Valley Civilisation was discovered.
Max Mueller and other western historians made certain generalizations about the nature of Indian history. They
stated that ancient indians lacked sense of chronology, accustomed to despotic rule, engrossed in problems of
spiritual world rather than real world, are incapable of governing themselves etc. Such generalizations helped
colonial administration.
Nationalist Approach to Indian Historical Study
A band of scholars took upon themselves to reform Indian society and reconstruct ancient Indian history in a
manner to make a case for social reforms and self government. They were guided by nationalist ideas of Hindu
revivalism or rationalist approach. Following are notable personalities in Indian historical study.
 Rajendra Lal Mitra published several Vedic texts and a book Indo-Aryans. He took a rational view of ancient
society and produced proof for beef eating practice in ancient India.
 R.G. Bhandarkar published works on history of Satavahanas and history of Vaishnavism. He advocated
widow remarriages and castigated the evils of caste system and child marriages.
 Panduranga Vaman Kane published History of Dharmasastra, an encyclopedia of ancient social laws and
customs.
 Hemachandra Raychaudari reconstructed the history from the time of the Bharata (Mahabharata) war. He
criticized British scholars at many points. He showed a streak of militant Brahmanism when he criticized
Ashoka’s policy of peace.
 R.C. Majumdar published a series entitled History and Culture of Indian People. A strong element of Hindu
revivalism appears in his writings.
 K.A. Nilakanta is famous for his work A History of South India. When most writers ignored south Indian
history he presented an elaborate side of south Indian history.
 Hindu Polity by K.P. Jayaswal showed that republics were present in ancient India. This exploded the myth of
Indian despotism.
Page 5
2. PREHISTORIC INDIA
The earth is over 4000 million years old. The evolution of its crust shows four stages. The fourth stage is
called the Quaternary, which is divided into Pleistocene (most recent) and Holocene (present). The former lasted
between 2,00,000 and 10,000 years ago. Man is said to have appeared on the earth in the early Pleistocene, when
true ox, true elephant and true horse also originated.
Prehistoric period belongs to the time before the emergence of writing. It is believed that man learnt writing
only about 5000-8000 years ago. In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age),
Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (NewStone Age) and the Chalcolithic Age. However, these periods were not
uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent.
Paleolithic age in India is divided into 3 phases according to the nature of the stone tools used by the people
and also according to the climate. Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic are the 3 phases.
Figure 1 Prehistoric India Sites
Period Characteristics Sites

Lower Paleolithic (5,00,000 B.C Use of stone tools, large pebbles, Soan valley (Punjab of Pakistan),
to 50,000 B.C) hand axes, cleavers and Belan valley (U.P), Bhimbetka
choppers (M.P), Shiwalik hills of north
india, Attirampakkam near
Chennai, Kurnool (A.P)
Page 6
Middle Paleolithic (50,000 B.C to Tools made of flakes Bhimbetka, Nevasa, Pushkar,
40,000 B.C) Rohiri hills of upper Sind
Upper Paleolithic (40,000 B.C to Tools made of larger flakes, Parts of Belan and Ganga valley
10,000 B.C blades and scrapers;
flint industries;
modern man appearance
Mesolithic/ Microlithic (10,000 Hunting, fishing, food gathering Bagor (Raj.), Adamgarh (M.P),
B.C to 7,000 B.C) and beginning of domestication Langhanj (Guj.), Sarai, Nahar Rai,
of animals;
Microliths i.e small stone tools
made of flint;
occasional burial of dead with
microliths;
use of bow and arrow
Neolithic (7,000 B.C to 2,000 B.C) Agriculture (Rice, wheat, barley, Burzahom (Kashmir), Chirand
millet) began, domestication of (Bihar), Belan valley, Mehrgarh
animals, polishing of (Pak.), Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur
stone tools and the manufacture and Kodekal (Kar.), Paiyampalli
of pottery; (TN) and Utnur (A.P)
emergence of village; polished
axesfor hunting
and cutting trees;
Large urns; clothes made of
cotton and wool
Chalcolithic/ Stone-Copper copper and bronze came to be Cultures: Ahrar culture (oldest),
phase (3,000 B.C to 900 B.C) used; Kayatha culture, Malwa culture,
smelting metal ore and crafting Rangpur culture, Jarwe culture
metal artifacts; (newest)
People began to travel for a long Sites: Jorwe, Nevasa, Daimabad,
distance toobtain metal ores; Chandoli, Songaon, Inamgaon
Black and red ware pottery;
Fire worship widespread;
domestication of cattle for food
not for milk;
Jhum cultivation;
Terracotta figurines of women
suggested worship of Mother
Goddess
Copper Hoards phase Use of rings, celts, swords, Ganga Yamuna doab
harpoons;
metal artifacts used not only for
hunting but also for fighting and
agriculture;
Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Pottery with bright red slip and Ganga Yamuna doab
phase painted in black;
junior contemporaries of
Harappans
Table 2 Characteristics and Sites in Prehistoric India
Page 7
Figure 2 Paleolithic Tools
Some notable prehistoric findings
 Bhimbetka - Homo Sapiens cave; 500 painted Rock Shelters (MH)

 Nevasa - Evidence of cotton
 Atranjikheda - Textile printing
 Hastinapur - Wild Sugarcane
 Inamgaon - Statue of mother Goddess (MH)
 Mehargarh - Earliest evidence of agriculture, settled life, cultivation of cotton (Baluchistan)
 Koldihva - Earliest evidence of rice
 Bagor and Adamgarh - Earliest evidences of Domestication of animal (Raj)
 Chirand - Serpant cult (Bihar)
 Burzahom – Pit dwelling; burial of dogs with masters (J&K)
Page 8
3. THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
The Indus or the Harappan culture is older than the chalcolithic cultures, but far more developed than these
cultures. It is called Harappan civilization because it was discovered first in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa
situated in the Punjab of Pakistan. Harappan culture covered parts of Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat,
Rajasthan and the fringes of Western U.P. It extended from Jammu in the north to the Narmada estuary in the south,
and from the Makran coast of Baluchistan in the west to Meerut in the north-east.
Among the many other sites excavated, the most important are Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan,
Rupar in the Punjab, Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three in Gujarat. Mohenjodara is
the largest of all the Indus cities.
There are four important stages or phases of evolution and they arenamed as pre-Harappan, early-
Harappan, mature-Harappan andlate Harappan. In pre-Harappan stage nomadic people began to live a settled life. In
the early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages in the plains. There was a gradual growth of town. The
sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence forearly-Harappan stage. In the mature-Harappan stage, great cities
emerged. The excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning show this phase. In the late-Harappan
stage, the decline of the Indus culture started. The excavations at Lothal reveal this stage of evolution.
Figure 3 Farthest sites of Harappan civilisation
Page 9
Figure 4 Harappan Sites
Salient Features of Indus Valley Civilization
There was a sophisticated concept of town planning in the Indus Valley Civilization. There were well planned
grids with broad main roads and smaller lanes intersecting at right angles. There were large networks of hundreds of
wells, which supplied water to the residents. A sophisticated drainage system was in existence and even the smallest
houses were connected to it. Houses were made of bricks. The standardized dimensions of these bricks (ratio of
length to width to thickness at 4:2:1), found in the many cities across this civilization, are remarkable. The houses
had several storeys.
Town Planning
a) City Walls
 Each city in the Indus Valley was surrounded by massive walls and gateways. The walls were built to control
trade and also to stop the city from being flooded.
 Each part of the city was made up of walled sections. Each section included different buildings such as:
Public buildings, houses, markets, craft workshops etc.
Page 10
b) Citadel and Lower cities
 There was an impressive fortified citadel which has public buildings. Below the citadel is the lower town
consisting of houses of the commoners.
 The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of constructions and the absence of stone buildings are
the important characteristics.
 Drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains was covered by stone slabs or bricks.
 Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes.
c) Granaries
 In Mohenjadaro the largest building is a granary, which is 45.7 mts long and 15.23 mts wide. In Harappa as
many as 6 granaries are found.
 They were well ventilated and it was possible to fill grain in from outside.
 The large size of the granary probably indicates a highly developed agricultural civilization.
d) Great Bath
 The most important public place of Mohenjodaro is the GreatBath measuring 39 feet length, 23 feet breadth
and 8 feet depth.
 There is use of burnt bricks, mortar and gypsum in the Great bath. Water was drawn from a large well in an
adjacent room, and an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain.
 It must have served as a ritual bathing site.
Figure 5 Citadel, Great Bath and Granary (from left to right)
Economic Life
a) Agriculture and allied activities

 There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity such as agriculture, industry and crafts and
trade.
 Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton.
 Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the world.
 Well irrigation was well known.
 Fields were not ploughed but dug up with a light toothed instrument. Traces of dams have been found from
Dholavira in Gujarat.
 Surplus grain is stored in granaries.
Page 11
 Animals like sheep, goats and buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly established. A
number of other animals were hunted for food including deer.
b) Artisans
 Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brickmakers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders and
terracotta manufacturers.
 Gold and silver ornaments are found in many places. Pottery remains plain and in some places red and black
painted pottery is found. Beads were manufactured from a wide variety ofsemi-precious stones.
 Bronze was made by smiths by mixing tin with copper. Copper was obtained from Khetri copper mines in
Rajasthan, Tin possibly from Afghanistan, Hazaribagh and Bastar.
 Spindle whorls were used for spinning. Weavers wove cloth of wool and cotton.
 Evidence shows that Harappans practiced boat-making.
c) Foreign Trade
Foreign trade was mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and Iran. There is much evidence to
prove the trade links between the Indus and Sumerian people. Sumerian texts reveal trade relations with ‘Meluha’
which was the ancient name for Indus region. They also speak of intermediate stations called Dilmun (Bahrain) and
Makan (Makran coast). Many seals of Indus valley have been found in Mesopotamia.
 Trade was of the barter type.

 The seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of bullock carts and oxen for land
transport and boats and ships for river and sea transport. Harappans knew the use of wheel but it was some
kind of modern ekka not the spoked wheel.
 Main exports were several agricultural products such as wheat, barley, peas, oil seeds and a variety of
finished products including cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory products.
 Main imports consisted of Jade from Central Asia, Turqoise from Persia, Lapis Lazuli, Tin, Gold and Silver
from Afghanistan.
d) Weights and Measures
 They also used standard weights and measures for commercial as well as building purposes.
 They were the authors of linear system of measurement with a unit equal to one angula of the arthashastra
which was used in India till recently.
 Numerous articles used for weights, weighing mostly 16 or its multiples. Interesting till recently multiples of
16 were used in India (16 annas made one rupee)
Polity
 There is no clear idea about the political organization. Some historians suggest there must be a centralized
authority as a cultural homogeneity can be seen across the sites.
 There are no temples which suggest that priests may not be the dominant class.
 Given that Harappans were more concerned with commerce than conquest possibly the merchant class was
the dominant one. It may be noted that Harappans lacked in weapons
Religion
 The chief female diety was Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines.
 The chief female diety was the Pasupati Mahadeva represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture having 3
faces and 2 horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhinoceros and buffalo) and two deer
appear at his feet.
 Numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone have been found.
Page 12
 People of Indus region also worshipped trees. Picture of deity is represented on a seal in the midst of the
branches of the pipal. This tree continues to be worshipped to this day.
 Animals surrounding Pashupati Mahadeva, One horned Unicorn, humped bull were some of the animals
which were worshipped. Amulets have been found in large numbers.
 Probably Harappans believed in ghosts and evil forces and wore amulets for warding them off.
Figure 6 Mother Goddess and Pashupati Mahadev
Script
There are nearly 4000 specimens of Harappan writing on stone seals and other objects. Harappans did not
write long inscriptions and contained only few words. Altogether we have about 250 to 400 pictographs and in the
form of a picture each letter stands for some sound, idea or object.
 Their script is pictographic and is believed to be of complete indigenous origin with no connection from
outside.
 Thenumber of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their variants.
 The script was mostly written from right to left. To this day this script has not been deciphered.
Pottery
The pottery of Indus Valley civilization is an excellent example of ancient glazed pottery. Plain undecorated
pottery is more common at Mohenjo-Daro than painted ware. But the well-known painted red and black wares were
adorned with black colored designs on red background. The pictorial motifs consisted of geometrical patterns like
horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or peacock
Figure 7 Harappan Pottery
Page 13
Seals
Seals more than 2000 in number, made of soapstone, terracotta and copper are found. Some seals have
human or animal figures on them. Most of the seals have the figures of real animals while a few bear the figure of
mythical animals. The seals are rectangular, circular or even cylindrical in shape. Pashupati seal, Unicorn seal and the
Bull seal are some of the important seals.
The seals show the culture and civilization of the Indus Valley people. In particular, they indicate:
 Dresses, ornaments, hair-styles of people

 Skill of artists and sculptors
 Trade contacts and commercial relations
 Religious beliefs
 Script
Figure 8 Harappan Seals
Images
 Images of both metal and stone are discovered. A woman dancer made of bronze is the best specimen.
Except for a necklace she is naked.
 A steatite image of a bearded man at Mohenjadaro is prominent. He is believed to be a priest. An
ornamented robe over the left shoulder under the right arm and the short locks at the back of the head are
kept tidy by a woven fillet.
Terracotta figurines
Terracotta figurines were made of baked clay. Majority of them are hand modeled. Both male and female
figures are found with later being more common. A range of animals, birds including monkey, dogs, sheep and cattle
terracotta figurines are seen. Both humped and hump less bull images are also present.
Figure 9Terracotta Figures
Page 14
Burial Practices
 Complete burial and post-cremationburial were popular at Mohenjodaro.
 At Lothal the burial pit was lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins.
 Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa.
 The practice of pot burials is found at Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons. However, there is no clear
evidence for the practice of Sati.
Decline of the Harappa Culture

There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for thedecline of the Harappan culture. Various theories
have beenpostulated. Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up ofrivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to
excessive exploitation and occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of theHarappan cities. According to
some scholars the final blow was delivered by the invasion of Aryans. The destruction of forts is mentioned in the Rig
Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons huddled together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded
by foreigners. The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which might have enabled them to become
masters of this region.
Observations about other sites:
 Dholavira : Historians found a tantalizing signboard with Indus script. 3 citadels with improved inner
enclosure are present here. A megalith burial is seen here. Evidence of irrigation, dams and embankments
present.
 Suktagendor, Lothal and Balakot : These were the important coastal and port cities.
 Surkotda : Historians were able to collect some bones of Horse but the identity is doubtful. In any case
Harappan culture was not horse centered. It is the only site with stone wall as fortification.
 Kalibangan: A ploughed field and bones of camel are discovered here. The peculiar type of circular and
rectangular graves is another feature of Kalibangan. In terms of town planning, Kalibangan was not as
developed as Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira because here we neither find use of baked bricks nor a
drainage system. 6 patterns of pottery are found. Mixed cropping is practiced here.
 Lothal: this city was divided into 6 sections and each section had a wide platform of earthen bricks. Lothal’s
dock—the world’s earliest known, connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river. Entry to
houses from the main street instead of lateral entry that was common in other sites. Evidence of double
burials is found. Two terracotta models of Egyptian mummies found wrapped in muslin cloth. The game of
chess seems to have been played at Lothal.
 Lothal and Rangpur: Rice Husk was found at each of these sites.
 Chanhudaro: It is the only Indus site with no citadel. Largest numbers of copper implements are found here.
 Banawali: Evidence of largest number of barley grains. Only site with radial streets.
 Daimbad: Largest number of bronze items found here. A bronze chariot, rhino, elephant and bull seen.
Page 15
4. THE VEDIC AGE
The Vedic Civilization was the culture and traditions of the society prevalent during the Vedic age (1500 - 600
BCE). The Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the steppes stretching from southern Russia to Central Asia.
Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a secondary occupation. Their society was
mainly male dominated. They spoke the Indo-European languages which are current in changed forms all over
Europe, Iran and the greater part of the Indian subcontinent. Horse played the most significant role in their life.
We know about the Aryans in India from the Rig Veda (Veda means to know). The term Arya appears 36
times in this text and generally indicated a cultural community. The word Arya means noble in Sanskrit. The holy
book of Iran ‘Zend Avesta’ indicates entry of Aryans to India via Iran. The fact that some ofthe Vedic gods namely
Indra, Varuna, Mitra and the two Nasatyas are mentioned in Boghaz-Koi (Asia Minor) inscription of 1400 B.C. prove
that Rig Veda must have come into existence much before that date. A section of Aryans reached the frontiers of the
Indian subcontinent around 1500 BC and first settled in Punjab and it is here, in this land, where the hymns of Rig
Veda were composed.This period between 1500 B.C and 600B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig
Vedic Period (1500 B.C - 1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C - 600 B.C).
The Aryans came in several waves. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the dasas,
dasyus etc. Dasas seem to have been a branch of the early Aryans. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by
a chief called Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda represents the
original inhabitants in the country and an Aryan chief overpowered them by the name Trasadasyu. The Aryan chief
was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is
mentioned in the Rig Veda. The dasyus possibly worshipped the phallus and did not keep cattle for dairy products.
Vedic Literature
The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
 The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise
of various gods. Rig Veda is divided into 10 books or mandalas. Mandala III contains Gayatri Mantra,
addressed to the solar deity Savitri. Tenth Mandala talks about Purushasukta hymn which is the largest hymn
which talks about creation and the chaturvarna scheme of society. The first and the tenth mandals are
considered as the latest additions.
 The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. Two royal
ceremonies of Rajasuya and Vajpeya are mentioned in it. Unlike Rig and Sama Vedas which are in verse Yajur
Veda contains both verse and prose.
 The Sama Veda is set to tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the book of chants and
the origins of Indian music are traced in it.
 The Atharva Veda contains details of charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. It also mentions
beliefs and practices of non-aryan people. It mentions about Indian medicine, agriculture, cattle rearing,
industry etc.
Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics
Ramayana and Mahabharata.
The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayerand sacrificial ceremony. They also contain meaning of Vedic
hymns, their application, stories of their origin etc.
Page 16
The Upanishads are philosophical texts dealing with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world and the
mysteries of nature. The Aranyakas are called forest books and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices.
The Brahmanas, the Aranyaka sand the Upanishads are attached to one or the other of the four Vedas.
Figure 10 Vedic Literature
Early Vedic Area of Settlement
The geographical area covered by the early Aryans is indicated from certain allusions in the Rigveda, which
seems to have been limited to an area extending from Afghanistan to the Gangetic valley. The former region was
occupied by the Aryans is from the mention of rivers like the Kubha (Kabul), the Suvastu, situated north of Kabul.
 The Nadisukta hymn ofthe RigVeda mentions 21 rivers.

 The Sindhu , identical with the Indus, is the river par excellence of the Rigvedic Aryans and is repeatedly
mentioned, so also are its five tributaries – the Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni (Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipasa
(Beas) and the Sutudri (Sutlej).
 Another river, the Saraswati, is called naditarna or the best of the rivers in the Rig Veda. The whole region in
which the Aryans first settled in Indian subcontinent is called the Land of the Seven Rivers.
 All rivers like the Yamuna, Saraswati, Sutlej, Ravi, Jhelum and Indus located between the Ganga and Kabul
rivers are mentioned not arbitrarily but serially beginning from the east (Ganga) to the west (Kubha).
 Rig Veda mentions the Himalayas and Mujavant mountains. It also mentions ocean (samudra) in connection
with rivers Sindhu and Saraswati falling into ocean.
Page 17
Figure 11 Early Vedic Area of Settlement
Tribal Conflicts
Aryans were divided into five tribes called Panchajana but there might have been other tribes also. Bharatas
and the Tristu were the ruling Aryan clans. The country Bharatavarsha was eventually named after the tribe Bharata.
 The Bharata clan led by Sudas was opposed by a host of ten chiefs and the battle between them came to be
known as the Battle of Ten Kings.
 The ten kings were of the states of Purus, Yadus, Turvasas, Anus and Druhyus along with five others viz
Alinas, Pakhtas, Bhalanas, Sibis and Vishanins.
 This battle was fought on the river Parushni. Bharata clan won the battle and later they joined hands with
Purus and formed a new ruling tribe called Kurus.
 Rig Veda givesthe location of Bharata clan as between Saraswati and Yamuna; the Purus in the region of
Kurukshetra ;the Tritsus east of Ravi; the Alinas, the Pakhtas, the Bhalanas and the Sibis west of Indus upto
Kabul river andso on.
Early Vedic Polity
 The basic unit of political organization was kula or family and Kulapa was the head of the family. Several
families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form a village or grama.
 Villages were headed by Gramini who used to represent village in Sabha and Samiti.A group of villages
constituted a larger unit called Visu. It was headed by Vishayapati. The highest political unit was called jana
or tribe.
 There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus.
The head of the kingdom was called as Rajan or king. He was the leader in battle and protector of tribe.
Page 18
 The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary. However, the Rajan was a
kind of chief, and he did not exercise unlimited power, for he had to reckon administration with the tribal
councils like Sabha, Samiti, Gana and Vidhata.
 There were two popular bodies (tribal organizations) called the Sabha and Samiti. The former was a council
of elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people. Even women attended Sabha and Vidhata.
 There were rules which governed the debate in sabha and Vajsaneyi Samhita mentions that erring members
were rebuked. Sabha also seems to have functioned as a court of justice. Itis said that, "one who attends the
sabha sits as a law court to dispense dharma (Justice)".
 The king was assisted by a number of officers of which Purohita was the most important. The Rig Veda did
not mention any officer for administering justice.
 Spies were employed to keep an eye on unsocial activities such as theft and burglary. The titles of the
officials do not indicate their administration of territory. However, some officers seem to have been
attached to territories. They enjoyed authority in the pasture grounds and settled villages.
 The officer of pasture ground was called ‘vrajapati”, who led the heads of the families called ‘kulapas’ or the
heads of the fighting horses called ‘gramanis’ to battle. In the beginning, the gramani was just the head of a
small tribal fighting unit. But when the unit settled, the gramani became the head of the village and in
course of time he became identical with Vrajapati.
 The king did not maintain any regular army but in times of war he mustered a militia whose military
functions were performed by different tribal groups called vratas, grama, gaha, sradha, etc. By and large, the
military system was strong. The military technique of the early Aryans was much advanced. The Aryans
succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horses.
 There was no regular revenue system and the kingdom was maintained by the voluntary tribute (Bali) of his
subjects and the booty won in battle.
Figure 12 Early Vedic Polity
Early Vedic Social Life
The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal and tribal. Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was
prevalent among the royal and noble families. The wife took care of the household and participated in all the major
ceremonies.
Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. There were
women poets like Apala,Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period. Child marriage and the
practice of sati were absent. There are a few references to the freedom of choice in marriage. A widow could marry
the younger brother of her deceased husband. The father's property was inherited by son. The daughter could
inherit it only if she was the only child of her parents. Right to property was known in moveable things like cattle,
horse, gold and ornament and so also in immoveable property like land andhouse.
 Tribes were called as Janas. The term Janapada or territory is not used even once in the Rig Veda
Page 19
 The Jana was divided into group of people called Vis. The Vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units
meant for fighting.
 Tribal society was broadly divided into three groups – Brahmana (priests), i (warriors) and Vaisya (the
merchants). The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic period.
 The non-aryans consisted of dasas, dasyus and panis. The dasas gradually transformed into Sudra. There was
freedom and mobility for the adoption of a profession and the idea of hereditary trades and occupations was
not envisaged in the society.
Slavery was prevalent, but slaves were not used for production activities or agriculture. Untouchability was
unknown in the Rig Vedic period. Slaves were given as gift to priests. The concept of Gotra did not arise in the Rig
Vedic period. So people married irrespective of the concept of gotra
Rig Vedic Gods
The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified
these natural forces into many gods and worshipped them. The important Rig Vedicgods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni
(Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and Indra (Thunder). In the traditional classification of gods, there has been a
three-fold division. Terrestrial gods in which Prithvi, Brihasapati, Agni and rivers are important. Intermediate or
Antarikshatana gods in which Indra, Prajanya and Rudra are prominent. Celestial or Dyusthana gods, among which
Varuna, Usha, Surya, Savitri and Vishnu are important.
Figure 13 Rig Vedic Gods
Indra was the most popular among them during the early Vedic period. Next in importance to Indra was Agni
who was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people. Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the
natural order. There were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas.
Page 20
The Gods are described as born, yet they are immortal. In appearance they are humans, though sometimes
they are conceived as animals, e.g. Dyaus as bull and Sun as a swift horse. The food of men such as milk, grain, flesh,
etc becomes the food of Gods when offered in the sacrifice.
There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were offered to the gods
in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and grain were given as offerings. Elaborate rituals were followed during
the worship.
Rig Vedic Economy
Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral. They domesticated Pashu (which included cattle, horse and even
human beings), as opposed to Mriga, i.e. wild animals. Cattle were synonymous with wealth and a wealthy person
was called Gomat. Cattle were so important that the terms of battle were derived from Gau itself, such as Gavisti,
Gosu, Gavyat, Gavyu. Godhuli was a measure of time. Gopa and Gopati were epithets given to the king.
The Rig Veda attached great importance to agriculture. The plough was drawn by the oxen at times in teams
of six, eight or even twelve. The manure was also used. From various references in the Rig Veda it appears that
irrigation was also practiced. The grains are collectively called Yavaand dhanya.
With the knowledge and use of iron they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation.
The metal work was known as follows: Copper was known as Ayas, Gold was known as Hiranya, Iron was also known
as was known as Shyama or Krishna Ayas.
Trade was another important economic activity and rivers served as important means of transport. Trade
was conducted on barter system. In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used as media of exchange in large
transactions.
Later Vedic Age
Area of Settlement
During the period represented by the later Samhitas and Brahmana sthe settlements covered virtually the
whole of northern India. The centre of civilization now shifted from Saraswati to Ganga another remarkable
development and that is gradual expansion and consolidation of vis. The earlier known jana like Bharatas, Purus,
Tritsus, and Turvas as of the Rig Vedic period slowly were merging with other janas and disappearing from the scene.
In a way gradual consolidation and expansion of some of the states started taking place. However, the areas of south
India are not clearly mentioned.
The expansion of people towards the east is indicated in a legend of SatapathaBrahmana - how Videgh
Madhav migrated from Saraswati region, the land of Vedic Culture, crossed Sadanira (modern Gandak river), the
eastern boundary of Kosala and came to the land of Videha. Kurus occupied Delhi and the upper portions of the
Ganga Yamuna doab, the area called Kurukshetra. Gradually they coalesced with a people called the Panchalas, who
occupied middle portion of the doab. They set their capital at Hastinapur. The history of the kuru tribe is important
for the battle of Bharata, which is the main theme of Mahabharata. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other
kingdoms like Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was
the king of Videha with its capital at Mithila. Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the eastern most tribal
kingdoms.
Page 21
Figure 14 Geographical Setting of Later Vedic period
Polity
Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic period. The king
performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony),
Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). Traces of the election of the king appear in later vedic texts.
 In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were involved in the administration in addition to
the existing purohita, senani and gramani.
 We hear of new officials suchas suta (charioteer), sangrahitri (treasurer), bhagadugha (collector of taxes),
sthapati (chief judge), takshan (carpenter), kshatri (chamberlain) and several others whose exact function
cannot be ascertained.
 At the lower levels, the administration was carried on by the village assemblies.
 The importance of the Samiti and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period. They came to be
dominated by chiefs and rich nobles. Women were no longer permitted to sit on the Sabha.
 Legal institutions were also coming into sharper focus killing of cow, slaying of brahmana, drinking
intoxicating liquor, treachery, etc. were punishable by death. Petty offences were left to "village judges". For
evidence, the eye-witness was more important than informer.
Society
In later Vedic period, varnas came to be birth-based rather than profession-based. The proliference of
professions gave rise to jatis. The most glaring evil of the jati system, namely, the concept of untouchability had not
yet reared its ugly head. There are instances of individuals such as Kavasha, Vatsa and Satyakama Jabala who were
born in non-brahman jatis but came to be known as great brahmans. On the whole, jati had not yet become a rigid
system, and none of the three factors which characterised it later viz. prohibition of inter-dining, intermarriage and
determination of varna by descent, were yet established on a rigid basis.
Page 22
In the family, the power of the father increased during the Later Vedic period. According the Aitreya
Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the women in the royal household
enjoyed certain privileges.
Religion
Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the
protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic period. Sacrifices were still important
and the rituals connected with them became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined and that of
sacrifices increased.
The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of the
Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned away from the useless rituals and insisted on true
knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation.
Economic Life
Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of implements were used for cultivation. Besides
barley, rice and wheat were grown.The Satapatha Brahmana enumerates various operations of agriculture suchas
ploughing, sowing, reaping and threshing. The Atharvaveda mentions that drought and excess rains threatened
agriculture.
Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery made great progress. Guilds of craftsmen also came into
existence. The word sreshthi, head of guild, finds mention in several texts.
A class of hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on trade and commerce.
They organized themselves into guilds known as ganas. Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver coins
like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange. Sea-borne trade was well known and Aitareya
Brahmana speaks of the"inexhaustible sea" and "the sea as encircling the earth". In addition to internal trade,
foreign trade became extensive.
Page 23
5. MAHAJANAPADAS TO NANDAS
From the sixth century B.C onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar
created conditions for the formation of larger territorial states (Mahajanapadas). Because of iron weapons warrior
class became powerful. The new agricultural tools and implements enable more production. The surplus was either
collected as taxes or found its way to towns. These material advantages enabled the people to stick to their land.
People owed strong allegiance to their Janapada or the territory than Jana or the tribe.
According to Anguttara Nikaya there were following Mahajanapadas:
1. Anga (including the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur in Bihar) with its capital of Champa,
2. Magadha (covering the districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad) with its earlier capital at Rajgriha or
Girivraj
3. Vajji (a confederacy of eight republican clans, situated to the north of the river Ganga in Bihar) with its
capital, Vaisali,
4. Malla (also a republican confederacy covering the modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur and
Siddharthnagar in eastern Uttar Pradesh) with two capitals at Kusinara and Pawa
5. Kasi with its capital at Varanasi
6. Kosala (covering the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda, Bahraich etc.), with its capital at Sravasti
7. Vatsa (covering the modern districts Allahabad, Mirzapur etc.), with its capital at Kausambi
8. Chedi (covering the modern Bundelkhand area with its capital at Shuktimati)
9. Kuru (covering the modern Haryana and Delhi area to the west of river Yamuna) with its capital at
Indraprastha (modern Delhi)
10. Panchala (covering the area of western Uttar Pradesh up to the east of river Yamuna up to the Kosala
Janapada) with its capital at Ahichhatra
11. Surasena (covering Brij Mandal with its capital at Mathura)
12. Matsya (covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in Rajasthan)
13. Avanti (modern Malawa) with its capital at Ujjayini and Mahishmati
14. Ashmaka (between the rivers Narmada'and Godavari) with its capital at Potana
15. Gandhara (area covering the western part of Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan) with its capitals at Taxila and
Pushkalavati, and
16. Kamboja (identified with modern district of Hazara disricts of Pakistan)
There were also non-monarchical states which can be called republics or ganasanghas. Buddhist texts reveal
that during the time of the Buddha there were many such republican states. Some of the important ones were:
1. Mallas of Kusinara
2. Mallas of Pava
3. Sakyas of Kapilavastu
4. Koliyas of Ramagrama
5. Moriyas of Pipphalivana
6. Bulis of Alakappa
7. Kalamas of Kesaputta
8. Bhaggas of Sumsumaragiri
9. Lichchhavis ofVaisali
The political history of India from the sixth century B.C onwards is the history of struggles between the states for
supremacy. Ultimately the kingdom of Magadha emerged to be the most powerful and succeeded in founding an
empire.
Page 24
Figure 15 Mahajanapadas
Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire
Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and prosperous. It became the nerve centre
of political activity in north India. Magadha was endowed by nature with certain geographical and strategic
advantages. Her strategic position between the upper and lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great advantage. It
had fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits near Gaya added to its natural
assets. Her location at the centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to her wealth. Rajagriha was the
capital of Magadha. During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its zenith.
Bimbisara (546 – 494 B.C.)
Haryanka is the name of anew dynasty founded in Magadha by Bimbisara after overthrowing the
Brihadrathas.He consolidated his position by matrimonial alliances. His first matrimonial alliance was with the ruling
family of Kosala. He married Kosaladevi, sisterof Prasenajit. He was given the Kasi region as dowry which yielded
large revenue. Bimbisara married Chellana, a princess of the Licchavi family of Vaisali. This matrimonial alliance
secured for him the safety of the northern frontier. Moreover, it facilitated the expansion of Magadha northwards to
the borders of Nepal. He also married Khema of the royal house of Madra in central Punjab. Bimbisara also
undertook many expeditions and added more territories to his empire. He defeated Brahmadatta of Anga and
annexed that kingdom. He maintained friendly relations with Avanti. He had also efficiently reorganized the
administration of his kingdom.
Page 25
Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. However, both
religions claim him as their supporter and devotee. He seems to have made numerous gifts to the Buddhist Sangha.
Ajatasatru (494 - 462 B.C.)
The reign of Ajatasatru was remarkable for his military conquests. He fought against Kosala and Vaisali. His
war was a great success against a formidable confederacy led by the Lichchavis of Vaisali. IT took him full 16 years to
destroy Vaishali. Eventually he succeeded in doing so because of a war engine which was used to throw stones like
catapults. He also possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached and it facilitated mass killings. To overcome the
territorial ambitions of Avanti he began fortification of Rajgir whose walls can be still seen. However, the invasion did
not material in his lifetime
It was at this time that Ajatasatru realised the strategic importance of the small village, Pataligrama (future
Pataliputra). He fortified it to serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali.
Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru was a follower of their religion. But it is generally believed
that in the beginning he was a follower of Jainism and subsequently embraced Buddhism. He is said to have met
Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted in the sculptures of Barhut. He was also instrumental in convening the
First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha soon after the death of the Buddha.
The immediate successor of Ajatasatru was Udayin. He laid the foundation of the new capital at Pataliputra
situated at the confluence of the two rivers, the Ganges and the Son. Later it became famous as the imperial capital
of the Mauryas. Udayin’s successors were weak rulers and hence Magadha was captured by Sisunaga. The last ruler
of Haryak Dynasty was Nagdashak. Thus the Haryanka dynasty came to an end and the Sisunaga dynasty came to
power.
Sisunga dynasty
Sisunaga defeated the king of Avanti which was made part of the Magadhan Empire. After Sisunaga, the
mighty empire began to collapse. His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka. During his reign the second Buddhist
Council was held at Vaisali.
Nandas
Kalasoka, the son and the successor of Sisunaga, was succeeded by a barber (according to some accounts)
named Mahapadma Nanda, who founded a new dynasty known as the Nandas. He defeated and destroyed the far-
famed kshatriya families (Puranas describe him as the “destroyer of all kshatriyas”), such as the Pauravas, the
Ikshvakus, and the Pradyotas, who were ruling in Kausambi, Kosala and Avanti, and established an empire which
included the greater part of northern India. He assumed the title of ekarat. The Hathigumpha inscription of
Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by the Nandas.
It is said that they maintained 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry and 3000 to 6000 war elephants. Such a huge
army could be maintained only through an effective taxation system. It was because of these considerations that
Alexander did not advance against Nandas. But, the later Nandas turned out to be weak and unpopular. Their
unpopularity, possibly due to their "financial extortion", facilitated a revolution, leading to their overthrow
by Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya.
Causes of Magadha’s Success
 The formation of the largest state in India during this period was the work of several enterprising and
ambitious rulers such as Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadma Nanda.
Page 26
 Magadha lay at the centre of middle Gangetic plain. It was very fertile helping in agricultural production.
 Magadha enjoyed geographical advantage because of its iron deposits near Rajgir which made it easier for
them to equip with weapons better than others.
 Rajgir was also known as Girivraja since it was surrounded by a group of five hills acting as natural fort
 Forests around Rajgir produced elephants and also sufficient timber.
 Nandas streamlined administration with vast bureaucracy which dug canals for irrigation, promoted trade
and commerce and collected taxes
 Finally the unorthodox character of the Magadha society who was held in low esteem by the orthodox
Brahmans also helped. Since it was recently vedicised it showed more enthusiasm for expansion.
Foreign Invasions
Persian Conquest
The western borderland of India comprising the Punjab, Sindh and Afghanistan did not have any strong
political power during this period. Of the sixteen Mahajanapadas mentioned in the literature, only two, Kamboja and
Gandhara, may be placed in this outlying region. Several principalities fought amongst each other and thus an easy
prey to foreign invaders. This area was also wealthy and could be easily accessed through the passes in Hindukush.
The powerful Achaemenian kings of Persia naturally cast their eyes towards this region, and perhaps Cyrus
(558- 530 B.C.) subjugated a number of principalities living to the south of the Hindukush mountains. It was in the
reign of Darius (522-486 I3.C.) that we have positive evidence of the extension of Achaemenian rule in the
northwestern part of India. Herodotus, the Greek historian tells about the Darius occupation of territory to the east
of the Sindhu. Darius sent a naval expedition to explore the valley of the Sindhu river. Indian soldiers formed part of
the Achaemenian army that conquered Greece in the time of Xerxes (486-465B.C.) and fought against Alexander at
Gaugamela in 330 B.C.
Impact of the Iranian Invasion
Indo-Iranian contact has given impetus for Indo-Iranian trade and commerce. Also, it prepared the ground
for Alexander’s invasion. Iranian coins were found in the north western frontier. The Iranians brought Kharoshti
script which was like Arabic written from right to left. It is believed that rock inscriptions that Ashoka so effectively
used were inspired from the Iranian practice. Even in sculpture Iranian influence is observed. The Capitals i.e bull
capital, lion capital, elephant capital etc put across the nation in Ashoka period were also inspired from Iranians.
Alexander’s Campaign
After the conquest of the Persian Empire Alexander marched to India through the Khyber pass in 326 B.C.
Surprisingly, no Indian source mentions anything about Alexander or his campaign. His conquest is reconstructed on
the basis of accounts available in Greek and Roman sources. It is also surprising that while Greek sources give a very
detailed account ofAlexander's campaign to India, but they are completely silent about Kautilya.
On the eve of his invasion, there were a number of small kingdoms in northwestern India. The leading king
swere Ambhi of Taxila, the ruler of Abhisara and Porus who ruled the region between the rivers of Jhelum and
Chenab. There were many republican states like Nysa. In short, the northwestern India remained the most disunited
part of India and the rulers were fighting with one another. Yet, it was not easy for Alexander to overcome so many
sources of opposition.
Alexander himself undertook the task of conquering thenorth -western part of India. The Greeks had to face
a strong resistance from Hasti, a tribal chief whose capital was Pushkalavati. He stood the Greek siege for full 30 days
Page 27
till he fell fighting. These local people fought the invader to the last man. When the king of Assakenoi fell fighting his
army was led by the queen. They "resolved to defend their country to the last extremity".
A bridge was constructed on the Indus River at Ohindabout 24 km. above Attock. After crossing the Indus
Alexander proceeded towards Taxila. When he was about7 km from Taxila, Ambhi came forward to great Alexander
and recognised him as his sovereign.
From there Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit. But Porus refused and decided to fight against
Alexander. Then Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the river Hydaspes (Jhelum). On the other side of
the river he saw the vast army of Porus. As there were heavy floods in the river, Alexander was not able to cross it.
After a few days, he crossed the river and the famous battle of Hydaspeswas fought on the plains of Karri. It was a
well-contested battle. Although Porus had a strong army, he lost the battle. Alexander was impressed by the courage
and heroism of this Indian prince,treated him generously and reinstated him on his throne.
Alexander continued his march as far as the river Beas encountering opposition from the local tribes. He
wanted to proceed still further eastwards towards the Gangetic valley. But he could not do so because his soldiers
refused to fight. Hardships of prolonged warfare made them tired and they wanted to return home. He divided the
whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into threeprovinces and put them under his governors. His retreat began
in October 326 B.C. and the return journey was not free from ordeals.Many republican tribes attacked his army.
Anyhow he managed to reach beyond the Indus. On his way he reached Babylon where he fell seriously ill and died
in 323 B.C.
Impact of Alexander’s Invasion
Alexander’s conquest destroyed the petty states in the north-west and created a political vacuum which was
filled by the expansion of the Mauryan Empire in that area by Chandragupta Maurya. Alexander’s campaign opened
up four distinct routes by land and sea paving the way for Greek merchants and improved trade and commerce. Also
some Greek settlements came up in the north-west as Alexandria in Kabul region, Boukephala in Jhelum plains.
Alexander also dispatched his fleet to explore mysterious coast he saw at the mouth of Indus and search for harbors
from there to the Euphrates. His historians have provided a basis to build Indian chronology for subsequent events.
They also provided information on the social and economic conditions of India. They tell about Sati system, sale of
girls in market places and fine breed of oxen in north-west India.
Page 28
6. THE EVOLUTION OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM
Numerous religious sects arose in the middle Gangetic plains in the second half of the sixth century B.C. We
hear of as many as 62 religious sects, many based on regional customs and rituals. Of these sects Jainism and
Buddhism were the most important. Jainism and Buddhism take their stand on certain aspects of the pre
existingsystem. Both are organised as ascetic orders and brotherhoods.
Nirgranthas discuss as many as sixty-two systems of doctrines before Buddhism arose. Some Jain works like
Sutra-Kritanga gives their number as363. Some of these were Ajivikas, Nirgranthas, Jatilakas etc. Some of the
prominent teachers of these sects were Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosal, Ajitkeshakambalin, Nigantha Natputta and
Sanjaya Belatthaputta.
Causes of Origin
The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in India in the 6th century
B.C. The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were too expensive and not acceptable to
the common people. The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative to the system of sacrifices, were highly
philosophical in nature and not understood by all.
The real reason was the rise of a new agricultural economy in noth-eastern India which required the use of
bullocks. But the Vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices led to decimation of cattle wealth. The
principle of Ahimsa propagated by new religions attracted people.
The Varna system and the hierarchical stratification of the society generated tensions. The Kshatriyas
reacted against the ritualistic domination of the brahmanas and seem to have led a kind of protest movement
against the importance attached to birth in the Varna system.
The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas. As aresult, they
wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow this. Therefore, they began to
extend support to Buddhism and Jainism.
A strong reaction against various forms of private property is also observed. The new forms of property
created social Inequalities, and caused misery and suffering to the masses of the people. So the common people
yearned to return to primitive life. Both Jainism and Buddhism preferred simple, puritan acetic living.
JAINISM
Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.)
The Jain tradition traces Jainism to a remote antiquity represented by a succession of twenty-four
Tirthankaras. The firstTirthankara was Rishabhnath. Parsva, who was the son of Ikshvaku king Asvasena of Kasi and
was born to the daughter of Naravanman, king of Kausasthala was the 23rd Tirthankara. Vardhamana Mahavira was
the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali to Kshatriya parents Siddhartha
and Trisala. He married Yasoda and gave birth to a daughter. At the age of thirty he became an ascetic and wandered
for twelve years. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kaivalya Gnana
i.e. the supreme knowledge and final deliverance from the bonds of pleasure and pain. Thereafter, he was called
Mahavira and Jina. His followers were called Jainas and his religion Jainism. Originally they were designated as
Nirgranthas, i.e. free from fetters. Mahavira spent the remaining thirty years of his life in preaching. He passed away
at Pawapuri, in 468 B.C. at the age of seventy two.
Page 29
Teachings of Mahavira
Vardhaman Mahavira accepted four doctrines of Parsva namely
 non-injury to living beings (ahimsa)

 speaking the truth (satya)
 non possession of property (aparigraha)
 not stealing (asteya)
 celibacy (brahmacharya)
Last one was added by Mahavira. The above five principle when observed by the monks strictly are known as
‘mahavratas’, but when lay members practice them they are called ‘anuvratas’
The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three gems), are: right faith, right knowledge and
right conduct. Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of Mahavira. Right Knowledge is the acceptance
of the theory tha there is no God and that the world has been existing without a creator and that all objects possess
a soul. Right conduct refers to the observance of the five great vows mentioned above.
Though the Jains did not deny the existence of God, they simply ignored him. The world for Jains is not
created, maintained or destroyed by a God but functions through a universal oreternal law. The universe is eternal.
Its existence is divided into cycles ofprogress (utsarpini) and declines (avasarpim). The universe functions through
the interaction of living souls (Jiva) and everything in the universe has a soul (both living and non living). The
purification of the soul is the purpose of living, for it is only the pure soul after being released from the body that
resides in bliss.
Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the Vedic rituals. He advocated a very holy and
ethical code of life.Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes injury to the earth, worms and
animals. Similarly the doctrine of asceticism and renunciation was also carried to extreme lengths by the practice of
starvation, nudity and other forms of self-torture.
Spread of Jainism
Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He admitted both men and women in the Sangha,
which consisted of both monks and lay followers. Chandragupta Maurya is said to have patronised Jainism.
According to the Jaina tradition, Chandragupta not only accepted Jaina religion, but had actually abdicated the
throne and died as a Jaina Bhikshu in southern India.
By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious famine in the Ganges valley. Many Jain monks led
by Bhadrabagu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka. Those who stayed back in north
India were led by a monk named Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks. This led to the
division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (whiteclad) and Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked).
The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the
beginning of the 3rdcentury B.C. The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5thcentury A.D. The final compilation
of Jain literature called Twelve Angas was completed in this council.
Jain Literature
Jain scriptures are called Agamas. They are believed to have been verbally transmitted from one generation
to next, much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts, by the oral tradition. The mythology states that the
Tirthankara taught in a divine preaching hall called samavasarana, which were heard by the gods, the ascetics and
Page 30
the laypersons. The discourse delivered is called Śhrut Jnāna and comprises eleven angas and fourteen purvas. The
discourse is remembered and transmitted by the Ganadharas (chief disciples), and is composed of
twelve angas (departments). It is symbolically represented by a tree with twelve branches.
The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the Kalpa
Sūtras are particularly popular among Svetambaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu. Other important Jain texts
include Samayasara, Ratnakarandaśrāvakācāra, and Niyamasara. Tamil Jain texts such as the Cīvaka
Cintāmaṇi and Nālaṭiyār are credited to Digambara Jain authors. The Digambara Jain texts in Karnataka are unusual,
in that they were written under the patronage of kings and regional aristocrats. These Jain texts describe warrior
violence and martial valor as equivalent to a "fully committed Jain ascetic". Jain manuscript libraries,
called bhandaras inside Jain temples, are the oldest surviving in India.
Contribution of Jainism
 Jainism made the first serious attempt to mitigate the evils of the varna order and the ritualistic Vedic
region.
 The early Jainas discarded Sanskrit and adopted Prakrit for preaching. Their religious literature was written in
Ardhamagadhi and the final texts were compiled in 6th century A.D. in Gujarat at Vallabhi. Many languages
grew out of Prakrit, Marathi being one such.
 Jainas composed the earliest works in Apabhramsa and prepared its first grammar.
 They contributed to the growth of kannada too with their works in that language. Jainas started worshipping
statues of Mahavira developed from various schools of art
BUDDHISM
Life of Gautama Buddha (567- 487 B.C.)
Gautama or Siddhartha, the founderof Buddhism, was born in 567 B.C. in Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu.
His father was Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and mother Mayadevi. As his mother died at childbirth, he was brought
up by his aunt PrajapatiGautami. At the age of sixteen he married Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula. The
sight of an old man, a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him away from worldly life. He left home at the
age of twenty nine in search of Truth. This event is called as Mahabhinishkramana. He wandered for seven years and
met several teachers but could not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya and did
intense penance, after which he got Enlightenment (Nirvana i.e eternal state of peace and bliss, freedom from cycles
of birth and death) at the age of thirty five. Since then he became known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. He
delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares. This event is known as dharma-chakra-pravartana (turning of the
wheel of law). He died at the age of eighty at Kusinagara.
Five Great Events of Buddha’s Life and their symbols
 Birth – Lotus & Bull

 Great Renunciation- Horse
 Nirvana – Bodhi Tree
 First Sermon – Dharma Chakra
 Death – Stupa
Teaching of Buddha
The fundamental principle of Buddha's teachings are represented by the Four Noble Truths (Arya-Satyas) viz :
Page 31
 that the world is full of sorrow(Dukkha)
 that there are causes ofsorrow (Dukkha Samuddaya)
 thatthis sorrow can be stopped (dukkha nirodha) and
 path leading tocessation of sorrow (Dukkha nirodhagamini- pratipada).
According to Buddha, root of all human misery was 'desire' and its annihilation was the surest way of ending
unhappiness. He held that death was no escape from it, as it led to rebirth and further suffering. One could get out
of this chain of suffering and achieve the final salvation (Nirvana) by following the eight fold path. These eight fold
paths are:(i) right speech, (ii) right action, (iii) right means of livelihood, (iv) right exertion, v) right mindfulness, (vi)
right meditation, (vii) right resolution, and(viii) right view. Buddha is said to have summarised the whole process in
three words viz. Sila (Right conduct), Samadhi (Right concentration) and Prajna (Right knowledge). The first two lead
to the last one which is the direct cause of nirvana or liberation from the cycle of birth and death. Buddha advocated
"The Middle Path" in which extremes are avoided.
Spread of Buddhism
Buddhism denied the efficacy of Vedic rituals and practices for the purpose of salvation. The followers of the
Buddha fell into two categories: the Upasakas or the lay followers, who lived with family; and the Bhikshus (monks)
who renounced the world and led the life ofan ascetic. They lived as a commune called Sangha founded by Buddha
himself. The women were also admitted in Sangha and were known as Bhikshunis. All the members in Buddhism
enjoyed equal rights irrespective of their varna and jati.
Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were some of the famous monks. The Sangha was governed on
democratic lines and was empowered to enforce discipline among its members. Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and
several republican states of North India embraced this religion. About two hundred years after the death of Buddha,
the famous Mauryan Emperor Asoka embraced Buddhism. Through his missionary effort Asoka spread Buddhism
into West Asia and Ceylon.
Councils of Buddhism
The Buddhist texts were collected and compiled some five hundred years after the death of the Buddha.
They are known as the Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, the Vinaya and the Abhidhamma Pitakas. They are written in
the Pali language.
Figure 16 Tripitika and its books

Page 32
Patronised
Council Year Place Presided by Occasion Action/ Effect
by
Upali recited the

Vinayapitaka – rules
487 King Death of and regulations of
First Rajgir Mahakassapa
B.C. Ajatashatru Buddha the Sangha;
Ananda recited the
Suttapitaka –
Buddhas teachings
Sangha got divided
A dispute on into Theravadin and
Vinaya Mahasanghika;
387 Sthaviravada
Second Vaishali Kalashoka Pitaka, the
B.C. followed the
code of teachings of the
discipline elders and
Mahasanghika
became extinct later
To settle all Abhidhamma Pitaka
250 Moggaliputtu the disputes was established in
Third Pataliputra Ashoka
B.C. Tissa of Vinaya this council;
Pitaka Send emissionaries
to spread Buddhism
To systemize
Vasumitra and Buddhism divided
72 Kundalvana, the
Fourth Asvaghosha Kanishka into 2 sects Mahayan
A.D. Kashmir Abhidhamma
was deputy & Hinayan
texts
Table 3 Buddhist Council
Page 33
Hinayana and Mahayana
Mahayana Buddhism and Hinayana Buddhism are two sects of Buddhism that have differences between them in
their religious concepts. Only Mahayana Buddhism exists in the world now.
Hinayana Mahayana
1 Hinayana Buddhism believes that Lord Mahayana believes in the heavenliness of Buddha
Buddha was an ordinary human being and Idol worship of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
embodying Buddha Nature
2 Hinayana literally means lesser wheel Mahayana means greater wheel
3 Individual salvation through self discipline Mahayana believed in universal liberation from
and meditation. Ultimate aim of Hinayana suffering for all beings. Believes in salvation by
is thus nirvana faith. Ultimate aim of Mahayana is “spiritual
upliftment”
4 Hinayana literature is mainly in Pali Mahayana literature is mainly in Sanskrit
5 Sangha is at the centre Individual is at the centre
6 It stressed law of Karma It held law of Karuna over law of Karma
7 Stharvivada or Thervada is a Hinayana sect. Zen, Pure Land, Tiantai, Nichiren, Shingon and
Tibetan Buddhism are traditions of Mahayana.
Table 4 Difference between Hinaya and Mahayana Buddhism
Causes for the Decline of Buddhism
 The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to the fall of popularity of Buddhism.
 The use of Pali, the language of the masses as the language of Buddhism was given up from the 1 stcentury
A.D. The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite.
 After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of idol worship and making offerings led to the
deterioration of moral standards.
 Moreover, the attack of the Huns in 5thand 6thcenturiesand the Turkish invaders in 12th century destroyed
the monasteries.
Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture
Buddhism has made a remarkable contribution to the development of Indian culture.
 Buddhism left deep impact on the society. It gave serious impetus to democratic spirit and social equality. It
opened its doors to women and shudras
 The Buddhist viharas were used for education purposes. Nalanda, Vikramshila, Taxila, Udyantpuri, Vallabhi
and others cities developed as high Buddhist learning centres
 The literature written both in Pali and Sanskrit were enriched by scholars of Hinyana and Mahayana sects.
The language of Pali and other local languages developed through the teachings of Buddhism
 The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. Later, it became one of the cherished values of our nation.
 The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya are wonderful pieces of architecture. Buddhism takes the credit for
the chaityas (temple or prayer hall) and viharas (monastery or residence of monks) in different parts of India
 It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.
7. THE AGE OF MAURYAS
THE MAURYAN Empire was the first and one of the greatest empires that were established on Indian soil.
Chandragupta Mauryawas the first ruler who unified entire India under one political unit. Moreover, the history
writing has also become clear from this period due to accuracy in chronology and sources.
Sources of Mauryan History
 The Arthashastra gives us detailed information about the administrative system of the Mauryan Empire. The
work was written by Kautilya who is also known as Chanakya.
 The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in Sanskrit. Although written during the Gupta period, it
describes how Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas.
 Megasthenese, the Greek ambassador from the court of Seleucus to that of Chandragupta Maurya, wrote
accounts of India and Indian people in his book Indica.
 Apart from these three important works, the Puranas and the Buddhist literature such as Jatakas provide
information on the Mauryas. The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on the role Asoka
in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
 Asoka’s Inscriptions, Rocks & Pillar Edicts of Maurya’s, Hathigumpha Inscription gives account of Decline of
Maurya’s, Girnar ‘s Inscription of Rudradaman gives account of Chandragupta and Asoka etc are some of the
archeological sources.
Extent of Mauryan Empire
Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.)
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. Not much is known about the early life and
ancestry of Chandragupta. Chandragupta's early life and education at Taxila is indirectly proved by the fact that the
Greek sources tell us that he had seen Alexander in course of the latter's campaign of Punjab.From the Greek and
Jain sources it seems that Chandragupta took advantage of the disturbances caused by the invasion of Alexander and
his sudden death in 323 B.C. in Babylon. The Jain text,Parisistha Parvam, describes that with the help of Chanakya,
Page 35
Chandragupta defeated the Nanda king and captured him. After defeating Nanda ,Chandragupta became the ruler of
Magadha Empire. In this task he was assisted by Kautilya, who was also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta. After
firmly establishing his power in the Gangeticvalley, he marched to the northwest and subdued the territories upto
the Indus. Then he moved to central India and occupied the region north of Narmada river.
Chandragupta defeated the invading army of the Greek Kshatrapa Seleucus who had succeeded Alexander in
the eastern part of his empire. Chandragupta Maurya defeated him and a treaty was signed. By this treaty, Selukas
Niketar ceded the trans-Indus territories – namely Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia – to the Mauryan Empire. He also
gave his daughter in marriage to the Mauryan prince. Chandragupta made a gift of 500 elephants to Selukas.
Megasthenes was sent to the Mauryan court as Greek ambassador.
Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favour of
his son Bindusara.Then he went to Sravana Belgola, near Mysore along with Jain monks led by Bhadrabhagu and
starved himself to death.
Bindusara (298 – 273 B.C.)
He was known to the Greeks as ‘Amitagrata’ and is said to have carried his arms to the Deccan as far as
Mysore. The Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of the far south. The Jain scholar
Hemachandra and Tibetan historian Taranath say that Chanakya outlived Chandragupta and continued as a minister
of Bindusara. FromDivyavadana we came to know that Bindusara appointed his eldest sonSumana (also named
Susima) as his viceroy at Taxila and Ashoka at Ujjain. Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt sent
Dionysiusas his ambassador to his court. Bindusara supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect.
Asoka the Great (273 – 232 B.C.)
According to the Buddhist sources Ashoka’s mother was Janapada Kalyani or Subhadrangi. According to the
Buddhist tradition, Ashoka was very cruel in his early life and captured the throne after killing his 99 brothers. But
this does not appear to be correct.
Ashoka is the first king in the Indian history that has left his records engraved on stones. The inscriptions on
rocks are called Rock Edicts, and those on pillars, Pillar Edicts. The inscriptions of Ashoka were written in four
different scripts. In Afghanistan area they were written in Greek and Aramaic languages and scripts, and in Pakistan
area, in Prakrit language and Kharosthi script. Inscriptions from all other areas are in Prakrit language, written in
Brahmi script. These Edicts of Asoka deal with Asoka’s Dhamma and also instructions given to his officials. The XIII
Rock Edict gives details about his war with Kalinga. The Pillar Edict VII gives a summary of his efforts to promote the
Dhamma within his kingdom.
Ashoka and Buddhism
The most important event of Asoka’s reign was his victorious war with Kalinga in 261 B.C. Although there is
no detail about the cause and course of the war, the effects of the war were described by Asoka himself in the Rock
edict XIII. Another most important effect of the Kalinga war was that Asoka embraced Buddhism under the influence
of Buddhist monk, Upagupta.
About 261 B.C. Asoka became a Sakya Upasaka (lay dsicple) and two and a half years later, a Bikshu(monk).
Then he gave up hunting, visited Bodh-Gaya, and organized missions. He appointed special officers called Dharma
Mahamatras to speed up the progress of Dhamma. The Dhamma, as explained in Ashoka's edicts is not a religion or a
religious system but a 'Moral Law', a 'Common Code of Conduct' or an 'Ethical Order'. In Pillar Edict II Ashoka puts
Page 36
the question: "What is Dhamma?" Then he enumerates the two basic attributes or constituents of Dhamma : less
evil and many good deeds.
Ashoka, in Rock Edict XII and many other edicts prescribes the following codes to be followed:
 Obedience to mother, father,elders, teachers and other respectable persons

 Respect towards teachers
 Proper treatment towards ascetics, relations, slaves, servants and dependents, the poor and miserable,
friends, acquaintances and companions
 Liberality towards ascetics, friends, comrades, relatives and the aged
 Abstention from killing of living beings. Non-injury to all living creatures
 Spending little and accumulating little wealth
 Mildness in case of all living creatures
 Truthfulness
 Attachment to morality
 Purity of heart
 Tolerance among all the religious sects
 Conquest through Dhamma instead of through war
Later Mauryas
Mauryas maintained a huge army, a vast bureaucracy and ruled over a large part of the Indian subcontinent.
But soon after the death of Ashoka the empire got divided into two parts. While king Dasaratha controlled the
eastern part of the empire, the western part was under Samprati.
Some historians believe that Ashoka under the influence of Buddhism became a pacifist and weakened his
army. It is also said that the religious policy of Ashoka antagonized the brahmanas as he banned the animal sacrifice,
which affected the economic and religious activities of the brahmanas. Therefore, Pusyamitra, the brahmana chief of
the army, killed the last Mauryan king, Brihadratha. But this does not seem to be correct as the study of Ashokan
inscriptions reveals that Ashoka paid full respect to brahmanas. Moreover it is true that Ashoka followed a policy of
peace and harmony, but he did not disband his army and was always prepared to face any eventuality.
The reason of decline was inherent in the structure of the vast centralized empire itself. The successors
ofAshoka could not maintain the balance between the centre and the various provincial governors of the empire,
and at the first possible opportunity, they made an effort to separate themselves from the centre. It is also possible
that Mauryan rule may have suffered some kind of economic crisis. It is reflected in the debasement of some coins of
that period. This crisi smight have developed either due to massive donations and charity or overspending on the
imperial administrative system.
Mauryan Administration
Central Government
It ushered in a centralised formof government.The king was head of the state. He had judicial, legislative and
executive powers. The king issued what were known as sasana or ordinances. The edicts of Ashoka are examples of
those sasanas. The king was assisted in administration by a Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad). Besides, there
were some officers known as Adhyakshas (superintendents). Kautilya refers to a large number of superintendents
Page 37
like those of gold, store houses, commerce, agriculture, ships, cows, horses, elephants, chariots, infantry, passports,
the city etc.
In the Mauryan administration there were officer called asyukta (subordinate/officer incharge of the
revenues of the king), rajjukas (officers responsiblefor land measurement and fixing their boundaries), Pradeshikas
(the provincial governer). The village was the smallest unit of administration. The head of the village was called
gramika. Thevillages enjoyed considerable autonomy. Most of the disputes of the village were settled by gramika
with the help of village assembly.
Economy
The Mauryan state founded new agricultural settlements to bring virgin land under cultivation. People from
overpopulated areas and prisoners of war were brought to these new settlements to work on the fields. These
villages belonged to king and were looked after by government official called sitadhyaksha or superintendent of
agriculture. Besides state farms there were individual land holders who paid a variety of taxes to the state. The
importance of irrigation was fully realised and peasants had to pay more tax on irrigated land. The bali or land tax
was the main item of revenue, levied at the rate of one sixth of the produce. Peasants had to pay many other taxes
like pindakara, hiranya, bhaga, bhoga.
Traders and artisans were organised in associations called srenis or guilds. Mauryans maintained a monopoly
over production of iron, which was in great demand by the army, industry and agriculture. It was done through the
official called loha-adyaksha.
Revenue Department
Samharta, the chiefof the Revenue Department, was in charge of the collection of all revenues of the
empire. The land revenue was normally fixed as one sixth of the produce.
Department of Commerce and Industry
This department had controlled the retail and wholesale prices of goods and tried to ensure their steady
supply through its officers called Adyakshas. It also controlled weights and measures, levied custom duties and
regulated foreign trade.
Judicial and Police Departments
Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal courts. The chief justice of the Supreme Court at
the capital was called Dharmathikarin. There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and districts
under Amatyas. Different kinds of punishment such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation and death were given to the
offenders. Torture was employed to extract truth. Policestations were found in all principal centres. The
DhammaMahamatras were asked by Asoka to take steps against unjust imprisonment. Remission of sentences is also
mentioned in Asoka’sinscriptions.
Census
The village officials were to number the people along with other details like their caste and occupation. They
were also to count the animals in each house. The census in the towns was taken by municipal officials to track the
movement of population both foreign and indigenous.
Municipal Administration
Page 38
Arthasastra contains a full chapter on the role of Nagarika or city superintendent. His chief duty was to
maintain law and order. Megasthenes refers to the six committees of five members each to look after the
administration of Pataliputra.
Society
Megasthenese could not properly comprehend the Indian society and failed to distinguish between jati,
varna and the occupation. The chaturvarna system continued to govern the society. But the craftsmen, irrespective
of jati enjoyed a high place in the society. The material growth mellowed the jati restrictions and gave people
prosperity and respectibility. Nowshudras could be involved in the agricultural and artisanal activities. This period
also saw increase in the number of untouchables.
Mauryan art
The Mauryan period provides the earliest examples of ancient Indian art and architecture. Megasthenes has
described the grandeur of the Mauryan palace at Pataliputra. Some remains of this palace have been found at
Kumrhar near Patna. Ashokan pillars at Rampurva, Lauriya Nandangarh and Sarnath present excellent examples of
stone sculptures which developed in this period. Our national emblem comes from the Asokan pillar at Sarnath near
Benaras. All these pillars are circular and monolithic, and are made of sand stone found at Chunar near Mirzapur in
U.P.
We also find some rock cut architecture like Lomas Rishicave in the Barabara hills near Gaya belonging to the
Mauryan period.The caves presented to the Ajivikas by Asoka and his son Dasaratha remain important heritage ofthe
Mauryas. Their interior walls are polished like mirror. These were meant to be residences of monks. Among several
stone and terracotta sculptures of this period, polished stone sculpture of a chauri-bearing female known as
Didarganj Yakshini is most famous.
Figure 17 Sarnath Pillar, Lomas Rishi Caves, Didarganj Yakshini (from left to right)
Page 39
8. POST-MAURYAN INDIA
The disintegration of the Mauryan Empire led to the rise of many regional kingdoms in different parts of the
country. At the same time, we witness invasions by various groups of people based in Central Asia and western
China. These were Indo-Greeks, the Scythians or the Shakas, the Parthians or the Pahlavas and the Kushanas. It was
through such political processes that India came in closer contact with the central Asian politics and culture.
Sungas
The last Mauryan king was killed by his Commander-in-Chief, Pushyamitra Shunga, who then established his
own dynasty in north India. Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. He performed two asvamedha
sacrifices. Buddhist sources refer him as a persecutor of Buddhism. But there is enough evidence to show that
Pushyamitra patronised Buddhist art. During his reign the Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were
renovated and further improved.
While the Shungas were ruling in north India, the Indo- Greeks also known as Yavanas emerged in Bactria
(north Afghanistan) as an independent power and soon started extending their rule in the northwestern and
northern parts of India.
Indo-Greeks
The rulers of Bactria came to be called the Bactrian-Greeks because of their Hellenistic (Greek) ancestry. The
most celebrated Indo-Greek ruler was Menander. His empire appears to have included southern Afghanisthan and
Gandhara, the region west of the Indus. He has been identified with king Milinda mentioned in the famous Buddhist
text Milindapanho which contains philosophical questions that Milinda asked Nagasena (the Buddhist author of the
text).
The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India, which increased in number under Kushans. The
Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins with images of kings and their names. This is not possible in
the case of the early punch-marked coins which cannot be assigned to any dynasty with certainty.
Sakas
Saka is the Indian term used for the people called Scythians, who originally belonged to central Asia. The
Indo-Greek rule in India was primarily destroyed by the Sakas. The founder of the Saka rule in India in the first
century B.C. was Maues. They settled in India around Taxila. The most famous of all the Saka rulers was Rudradaman
who ruled in the middle of second century AD. He undertook the repairs of the Sudarsan lake dam that had been
built by the provincial governor Chandragupta Maurya, in Kathiawad when it was damaged by heavy rains as per
Junagarh inscription. This inscription happens to be the first royal inscription of early India composed in chaste
Sanskrit. All the earlier long inscriptions were composed in Prakrit.
In about 57-58 B.C. we hear of king of Ujjain who effectively fought against the Sakas and succeeded over
them. He called himself Vikramaditya and an era called the Vikrama Samvat is reckoned in 57 B.C.
Parthians
The Parthians also known as Pahlavas were Iranian people. Their history is obscure. Gondophernes was the
greatest of the Parthian rulers. Takht-i-Bahi inscription dated around 45 A.D. recovered from Mardan near Peshawar
refers to Gondophernes.
Page 40
Kushanas
The Kushanas originally belonged to western China. They are also called Yueh-chis. The Kushanas after
defeating Shakas and Pahlavas created a big empire in Pakistan. The first prominent ruler of the Kushana dynasty
was Kujula Kadphises. He was succeeded by his son Wema Kadphises. Next ruler was Kanishka. He was the most
famous of the Kushanas. He probably ascended the throne in AD 78, and started a new era, now known as the Shaka
era. At its peak, Kanishka's empire extended from Khotan in the northwest to Benaras in the east and Kashmir in
north to Saurashtra and Malwa in the south. The capital of this vast empire of Kanishka was Purushapur i.e. modern
Peshawar.
Figure 18 Extent of Kushan Empire and their Coins
Kanishka
Kanishka is famous in history as a great patron of Buddhism. He convened the fourth Buddhist Council at
Kundalavana (present day Harwan near Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir) in which a large number of Buddhist
scholars took part. It was in this council that Buddhism got split into two schools – Hinayana and Mahayana. The
Council prepared an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas and the Mahayana doctrine was given final shape.
Kanishka also patronized the Gandhara and Mathura schools of sculptural art. He patronised Buddhist
scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna. Asvagosha was a great philosopher, poet and dramatist. He was
the author of Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi and Saundarananda. He was the first dramatist to use Sanskrit in plays.
Nagarjuna from south India adorned the court of Kanishka. Charaka has been called the Court Physician of Kanishka,
though it is very much disputed.
A headless statue of Kanishka found at Mathura reflects the same. A prominent feature of Kushana polity
was the title of devaputra, i.e., son of God, used by the Kushana kings. It indicates the claim to divinity by the
Kushana kings. They issued largest number of copper coins.
Page 41
Figure 19 Headless statue of Kanisha
Impact of Central Asian contacts
 Sakas and Kushanas made common use of reins and saddles. Their passionate love for horsemanship is
visible in the number of equestrian terracotta figures from Begram in Afghanistan.
 Kushans introduced turban, tunic, trousers and heavy long coat. Even now the Afghans and Punjabis wear
turbans and long coats.
 Central Asians also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were used by warriors.
 Silk route was under the control of Kushans and the contact with central Asians helped in trade with Roman
Empire.
 Earliest evidence of large scale irrigation works are carried by Kushans
 Satrap system of government started from central asian contacts. The empire is divided into a number of
satrapies and each is placed under a satrap. Two kings ruling the same kingdom at one and the same time
were introduced
 Greeks, Sakas, Parthians and Kushans all became Indianised in course of time. They were given the status of
Kshatriyas by Manu
 Central Asian contacts also brought to India new methods of making coins. The crude punch-marked coins
which were used earlier gradually gave way to refined Greek style coins containing legends and the bust of
the ruler
 Indians also borrowed from central Asians, particularly the Greeks, knowledge of astronomy. The Greek term
drachma became drama.
Satavahanas
While northern India was reeling under turmoil after the fall of Mauryas a very powerful kingdom was
established by the Satavahanas, also known as Andhras, in Deccan covering parts of Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra. In the Ashokan inscriptions, the Andhras are mentioned as border people. They followed Brahmanism
but were liberal to Buddhists and Jains. The official language of Satavahanas was Prakrit. All inscriptions by them
were composed in Prakrit and written in Brahmi script.
Page 42
Figure 20 Extent of Satavahana Empire
The founder of this dynasty is known as Simuka and he ruled from235 B.C. to 21.3 B.C. He was succeeded by
his brother Krishna. The third king was Satakarni I who seems to have made extensive conquests and performed two
Ashvamedhayajna. His achievements are described in detail in the Nanaghat inscription. His name also occurs on
one of the gateways of Sanchi stupa. It is well known that substantial donations were made by the Satavahanas for
the renovation and decoration of Sanchi stupas and monasteries.
Gautamiputra Satakarni
The next important king was Gautamiputra Satakarni.He is credited with the extension of Satavahana
dominions by defeating Nahapana, the Shaka ruler of Western India. His kingdom is said to have extended from river
Krishna in south to river Godavari in north.His achievements are recorded in glowing terms in the Nasik inscription of
Queen-mother, Gautami Balasri.Gautamiputra Satakarni is the first king bearing matronym and this practice was
followed by nearly all his successors.
Hala
The seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. He reigned for a period of five years. Hala
became famous for his book Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains 700 verses in Prakritlanguage.
Vashishtaputra Pulamayi
Page 43
Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra Pulamayi. He issued coins on which the
image of ships was inscribed. They reveal the naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas. The old stupa of
Amaravati was repaired and encased in richly sculpted marble slabs.
Yajnasri Satakarni
He is the last great ruler of the Satavahanas. He issued coins bearing fish symbol, boat symbol and Chaitya
symbol. He was contemporary of the Mahayana Buddhist monk Nagarjuna.
The Satavahana Empire collapsed when Abhiras seized Maharashtra and Ikshvakus and Pallavas
appropriated the eastern provinces.
Economy under Satavahanas
The craft guilds organized by different craftsmen such as potters, weavers and oil pressers also came into
existence. Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade. The Satavahana period also witnessed overseas
commercial activity. Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan. The greatest port ofthe Satavahanas was Kalyani
on the west Deccan. Gandakasela and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports.
Polity under Satavahanas
Satavahana kingdom was divided into subdivisions called aharas or rashtras, meaning districts. There were
also officers called amatyas who were perhaps ministers or advisors of the king. Revenue was collected both in cash
and kind. Satavahanas kings were the first in Indian history to make tax free land grants to Buddhists and Brahmanas
to gain religious merit. This practice became more prominent in succeeding periods. The Satavahana kings claimed to
be Brahmanas and considered it their primary duty to uphold varna system i.e. the four fold division of social
structure.
Page 44
9. EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA
Megalithic Background
Megaliths were tomb spots consisting of burials or graves covered with huge (mega) stones. They were, in
most cases, located outside the settlement area. Prominent sites that have yielded Megalith graves include
Brahmagiri, Maski, (Karnataka), Adichallanur (Tamilnadu) and Junapani near Nagpur (Maharastra). These burials are
marked by an abundance of iron tools and a Black-and-Red pottery. The graves contained more number of iron tools
for fighting and hunting indicating that megalithic people did not practice an advanced type of agriculture. It appears
that there was an abrupt change from the Neolithic stage into the Iron Age, without any significant, intermediate
Chalcolithic or Bronze Age. The following are the main Megalithic burial types:
1. Pit Circle graves: A stone circle is erected around the pit.

2. Cists: Cists are made out of granite slabs with one or more capstones, with or without port holes. They may
contain single or multiple burials. A single or multiple stone circles surrounds the cists.
3. Laterite chambers: Instead of granite slabs, there are grave-chambers excavated into laterite.
4. Alignments: A largenumber of standing stones (menhirs) arranged in squares or diagonals have been found.
5. Sacrophagi: These legged urns of terracotta sometimes have animal heads and are not very common.
6. Urns: The practice of burying excarnated bones in urns.
Figure 21 Different Megalith Burials
Early History
The megalithic period in south India was followed by the Sangam age. The earliest references that we find
about the people and kingdoms of the southern India are preserved in three forms - Ashokan inscriptions, Sangam
literature and Megasthenese's accounts. Ashokan inscription mentions Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras (or Cheras),
Satyaputras and Tambapanni as southern kingdoms. In the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela, he is credited for
defeating a confederacy of Tamil states. Megasthenes says that Pandyas were celebrated for pearls. He also speaks
of it ruled by a woman suggesting matriarchal influence.
Page 45
Figure 22 Sangam age empires
Sangam Literature
The Sangam age refers to that period in the early history of south India when large numbers of poems in
Tamil were composed by a number of authors. The term Sangam refers to an assembly or “meeting together” of
Tamil poets. Sangam literature has been fixed between the third century B.C. to third century A.D. on the basis of
literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences.
Traditionally, three Sangams or assemblies are believed to have been convened one after the other. All the
three Sangams took place at different places under the patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai. The first Sangam,
held at Then Madurai, was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work of this Sangam was available.
The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except Tolkappiyam. The
third Sangam at Madurai was founded by Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of poets who
produced voluminous literature.
The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the
two epics– Silappathigaram and Manimegalai. Tolkappiyam authored by Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil
literature. It is a work on Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and socio-economic conditions
of the Sangam period. The Ettutogai or EightAnthologies consist of eight works and The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls
consist of ten works. Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram
(valour). Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals. The most important
among them is Tirukkura authored by Thiruvalluvar. Silappathigaram written by ElangoAdigal and Manimegalai by
Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable information on the Sangam polity and society.
The Sangam literature can be roughly divided into two groups, narrative and didactic. The narrative texts are
called Melkannakku or Eighteen Major works. Ettutogai and Pattupattu are part of it. The didactic works are called
Kilkanakku or Eighteen minor works.
Page 46
Cholas
The Cholas occupied the delta of the Kaveri river and the adjoining region.The region of Kanchi was also part
o ftheir kingdom. It was also called Cholamandalam in early medieval times.Earlier its capital was Uraiyur in
Tiruchirapalli but subsequently it was shifted to Puhar which came to be known as Kaveripattanam.
The most distinguished of the early Chola kings was Karikala.It appears that Karikala defeated,in a great
battle at Venni, near Tanjore, a confederacy of about a dozen rulers headed by Chera and Pandya kings and
established his supremacy over the whole of Tamil land. Karikala maintained a powerful navy and conquered Sri
Lanka. He is creditedto have built big irrigation channels by means of building a 160 km long embankment along the
river Kaveri. He fortified the town, the famous sea part of Puhar, at the mouth of the Kaveri.
Pandyas
The Pandya kingdom occupied roughly the region of the modern districts ofTirunelveli, Ramnad and Madurai
in Tamil Nadu. The capital of the kingdom was Madurai.Nedunjeliyan is mentioned as a great Pandya king. He was
responsible for thee xecution of Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt Madurai.
Korkai was an important Pandya port. It was famous for its pearls. The traders profited from trade with the
Roman Empire. Pandya kings even sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus andTrojan.
Cheras
The area of the kingdom included then arrow strip of land between the sea and the mountains of Konkan
range. Their capital was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri. The Chera ruler Nedunjeral Adan
conquered the Kadambas with their capital at Vanavasi (near Goa). He is said to have defeated the Yavanas also.
The greatest kingof the Chera dynasty was Sengutturan.He is said to have subjugated the Chola and the
Pandya kings. His younger brother was Elango Adigal, the author of Silappathigaram. Senguttuvan introduced the
Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in Tamil Nadu. The stone for making the idol of Kannagi was
brought by him after his Himalayan expedition.
Sangam Society
Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam
(agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert). The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief
occupations as well as gods for worship.
1. Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and honey collection
2. Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products
3. Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture
4. Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing
5. Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery
Though the concept of varna was known, social classes in the Sangam period were not marked by higher or
lower rankings as in north India. For example, Brahmans were present in the society and they performed vedic
ceremonies and sacrifices and also acted as advisers to the chief but they enjoyed no special privileges. People were
known on the basis of their occupation they followed, such as artisans, salt merchants, textile merchants, etc.
Page 47
Women’s Position
Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed to
Tamil literature. The courage of women was also appreciated in many poems. Chaste life was considered the highest
virtue of women. Love marriage was a common practice. Women were allowed to choose their life partners.
However, the life of widows was miserable. The practice of Sati was also prevalent in the higher strata of society.
Social Evolution from Sangam texts
Narrative texts mainly dealt with heroic poetry in which heroes are glorified for wars and cattle raids which
show that early Tamil people are primarily pastoral. They also state that war booty was an important source of
livelihood. These texts also give some idea on state formation in which army consisted of groups of warriors and the
taxation system and judiciary appear to be rudimentary. They talk about the important cities, ports and various
economic activities of prominence.
Didatic texts prescribe a code of conduct not only for the king and his court but also for various social groups
and occupations. The texts also refer to grant of villages. They deal with the descent of kings from solar and lunar
dynasties.
Silappadikaram is considered as the gem of early Tamil literature. It deals with love story in which a dignitary
called Kovalan prefers a courtesan called Madhavi of Kaveripattanam to his noble wedded wife Kannagi. The other
epic, Manimekalai deals with the adventures of the daughter born of the union of Kovalan and Madhavi. They throw
light on the social and economic life of the Tamils up to about the sixth century.
Religion
In the field of religion, Sangam period witnessed a close and peaceful interaction between north Indian and
south Indian traditions. The Brahmanas who performed religious ceremonies popularized the worship of Indra,
Visnu, Siva etc., in south India. There are also references to the presence of Buddhists and Jainas in Tamil region. The
local people, particularly those of the hills, worshipped a deity called Murugan, which in northern India come to be
identified with Kartikeya, a war god. The Hero Stone worship was significantin the Sangam period. The Hero Stone or
Virakal was erected in memory ofthe bravery shown by the warrior in battle.
Economy
The people were engaged in various economic activities such as agriculture, crafts and trade. Paddy was the
most important crop. It formed the main part of peoples’ diet and also served as a medium of barter exchange for
inland trade.
External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms. After the ascendancy of the Roman
Empire, the Roman trade assumed importance. The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade. Other
ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam. The main exports of the
Sangam age were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamonand turmeric, ivory products,
pearls and precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief imports.
Page 48
10. THE GUPTA EMPIRE
After the decline of the Kushanas, north India witnessed the rise of the Gupta dynasty. The rulers of this
dynasty were able to establish a vast empire that included almost the entire north India. The Guptas had certain
material advantages that helped them to carve an empire. They operated from eastern U.P. and Bihar which was
very fertile. They could also exploit the iron ores of central India and Bihar to their advantage. They took advantage
of their proximity of the areas of north India which carried on a prosperous silk trade with the Byzantine Empire.
Their period was marked by great progress in art, architecture and literature.
Figure 23 Extent of Gupta Empire
Sources
 The Puranas throw light on the royal genealogy of the Gupta kings.
 Contemporary literary works like the Devichandraguptam and the Mudhrakshasam written by Visakadatta
provide information regarding the rise of the Guptas.
 The Chinese traveler Fahien, who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II, has left a valuable
account of the social, economic and religious conditions of the Gupta Empire.
 The Allahabad pillar inscription gives a detailed account of the career and personality of Samudragupta. The
inscription was composed by one of his officials, Harishena, and engraved on the Ashoka's pillar at
Allahabad.
 The coins issued by Gupta kings contain legends and figures. These coins provide interesting details about
the titles and sacrifices performed by the Gupta monarchs.
Page 49
Figure 24 Gupta Lineage
Srigupta
The Gupta dynasty was established by Srigupta, who probably belonged to the vaishya caste. He hailed from
either Magadha (Bihar) or Prayaga. He carried the title of maharaja. The Allahabadpillar inscription of Samudragupta
mentions maharaja Srigupta and maharaja Ghatotkacha as his son.
Chandragupta I
In A.D. 320 Chandragupta I succeeded his father Ghatotkacha. It is said that he laid the foundation of the
great Gupta Empire. Chandragupta I married a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. This marriage alliance of
Chandragupta I was important for his political career as is proved by the coins of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi
type.The Meherauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions his extensive conquests. Chandragupta I is considered to be the
founder of the Gupta era which starts with his accession in A.D. 320. He was the first Gupta king to adopt thetitle
maharajadhiraja and issued gold coins.
Samudragupta
Samudragupta succeeded his father about A.D. 340. He earned a reputationas one of the greatest kings and
conquerors. Allahabad inscription enumerates the people and the regions conquered by Samudragupta.
Samudragupta, son of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi, in the Allahabad inscription proudly called himself
Lichchhavis-dauhitra'son of the daughter of Lichchhavis'.
Conquest policies of Samudragupta
He adopted adifferent policy for different area conquered by him. In the Ganga-Yamuna doab, he followed a
policy of annexation.He then proceeded to conquer the forest kingdoms of central India, mentioned as atavirajyas.
The rulersof these tribal areas were defeated and forced into servitude. He travelled south along the eastern coast
conquering twelve kings on the way and reached as far as Kanchi near Chennai. Samudragupta, instead of annexing
their kingdoms, liberated and reinstated these kings on their thrones, a policy of political conciliation as he knew it
was difficult to keep them under control. Republican states of Punjab and western India agreed to pay tribute and
taxes to Samudragupta and obey hisorders without any fight.
Page 50
Estimate of Samudragupta
He performed Ashvamedhayajna and on this occasion he issued gold coins depicting the sacrificial horse and
bearing the legend conveying that he performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice. Samudragupta was a versatile genius. He
was not only proficient in war, but also in the sastras. He is called kaviraja i.e. 'king of poets'. TheAllahabad pillar
inscription calls him a great musician. This is also confirmed by his lyricist type of coins which shows him playing
veena. He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was tolerant of other creeds. He evinced keen interest in
Buddhism and was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandu.
Chandragupta II
Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II (AD 375–414) also known as Chandragupta
Vikramaditya, he not only extended his father’s empire but also consolidated his position through matrimonial
alliances. He married Kuvernaga, the Naga princess and had a daughter Prabhavati fromher. Prabhavati was given in
marriage to Rudrasena II of the Vakataka dynasty rulingin Deccan. After the death of her husband, Prabhavati ruled
the territory as regent to her minor son with the help of her father.
The political importance ofthis marriage lies in the fact that the Vakatakas occupied a geographically
strategic position in the Deccan. This alliance serveda useful purpose when Chandragupta-II undertook his campaign
in western India against the Sakas. Ujjain, a great centre of trade, religion and culture, became the second capital of
the Gupta Empire after the conquest. Perhaps it was after this victory over Sakas, that Chandragupta II adopted the
title of Vikramaditya. Chandragupta II issued dated silver coins to commemorate hisvictory over Saka kshatrapas.
Chandragupta II is remembered for his patronage of art and literature. He is credited with maintaining nine
luminaries (navaratna) in his court. The great Sanskrit poet and playwright Kalidasa was the most notable of them all.
The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fa Hien (AD 404–411) visited India during his reign.He has left an account of the life of
people in India in the fifth century AD.
Fahien’s Visit
Out of his nine years stay in India, he spent six years in the Gupta Empire. He came to India by the land route
through Khotan, Kashgar, Gandhara and Punjab. He visited Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu,
Kusinagara,Pataliputra, Kasi and Bodh Gaya among other places. He returned by the sea route, visiting on the way
Ceylon and Java. The mainpurpose of his visit was to see the land of the Buddha and to collect Buddhist manuscripts
from India. Fa Hien studied Sanskrit for 3 years at Pataliputra and two years at the Port of Tamralipti without let or
hindrance.
Fahien’s take on Society and Administration
He mentions that towns of Magadha were largest in the area of Gangetic Plains and he calls it central India.
He mentions that there were a lot of charitable institutions, rest houses, and there was an excellent Free Hospital in
the Capital which was endowed by benevolent citizens. The poor and helpless patients suffering from all kinds of
illnesses were taken care of and doctors attended them and they were given food and medicine as per their wants.
Fa Hien further mentions that no one kills the living things, or drinks wine or eats Onion or garlic. They don’t
keep pigs and fowls, there is no dealing of cattle, and there are no butchers. Only Chandals did all these. Fa Hien
mentions about the Chandala, who dwelt apart and they were required to keep a piece of wood as a warning of their
approach so that other folk might not get polluted.
Page 51
The Roads were clear and safe for the passengers. The accounts of Fa Hien give a clear indication that India
was probably never governed better. About administration, Fa Hien mentions that the authorities interfered as little
as possible with the subject.
Kumaragupta
Kumaragupta was the son and successor of Chandragupta II. His reign was marked by general peace and
prosperity. He issued a number of coins and his inscriptions are found all over the Gupta empire. He also performed
an asvamedha sacrifice. Most importantly, he laid the foundation of the Nalanda University which emerged an
institution of international reputation.
Skandagupta
He resisted the onslaught of Hunas. He also repaired the Junagarh lake in Gujarat. But successors of
Skandagupta were weak and incompetent. Vishnugupta was the last Gupta emperor.
Besides the Huna invasion there was also a gradual decline in economic prosperity. It is indicated by the gold
coins of later Gupta rulers, which have less of gold content and more of alloy. We also notice a gradual
disappearance of coins in the post Gupta period. It led the kings to make payments in form of land rather than cash.
Under this practice, the recipient of land grant was given the right not only to collect the taxes but also to administer
the donated land. This system of the land grants got further accelerated in Post-Gupta period and created ideal
conditions for development of Indian feudalism.
Gupta Administration
At their imperial kingdom at Pataliputra, the King was advised by a Council of Ministers (Mantriparishada)
led by a Pradhan Mantri. Pradhan Mantri headed the civil administration and there were a good number of other
ministers and officials, who carried out the duties related to military and other matters. The king maintained a close
contact with the provincial administration through a class of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. Provinces in
the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis and provincial governors as Uparikas. They were mostly chosen from
among the princes. Bhuktis were subdivided into Vishyas or districts.
Vishyas were governed by Vishyapatis. They had their headquarters in towns where they had their own
officers and were aided in their administrative work by a Board of Advisors consisting of four members representing
the various important sections, namely, (i) the nagarsresthis (chief of the guild of traders and bankers) represented
the guilds in particular and the urban population in general (ii) sarthavaha (the head of guild of traders) represented
the various trading communities, (iii) the prathamakulika (the chief of artisan) representing various artisan classes,
(iv) the prathamakayastha (the chief scribe),who might have represented the Kayastha or government official like
the Chief Secretary of the present day. This body was known as Adhisthanadhikarana.
Samanta system
In Gupta period, a Samanta was a neighbouring subsidiary ruler who was a friendly tributary of the Gupta
overlords. The decentralization was also effected via various land grants, carrying varied immunities and
concessions, to persons and institutions. This is one reason that we don’t find an over elaborate bureaucracy in
Gupta period as was a case with Maurya period.
Page 52
Other aspects of administration
The Gupta period provided a landmark in the history of the administration of law and justice in early India. It
produced a rich corpusof legal literature, which reflects a distinct advance in the legal system. For the first time law
givers of the period drew a clear line between civil andcriminal law. The Brihaspatismriti enumerates eighteen titles
of land and adds that fourteen of these have their origin in property (dhanamula) and four in injury (himsamula). On
accountof the growth of private property in land, which could be sold for money, we find detailed laws about
partition, sale, mortgage and lease of land in law-books and in inscriptions of the period.
Economy
Agriculture was the main occupation in Gupta Empire and there was no governmental interference. The land
was fertile and means of irrigation were simple. The Mandsor Inscriptions gives account that Gupta people were
helped to a great extent for the growth of Silk Industry. The Gold coins show the pomp, power and prosperity of the
empire.
Gupta had a still a flourishing Roman Trade but in the later part, trade was badly affected by Huna invasions.
Silk, Leather goods, Fur, Iron Products, Ivory, pearl, Spices and Indigo were major export items. The Port of
Tamralipti was a good source of Trade with East Asia. Most of the commodities were taxed One Fifth of the value as
a toll in international Trade.
Society
During the Gupta period, the caste system became rigid. The Brahmins occupied the top ladder of the
society. They were given enormous gifts by the rulers as well as other wealthy people. The practice of untouchability
had slowly begun during this period.
The position of women had also become miserable during the Gupta period. They were prohibited from
studying the religious texts like the Puranas. The subjection of women to men was thoroughly regularized. But it was
insisted that they should be protected and generously treated by men. The practice of Swyamvara was given up and
the Manusmriti suggested the early marriage for girls. There is evidence of the presence of sati system. The first
evidence of sati (immolation of widow) is found in an inscription (AD 510) at Eran in Madhya Pradesh.
Art and Architecture
The Gupta period is called the Golden age of ancient India. Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art
evolved during this period. The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi and the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas near
Allahabad remain important specimen of the Gupta art. There was no influence of Gandhara style. But the beautiful
statue of standing Buddha at Mathura reveals a little Greek style. The Buddha statue unearthed at Saranath was
unique piece of Gupta art. The Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandagupta is also remarkable.
Metallurgy had also made a wonderful progress during the Gupta period. The craftsmen were efficient in the
art of casting metal statues and pillars. The gigantic copper statue of Buddha, originally found at Sultanganj weighing
nearly a ton is the foremost example. The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is stil lfree from rust though
completely exposed to sun and rain for somany centuries.
The paintings of the Gupta period are seen at Bagh caves near Gwalior. The mural paintings of Ajantha
mostly illustrate the life of the Buddha as depicted in the Jataka stories.
Page 53
Literature
In the field of kavya or poetical works, the name of Kalidas stands foremost in the history of Indian
literature. He is credited with having written the best works in poetry, dramma as well as in prose. His kavyas such as
Meghadutam, Raghuvamsamand Kumarasambhavam, and dramas such as Abhijnashakuntalam are considered to
be among the best literary works in the world and have been translated into many languages.
In the field of drama, Bhasa, Sudraka, Kalidas and Bhavabhuti are the most noteworthy. Sudraka is the
author of Mrichchakatika - 'Little clay cart'. His play deals with the love of a brahman with the beautiful daughter of
a courtesan; it is considered one of the best plays of ancient India. Vishakhadatta wrote two plays: Mudrarakshasa
and Devichandraguptam, which are the two best known historical plays. Malavikagnimitram, Abhijnanashakuntalam
and Vikramorvasiyam the three famous plays written by Kalidas. Bhavabhuti's works are Uttararama-charita, Malati-
Madhava etc.
One of themost famous works is Panchatantra, written by Vishnu Sharma. In prose, earliest notable works
are Dasakumaracharita by Dandin and Vasavadatta of Subandhu.Bharavi’s Kritarjuniya is the story of the conflict
between Arjuna and Siva.TheBuddhist author Amarasimha compiled a lexicon called Amarakosa.
The Puranas in their present form were composed during this period. There are eighteen Puranas. The most
important among them are the Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas. The Mahabharatha and the
Ramayana were given final touches and written in the present form during this period.
Science
The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant activity in the sphere of mathematics, astronomy, astrology and
medicine. Aryabhatta was a great mathematician and astronomer. He wrote the book Aryabhatiya in 499 A.D. It
deals with mathematics and astronomy. Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical
systems. He was also a great authority on astrology. His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in Sanskrit literature and
is like an encyclopedia. His Brihadjataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during this period. He was the last of the great medical trio of
ancient India. The other two scholars Charaka and Susruta lived before the Gupta age. Vagbhata was the author
Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of the eight branches of medicine).
Page 54
11. POST GUPTA PERIOD
The decline of the Gupta Empire was followed by a period of political disorder and disunity in North India. It
was only in the beginning of the seventh century A.D. that Harshvardhana succeeded in establishing a larger
kingdom in north India.The Chalukyas and the Pallavas emerged as strong regional powers in Deccan and northern
Tamil Nadu respectively.
Figure 25 Post Gupta States
Harshavardhana
Sources
 Harshacharita, a biography of Harshavardhana written by Bana, his court poet.

 Travel accounts left by Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese traveller. He visited Harsha’s court and converted him into
Mahayana Buddhism.
 Other important sources are dramas written by Harsha himself: Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarshika.
 Madhuben plate inscription detail about the family of Harsha
 Sonpat inscription discloses the names of and reign of many kings of the dynasty
 Banskhera inscription has Harsha’s signature and tells that Harsha was an efficient ruler and artsman.
Page 55
Early Life
The family of Harsha is linked to Pushyabhuti of Thenshwar. In the later part of the 6th century, the Raja of
Thaneshwar, Prabhakarvardhana raised himself against the neighbors including the Hunas settled in the North
Western Punjab. After his death, his elder son Rajyavardhan assumed the throne. He was treacherously murdered by
Sasanka, the ruler of Bengal. Thereafter, Harshavardhan succeeded his brother. After ascending to the throne,
Harsha first rescued his widowed sister,from the Vindhyan forest, where she was going to throw herself into the fire
with all her attendants.
Military Conquests
In his first expedition, Harsha drove out Sasanka from Kanauj. He made Kanauj his new capital. This made
him the most powerful ruler of north India. He brought Punjab, Uttara Pradesh, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa under his
control. Harsha wanted to extend his power in the Deccan. The Aihole inscription mentions that Harsha met defeat
at the hands of Pulakesin II, the Chalukyaking of Badami. Hiuen-Tsang also says that Harsha could not defeat the
Chalukya king.
Harsha established his control over Kashmir and its ruler sent tributes to him. He also maintained cordial
relations with Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam. Harsha’s last military campaign was against the kingdom of
Kalinga in Orissa and it was a success.
Estimate of Harsha
The great emperor was not only a patron of learning, but was himself an accomplished author. He wrote
three Sanskrit plays - Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika. He gathered around him a circle of learned men, of
whom Banabhatta, the author of Harshacharita and Kadambari is the most well known.
Harsha was not only an efficient administrator but also a tolerant king. He was a Saivaby faith, but he
showed equal respect to other religious sects as well. Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism. Hiuen
Tsang portrays him as a liberal Buddhist who also honoured gods ofothers sects. His charitable acts benefitted all the
communities, sects and religions. Like Ashoka, he built rest houses, hospitals, and endowed numerous Brahmanical,
Buddhist and Jain establishments.
Kanauj and Prayaga Assemblies
Hiuen-Tsang mentions two most celebrated events of Harsha's reign the assemblies at Kanauj and at
Prayaga. The Kanauj assembly was held in honour of Hiuen-Tsang for whom the king had great affection and regard.
This assembly was attended by twenty kings, four thousand Buddhist monks, and about three thousand Jains and
brahmans.
After the ceremony at Kanuaj, Harsha, accompanied by Hiuen-Tsang, proceeded to Prayaga (Allahabad),
where he used to celebrate religious festivals at the end of every five years, at the confluence of the Ganga, the
Yamuna and the Saraswati. Here he performed the ceremony of dana, which lasted for about three months. During
these three months most of the accumulation of five year's wealth was exhausted. He even gave his clothes and
jewellery and once begged from his sister an ordinary garment to put on.
Harsha attended six such assemblies at Prayaga in his life time and donated all he had. Harsha sent an
embassy in A.D. 641 with Hiuen-Tsang to the Chinese emperor and received the Chinese embassy in return.
Page 56
Administration
The king was just in his administration and punctual in discharging his duties. He made frequent visits of
inspection throughout his dominion. The day was too short for him. Taxation was also light and forced labour was
also rare. One sixth of the produce was collected as land tax. Cruel punishments of the Mauryan period continued in
the times of Harsha. Hiuen Tsang condemned the trials as barbarous and superstitious.
The maintenance of public records was the salient feature ofHarsha’s administration. The archive of the
Harsha period was known as nilopitu and it was under the control of special officers. Both good and bad events
happened during his time had been recorded.
Society
This period witnessed the ascendancy of Varnashramadharma. Both Banabhatta and Hieun Tsang talk about
existence of various sub-castes called Varnasamkaras. The rise of these castes was due to several causes like
violation in the code of marriages and general ethics.
Position of women suffered. Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly among higher varnas.
The evil system of dowry and practice of Sati were quite common.
Economy
The trade and commerce had declined during Guptas and continued during Harsha’s period. This is evident
from the decline of trade centres, less number of coins, and slow activities of merchant guilds. The decline of trade in
turn affected the handicrafts industry and agriculture. Since there was no large scale demand for goods, the farmers
began to produce only in a limited way. This led to the rise of self-sufficient village economy and increasing feudal.
The self sufficient village economy in which the needs of village were met from within was known as the ‘Jajmani’
system.
Nalanda
Hiuen Tsang gives a very valuable account of the Nalanda University. The term Nalanda means “giver of
knowledge”. It was founded by Kumaragupta I during the Gupta period. It was patronised by his successors and later
by Harsha. The professors of the University were called panditas. Some of its renowned professors were Dingnaga,
Dharmapala, Sthiramati and Silabadhra. Dharmapala was a native of Kanchipuram and he became the head of the
Nalanda University.
Page 57
Figure 26 Nalanda University
Nalanda University was a residential university and education was free including the boarding and lodging. It
was maintained with the revenue derived from 100 to 200 villages endowed by different rulers. Though it was a
Mahayana University, different religious subjects like the Vedas, Hinayana doctrine, Sankhya and Yoga philosophies
were also taught. In addition to that, general subjects like logic, grammar, astronomy, medicine and art were in the
syllabus.
It attracted students not only from different parts of India but from different countries of the east.
Admission was made by means of an entrance examination. The entrance test was so difficult that not more than
thirty percent of the candidates were successful. Discipline was very strict. More than lectures, discussion played an
important part and the medium of instruction was Sanskrit.
Pallavas
The Pallavas established their authority over south Andhra Pradesh and north Tamil Nadu with capital at
Kanchi. Kanchi under them became an important temple town and a center of trade and commerce.
Political history
Initial territories of Pallavas seem not to be very extensive and they look similar to Kalabhras. The first
known king of this dynasty was Sivaskanda Varman who ruled in second century AD. He defeated the Tamil
countries and kings of Ceylon and tried to extend his dominion. His some Simhavishnu was first Pallava Monarch to
have a reign beyond Kanchipuram.
Mahendravarman I (600 – 630 A.D.)
Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the early part of his career. He was converted to Saivism by
the influence of the Saiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar. He assumed a number of titles like Gunabhara,
Satyasandha, Chettakari (builder of temples) Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa.
He had also authored the Sanskrit work Mattavilasa Prahasanam (the Delight of the Drunkards). His title
Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents in painting. He is also regarded as an expert in music.
Page 58
Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.)
Narasimhavarman I was also known as Mamalla, which means ‘great wrestler’. He wanted to take avenge
the defeat of his father at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II. His victory over Pulakesin II in the Battle of
Manimangalam near Kanchi is mentioned in Kuram copper plates.
Narasimhavarman I assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’ for seizing the capital city of Vatapi. Another notable
achievement of Narasimhavarman I was his naval expedition to Sri Lanka.
During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchipuram. According to his account the people of
Kanchi esteemed great learning and the Ghatika at Kanchi served as a great centre of learning. Narasimhavarman I
was the founder of Mamallapuram and the monolithic rathas were erected during his reign.
Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha (695 -722 A.D.)
His regime was peaceful and he evinced more interest in developing the art and architecture. The Shore
temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram were built in this period. The famous Sanskrit
scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his court. He sent embassies to China and the maritime trade flourished
during his reign. Rajasimha assumed titles like Sankarabhakta, Vadhyavidyadhara and Agamapriya.
The Chola king Aditya I defeated the last Pallavaruler Aparajita and seized the Kanchi region. With this, the
rule of Pallava dynasty came to an end.
Education and Literature
The Pallavas were great patrons of learning. Their capital Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning. The
Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted students from all parts of India andabroad. The founder of the
Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi. Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer came to study at Kanchi.
Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the Nalanada University, belonged to Kanchi. Bharavi, the great Sanskrit
scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu.
The Devaram composed by Nayanmars and the Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars represent the
religious literature of the Pallava period.
Contribution of the Pallavas
The Dravidian style of architecture developed under the Pallavas in four stages called the:
 Mahendra Group: Rock cut temples at Bhairavakonda and Anantesvara temple at Undavalli.
 Narasimha Group: Rathas or monolithic temples found at Mamallapuram
 Rajasimha Group: Shore temple, Eshvara temple and Mukunda temple at Mahabalipuram, Kailasanath
temple at Kanchi
 Nandivarman Group: mostly small temples which are not advancement compared to previous age. The best
examples are Mukteswara and Matangeswara temples at Kanchi.
The ‘Open Art Gallery’ at Mamallapuram remains an important monument bearing the sculptural beauty of this
period. The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a fresco painting in stone.
The Pallavas also laid foundation of naval squadron which was later taken to the next level by the Cholas.
Page 59
Chalukyas of Badami
The Chalukyas played a prominent role in the history of Deccan and south India for about two hundred years
from the beginning of sixth century A.D. They set up their kingdom in western Deccan with capital at Vatapi (modern
Badami in Karnataka).
Chalukyas (543 – 755 A.D.)
The Western Chalukyas ruled over an extensive area in the Deccan for about two centuries after which the
Rashtrakutas became powerful. The family of Western Chalukyas had its offshoots like the Eastern Chalukyas of
Vengi and the Chalukyas of Kalyani. Pulakesin I was the founder of the Chalukya dynasty.
Pulakesin II (608-642 A.D.)
He defeated Harshavardhana in circa AD 630 and acquired the title of dakshinapatheshvara (lord of the
south). However, he himself was defeated and killed by the Pallava king arasimhavarman in circa AD 642. It marked
the beginning of a long drawn political struggle between the Pallavas and Chalukyas.
He fought with the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Gangas of Mysore and established his suzerainty.
Durvinita, the Ganga ruler accepted his overlordship and even gave his daughter in marriage to Pulakesin II. Hiuen
Tsang visited Pallava kingdom in his period.
Kirtivarman II was the last of the rulers of the Chalukyas.He was defeated by Dantidurga, the founder of the
Rashtrakuta dynasty.
The Chalukyas were great patrons of art. They developed the vesara style in the building of structural
temples. However, the vesara style reached its culmination only under the Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas. The
Vesara style has characteristics of both the Northern as well as Dravidian temple architecture. The basic differences
between them can be simplified to the different styles of the temple towers. The Nagara style emphasizes verticality,
with the whole temple building culminating in a single highest point. The Dravida-style temple may have a fairly
modest tower over the central shrine, but the area covered by the temple is often enormous.
The structural temples of the Chalukyas exist at Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal. Cave temple architecture
was also famous under the Chalukyas. Their cave temples are found in Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik. The best specimens
of Chalukya paintings can be seen in the Badami cave temple and in the Ajanta caves.
Rashtrakutas (755 – 975 A.D.)
The Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin and Kannada language was their mother tongue. Dantidurga was
the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. After defeating the Chalukyas of Badami they became the dominant power
in the Deccan.
Krishna I
He defeated the Gangas and the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He built the magnificent rock-cut monolithic
Kailasa temple at Ellora.
Amoghavarsha I
He ruled over Rashtrakuta for 64 years. He indulged in constant wars with the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
and remained successful. Amoghavarsha was a patron of the Jains and liberally patronized the Digambara sect of
Page 60
Jains. Jinasena was his chief preceptor. He was also a patron of letters and he himself wrote the famous
Kannadawork, Kavirajamarga. He had also built the Rashtrakuta capital, the city of Malkhed or Manyakheda.
Literature
The Kannada literature saw its beginning during the period of the Rashtrakutas. Amogavarsha’s
Kavirajamarga was the first poetic work in Kannada language. Pampa was the greatest of the Kannada poets. His
famous work was Vikramasenavijaya. Ponna was another famous Kannada poet and he wrote Santipurana.
Jinasena composed Parsvabhudaya, a biography of Parsva in verses. Another scholar Gunabhadra wrote the
Adipurana, the life stories of various Jain saints. Sakatayana wrote the grammar work called Amogavritti.
Imperial Cholas
In South India, the Chola Kings founded a mighty empire during AD 1000–AD 1200. The relationship between
these Cholas, called the “Imperial Cholas” with the earlier Cholas mentioned in the Sangam literature is not clear.
The Cholas came to power after over throwing the authority of the Pallavas in South India. The founder of the Chola
dynasty was Vijayalaya but the real architects of the glory of the dynasty were Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I
Rajaraja I
Chola empire under Rajaraja I included the Pandya, Chera and the Tondaimandalam regions of Tamil Nadu
and the Gangavadi, Nolambapadi and the Telugu Choda territories in the Deccan and the northern part of Ceylon
and the Maldive Islands beyond India.
He was a devout follower of Saivism. He completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or
Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D. He also helped in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at
Nagapattinam.
Rajendra I
Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, the most famous being Mudikondan and Gangaikondan. Like his
father he was also a devout Saiva andbuilt a temple for that god at the new capital Gangaikondacholapuram.He
made liberal endowments to this temple and to the Lord Natarajatemple at Chidambaram. He was also tolerant
towards the Vaishnavaand Buddhist sects.
Chola Administration
The emperor or king was at the top of the administration. The big capital cities like Tanjore and
Gangaikondacholapuram, the large royal courts and extensive grants to the temples reveal the authority of the king.
They undertook royal tours to increase the efficiency of the administration.
The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each mandalam into valanadus and nadus. In each nadu
there were a number of autonomous villages. The royal princes or officers were in charge of mandalams. The town
was known as nagaram and it was under the administration of a council called nagarattar.
The Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its perfection under the Cholas. They built enormous
temples. The chief feature of the Chola temple is the vimana. Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a master-
Page 61
piece of South Indian art and architecture. It consists of the vimana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa and a large
pavilion in the front known as the Nandimandapa.
Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram was built by Rajendra I. The Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram in
Tanjore District and the Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam are examples of later Chola temples.
The bronzes of the Chola period are world-famous. The bronze statues of Nataraja or dancing Siva are
master pieces.The Chola paintings were found on the walls of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.
Page 62
12. SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
Indian ancient thinkers lay down that a person should strive for four goals, namely artha (economic
resources), dharma (social order), kama (physical pleasures) and moksha (salvation). Each of these objectives was
expounded in works like Arthashastra, Dharmashastra, Kamasutra etc. They occasionally touched on the question of
salvation in marginal manner. Salvation became the main subject of the texts on darshanaor philosophy.
Hindu philosophy is traditionally divided into six orthodox schools of thought. These were known as
Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaiseshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.
School of Thought Description

Sankhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism.
Kapila Maharshi is the founder of this school.
Samkhya postulates dualist theoretical exposition of spirit (Purusha) and
nature (Prakriti).
1 Sankhya This school denies the existence of God.
Jiva is that state where Purusha is bonded to Prakriti through the glue of
desire and the end of bondage is moksha.
Salvation can be attained through acquisition of real knowledge. It can be
acquired through perception, inference and hearing.
Patanjali is the founder of Yoga philosophy.
Yuj means “control” and Yoga also mean to “add”.
2 Yoga
Salvation through Yama (self control), Niyama, Asanas, Pranayama,
Pratyahara (restrain), Dharana(steady mind), Dhyana & Samadhi.
Gautama propounded this philosophy.
Salvation can be attained through the acquisition of knowledge.
3 Nyaya
Real knowledge can be obtained through perception, inference, hearing and
analogy/comparison.
The Vaisheshika school was founded by Kanada and postulates an atomic
pluralism.
All objects in the physical universe are reducible to certain types of atoms.
Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes consciousness in
these atoms. It believes in God and puts faith in heaven and salvation.
4 Vaiseshika
It tells that Earth, water, fire, air and ether (sky) are the elements which
combined to give new objects.
It marked the beginning of physics in India.
Unlike Nyaya school it believes real knowledge can be attained by
perception and inference only.
The Poorva Mimansa was postulated by Jamini.
The ideology of Poorva Mimansa was to counteract the challenge by
Buddhism and vedanta which marginalized the Vedic sacrifices.
Its adherents believe that onemust have unquestionable faith in the Vedas
Mimamsa/ Poorva and perform the yajnas, or firesacrifices, regularly.
5
Mimamsa The school of Mimamsa consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines and
is not deeply interested in the existence of God, but rather in the character
of dharma.
It was one of the major forces to decline Buddhism in India, but later itself
was eclipsed by Vedanta.
Vedanta was postulated my Badrayana.
Shankaracharya and Ramanuja have expounded this philosophy in detail.
6 Vedanta Shankaracharya believes God has no attributes and knowledge is the way to
salvation whereas Ramanuja believes God has attributes and devotion is the
way to salvation.
Page 63
Vedanta concentrates on philosophical teachings of Upanishads than on
ritualistic sacrifices.
Advaita, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita, Dvaitadvaita, Shuddadvaita, Achintya bheda
abheda are the six sub-schools in Vedanta.
Table 5 Six Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy
There are various non-orthodox/heterodox schools in Indian philosophy. These schools do not accept the
authority of Vedas. They are Lokayata (Charvaka), Ajivika, Jainism and Buddhism. Here only Charvaka and Ajivika are
discussed.
Charvaka/Lokayata
Its founder was Charvaka, author of the Barhaspatya Sutras. It rejects Vedas, its rituals and it does not
believe in God. It accepted direct perception as the surest method to prove the truth of anything. According to
Charvaka, the Brahmanas manufactured rituals for acquiring gifts. As per him a person should enjoy himself as long
as he lives; he should borrow to eat well, drink etc.
Ajivika
Ajivika philosophy is known for its Niyati (fate) doctrine of absolute determinism. It says that there is no free
will i.e everything that happens is entirely pre-determined, destiny can not be altered. It believes in fatalism. It
considered the karma philosophy as a fallacy. Makkhali Gosala is its founder. The main source of information on
ajivikism is Bhagwati Sutra.
Page 64
13. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN ANCIENT INDIA
Ancient India was a land of sages and seers as well as a land of scholars and scientists. Many theories and
techniques discovered by the ancient Indians have created and strengthened the fundamentals of modern science
and technology.
In field of mathematics use of zero, decimal system, number notation system, Charvaka algorithms, in the
field of astronomy Aryabhata’s method to calculate lunar and solar eclipses, Varahamihira’s proof on Sun’s and
moon’s rotation, in the field of medicine Sushruta’s surgery and Charaka’s encyclopedia on medicine are some of the
noteworthy contributions.
Mathematics
Following are the developments ancient Indian mathematics has offered.
 The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of measurement and
geometry.
 Sulvasutras deal with geometry, measurements, principles for fire-altar construction etc.
 Apastamba talks about acute, obtuse and right angles in 2nd century B.C.
 Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number.
 Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of
Trigonometry.
 Baudayana was the first to calculate the value of Pi.
 The Indian numerical are called Arabic in English, but the Arabs themselves called their numberals hindsa.
 Jain gurus knew how to solve quadratic equations. Jain Guru Mahaviracharya wrote Ganit Sara Sangraha in
850A.D., which is the first textbook on arithmetic in present day form. The current method of solving Least
common Multiple (LCM) of given numbers was also described by him.
Science
Ancient Indians contributed to the knowledge in Science, too. Let us now learn about the contributions of some
scientists of ancient India.
 Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika School, one of the six systems of Indian philosophy.
According to Kanad, material universe is made up of kanas, (anu/atom) which cannot be seen through any
human organ. These cannot be further subdivided.
 Varahamihira made great contributions in the fields of hydrology, geology and ecology. He was one of the
first scientists to claim that termites and plants could be the indicators of the presence of underground
water.
 Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita explains the signs of earthquakes. He tried to relate earthquakes to influence
of planets, undersea activities, underground water, unusual cloud formation etc.
 Nagarjuna’s Rasanatnakara discussed methods of extraction of gold, silver, tin and copper.
Astronomy
 Arybhatta’s Aryabhattiya is a concise text contains separate sections on astronomical definitions, methods of
determining the true position of the planets, description of the movement of the sun and the moon and the
calculation of the eclipses.
 Varahamihira in Panch Siddhantika gives the summary of five schools of astronomy present in his time.
Page 65
 Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita stated that the moon rotated round the earth and the earth rotated round the
sun.
 The Surya Siddhanta describes rules to calculate the motions of various planets and the moon relative to
various constellations, diameters of various planets, and calculates the orbits of various astronomical bodies.
The text asserts that earth has a spherical shape.
Medicine
 Ayurveda is the indigenous system of medicine that was developed in Ancient India. The word Ayurveda
literally means the science of good health and longevity of life. Atreya Samhita is the treatise on Ayurveda.
 Susruta was a pioneer in the field of surgery. In his work Susruta Samhita, he mentions over 1100 diseases
and their symptoms, household remedies to some diseases, instruments for conducting surgery, ways of
preserving a dead body for detailed studyetc.
 Susruta’s greatest contribution was in the fields of Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and ophthalmic surgery
(removal of cataracts)
 Charaka is the father of Indian medicine. His work Charaka Samhita has the description of a large number of
diseases and gives methods of identifying their causes as well as the method of their treatment. It also talks
about digestion, metabolism, innate immunity, fundamentals of genetics etc.
Metallurgy
 The glazed potteries and bronze and copper artefacts found in the Indus valley excavations point towards a
highly developed metallurgy.
 The Vedic people were aware of fermenting grain and fruits, tanning leather and the process of dyeing.
 The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex is indicative of the high quality of alloying that was being done.
 A two metre high bronze image of Buddha discovered at Sultanganj is testament to the understanding in
metallurgy of ancient Indians.
Page 66

Ancient India PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Ancient India PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

ANCIENT INDIA WWW.IASBEE.

SL NO: CHAPTER PAGE

1. THE SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY 2

3. THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION 9

4. THE VEDIC AGE 16

6. THE EVOLUTION OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 29

7. THE AGE OF MAURYAS 35

9. EARLY HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA 45

10. THE GUPTA EMPIRE 49

11. POST GUPTA PERIOD 55

12. SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY 63

13. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN ANCIENT INDIA 65

TECHNIQUES OF DATING IN ARCHEOLOGY

Author Book Subject

Valuable information on Administration and socio-

Accounts trade relations between Rome and India in

Describes the social, economic andreligious

Table 1 Contribution of foreign accounts to Indian history

ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORICAL SENSE

MODERN HISTORIANS OF ANCIENT INDIA

 Manusmriti was translated into English asACode of Gentoo Laws in 1776.

Nationalist Approach to Indian Historical Study

Figure 1 Prehistoric India Sites

Period Characteristics Sites

Table 2 Characteristics and Sites in Prehistoric India

Figure 2 Paleolithic Tools

Some notable prehistoric findings

 Bhimbetka - Homo Sapiens cave; 500 painted Rock Shelters (MH)

Figure 3 Farthest sites of Harappan civilisation

Figure 4 Harappan Sites

Salient Features of Indus Valley Civilization

Figure 5 Citadel, Great Bath and Granary (from left to right)

a) Agriculture and allied activities

 Trade was of the barter type.

Figure 6 Mother Goddess and Pashupati Mahadev

Figure 7 Harappan Pottery

 Dresses, ornaments, hair-styles of people

Figure 8 Harappan Seals

Figure 9Terracotta Figures

Decline of the Harappa Culture

Observations about other sites:

Figure 10 Vedic Literature

Early Vedic Area of Settlement

 The Nadisukta hymn ofthe RigVeda mentions 21 rivers.

Figure 11 Early Vedic Area of Settlement

Early Vedic Polity

Figure 12 Early Vedic Polity

Early Vedic Social Life

Rig Vedic Gods

Figure 13 Rig Vedic Gods

Rig Vedic Economy

Later Vedic Age

Figure 14 Geographical Setting of Later Vedic period

According to Anguttara Nikaya there were following Mahajanapadas:

Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire

Bimbisara (546 – 494 B.C.)

Ajatasatru (494 - 462 B.C.)

Causes of Magadha’s Success

Impact of the Iranian Invasion

Impact of Alexander’s Invasion

Vardhaman Mahavira accepted four doctrines of Parsva namely

 non-injury to living beings (ahimsa)

Five Great Events of Buddha’s Life and their symbols