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Mendelian Principles:
1. Introduction GREGOR JOHANN MENDEL over the next thirty-five years. His paper was
(1822-1884) criticized at the time, but is now considered a
• Gregor Johann MENDEL was an Austrian seminal work.
monk and biologist whose work on heredity • Rediscovery of Mendel's work
became the basis of the modern theory of • It was not until the early 20th century that the
genetics. Mendel was born on July 22, 1822 in importance of his ideas was realized. By 1900,
Heizendorf, Austria, (now known as Hyncice research aimed at finding a successful theory
in Czechoslovakia) as Johann Mendel. He took of discontinuous inheritance rather
training as a priest and hence added Gregor to than blending inheritance led to independent
his name. In 1853 he returned to his abbey as duplication of his work by Hugo de
Physics teacher. He became the abbot of the Vries and Carl Correns, and the rediscovery
monastery and started working on plant of Mendel's writings and laws. Both
breeding in Pea plants (Pisum sativum). He acknowledged Mendel's priority, and it is
also worked on bee breeding, Astronomy, thought probable that de Vries did not
meteorology. understand the results he had found until after
• He developed the monastery's 2 hectares reading Mendel. Though Erich von
(4.9 acres) as experimental garden. Between Tschermak was originally also credited with
1856 and 1863 Mendel cultivated and tested rediscovery, this is no longer accepted because
some 29,000 pea plants (i.e., Pisum sativum). he did not understand Mendel's laws. Though
This study showed that one in four pea plants de Vries later lost interest in Mendelism, other
had purebred recessive alleles, two out of four biologists started to establish genetics as a
were hybridand one out of four were science.
purebred dominant. His experiments led him • Reginald Crundall Punnet: Punnet is
to make two generalizations, the Law of probably best remembered today as the
Segregation and the Law of Independent creator of the Punnett square.]
Assortment, which later became known as
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance. Mendel’s Experiments
• Mendel did read his paper, Versuche über Gregor Johann Mendel known as the father of
Pflanzenhybriden (Experiments on Plant genetics proposed the laws of inheritance.
Hybridization), at two meetings of the Natural He used garden pea (Pisum sativum) as his
History Society of Brünn in Moravia in 1865. It sample.
was received favorably and generated reports Large sampling size gave credibility to his
in several local newspapers. When Mendel's collected data.
paper was published in 1866 Garden pea plant possessed certain completely
in Verhandlungen des naturforschenden opposite traits. Example − tall and dwarf plants
Vereins Brünn, it was seen as essentially about He worked on the following seven traits of
hybridization rather than inheritance and had garden pea:
little impact and was cited about three times
S. No. Character Dominant Recessive
1 Stem height Tall Dwarf
2 Flower colour Violet White
3 Flower position Axial Terminal
4 Pod shape Inflated Constricted
5 Pod colour Green Yellow
6 Seed shape Round Wrinkled
7 Seed colour Yellow Green
True breeding pea lines were obtained by Two alleles code for a pair of two contrasting
continuous self-pollination for several traits. (e.g., tall and dwarf)
generations. Monohybrid Cross
Fourteen true breeding pea lines were selected Cross that considers only a single character
as pairs, which were similar except for one (e.g., height of the part)
character with contrasting traits.
Artificial cross pollination (hybridisation) was
performed on such varieties to obtain first
hybrid generation known as the first filial
progeny or F1.
Inheritance of One Gene
After hybridisation, the F1 generation so
obtained resembled only one of its parents
(say, all tall; no dwarf).
When 2 plants from F1 generation were self
pollinated, the second filial progeny or
F2 generation was obtained.
Revival of unexpressed trait (dwarf) was
observed in some F2 progeny. Both traits, tall
and dwarf, were expressed in F2 in ratio 3:1. Studying the cross:
Mendel proposed that something is being o TT, tt, and Tt are genotypes while the
passed unchanged from generation to traits, tall and dwarf, are phenotypes.
generation. He called these things as ‗factors‘ o T stands for tall trait while t stands for
(presently called genes). dwarf trait.
Factors contain and carry hereditary o Even if a single ‗T‘ is present in the
information. genotype, phenotype is ‗tall‘. When ‗T‘
Alleles − Slightly different form of same factor and ‗t‘ are present together, ‗T‘
Law of Segregation
This law states that the two alleles of a pair
segregate or separate during gamete formation
such that a gamete receives only one of the two
factors.
In homozygous parents, all gametes produced
o With the help of Punnet square, are similar; while in heterozygous parents, two
genotypic ratio in F2 generation can be kinds of gametes are produced in equal
proportions.
found. From the above given Punnet
square, it is evident that genotypic Incomplete Dominance
ratio TT: Tt: tt is 1:2:1. In incomplete dominance, F1 generation has a
phenotype that does not resemble either of the
two parents, but is a mixture of the two.
o The ratio 1:2:1 or of TT: Tt: tt Example − Flower colour in dog flower
can be derived from binomial (snapdragon), where:
expression (ax + by)2. o RR − Red flowers
o Gamete-bearing genes are in equal o rr − White flowers
o Rr − Pink flowers
Here, genotypic ratio remains same as in
frequency of . Mendelian crosses, but phenotypic ratio
o Hence, the expression can be changes since complete dominance is not
expanded as shown by R (hence, incomplete dominance).
Concept of Gene
Gene:
A gene is the molecular unit of heredity of a
living organism. It is a name given to some stretches
of deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and ribonucleic
acids (RNA) that code for a polypeptide or for an RNA
chain that has a function in the organism. Genes
specify all the proteins and functional RNA chains.
Genes hold the information to build and maintain an
organism's cells and pass genetic traits to offspring. All
organisms have genes corresponding to various
biological traits, some of which are instantly visible,
such as eye color or number of limbs, and some of
which are not, such as blood type, increased risk for
Once phenotypic data is collected from several specific diseases, or the thousands of basic
generations and the pedigree is drawn, careful analysis biochemical processes that comprise life. The
will determine whether the trait is dominant or word gene is derived from
recessive. Here are some rules to follow. the Greek word genesis meaning "birth",
For those traits exhibiting dominant gene action: or genos meaning "origin".
affected individuals have at least one affected
parent
the phenotype generally appears every
generation
two unaffected parents only have unaffected
offspring
The following is the pedigree of a trait controlled by
dominant gene action.
EUKARYOTE CELL
f. Mitochondrion:
The mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is
a membrane-bound organelle found in
most eukaryotic cells (the cells that make
up plants, animals, fungi, and many other forms
of life). Mitochondria range from 0.5 to
1.0 micrometer (μm) in diameter. These
structures are sometimes described as "cellular
power plants" because they generate most of the
cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate(ATP),
used as a source of chemical energy.[3] In addition
to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are
involved in other tasks such as signaling, cellular
differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of
the cell cycle and cell growth.
A mitochondrion contains outer and inner
membranes composed of phospholipid
bilayers and proteins.[8] The two membranes have
different properties. Because of this double-
membraned organization, there are five distinct
parts to a mitochondrion. They are:
1. The outer mitochondrial membrane,:
The outer mitochondrial membrane, which
encloses the entire organelle, has a protein-to- g. RIBOSOMES:
phospholipid ratio similar to that of the The ribosome is a large and complex molecular
eukaryotic plasma membrane (about 1:1 by machine, found within all living cells, that serves
weight). It contains large numbers of integral as the primary site of biological protein
proteins called porins. synthesis (translation). Ribosomes link amino
2. The intermembrane space (the space acids together in the order specified by messenger
between the outer and inner membranes): RNA (mRNA) molecules. Ribosomes consist of
The intermembrane space is the space between two major components — the small ribosomal
the outer membrane and the inner membrane. It subunit which reads the RNA, and the large
is also known as perimitochondrial space. subunit which joins amino acids to form
Because the outer membrane is freely permeable a polypeptide chain. Each subunit is composed of
to small molecules, the concentrations of small one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules
molecules such as ions and sugars in the and a variety of proteins. A ribosome is made
intermembrane space is the same as from complexes of RNAs and proteins and is
the cytosol.[8] However, large proteins must have therefore a ribonucleoprotein. Each ribosome is
a specific signaling sequence to be transported divided into two subunits: a smaller subunit
across the outer membrane, so the protein which binds to the mRNA pattern, and a larger
composition of this space is different from the subunit which binds to the tRNA and the amino
protein composition of the cytosol. One protein acids. When a ribosome finishes reading an
that is localized to the intermembrane space in mRNA molecule, these two subunits split apart.
this way is cytochrome c. Ribosomes are ribozymes, because
3. the inner mitochondrial membrane: The inner the catalytic peptidyl transferase activity that
mitochondrial membrane contains proteins with links amino acids together is performed by
five types of functions:[8] the ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes were first
a) Those that perform the redox reactions observed in the mid-1950s by Romanian cell
of oxidative phosphorylation biologist George Emil Palade using an electron
b) ATP synthase, which generates ATP in the matrix microscope as dense particles or granules[3] for
c) Specific transport proteins that which, in 1974, he would win a Nobel Prize. The
regulate metabolite passage into and out of the term "ribosome" was proposed by scientist
matrix Richard B. Roberts in 1958:
d) Protein import machinery. The unit of measurement is the Svedberg unit, a
e) Mitochondria fusion and fission protein. measure of the rate
4. The cristae space (formed by infoldings of the of sedimentation in centrifugation rather than
inner membrane), and the matrix (space within size, and this accounts for why fragment names
the inner membrane). do not add up (70S is made of 50S and 30S).
5. Cristae: The inner mitochondrial membrane is Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes, each consisting
compartmentalized into numerous cristae, which of a small (30S) and a large (50S) subunit. Their
expand the surface area of the inner small subunit has a 16S RNA subunit (consisting
mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its ability to of 1540 nucleotides) bound to 21 proteins. The
produce ATP. For typical liver mitochondria, the large subunit is composed of a 5S RNA subunit
area of the inner membrane is about five times as (120 nucleotides), a 23S RNA subunit (2900
large as the outer membrane. This ratio is nucleotides) and 31 proteins.
UNIT 2 IMMUNOLOGY
Human immune system Immunity is of two types − innate immunity
and acquired immunity.
Lymphoid organs are of two types − primary
lymphoid organs and secondary lymphoid Innate immunity − It is present from the
organs. time of birth. It is non-specific. It consists of 4
kinds of barriers.
Primary lymphoid organs consist of bone
o Physical barriers − Skin and
marrow and thymus. Here, immature
mucus coating of respiratory,
lymphocytes are differentiated to form
gastrointestinal, and urogenital tract
antigen-sensitive lymphocytes.
prevent entry of microbes into body.
o Bone marrow − Here, all blood cells
o Physiological barriers − Acid in
including lymphocytes are produced.
stomach, saliva in mouth, tears from
o Thymus − It is responsible for
eyes
maturation of T-lymphocytes. This
o Cellular barriers − Blood has
lobed organ is situated near the heart
leukocytes such as polymorpho
and keeps on reducing in size as the
nuclear leukocytes, monocytes, etc.
age increases.
and tissue has macrophages which
Secondary lymphoid organs − Lymphocytes
phagocytose the microbes.
migrate here after attaining maturity. It
o Cytokine barriers − Special proteins
includes spleen, lymph nodes tonsils, Peyer‘s
called interferons are secreted by
patches, and appendix.
virus-infected cells that prevent the
o Spleen − Large bean-shaped organ
further spread of viral infection.
containing lymphocytes and
Acquired immunity − It is acquired, which
phagocytes, which acts as a filter for
means that it is produced in response to an
blood
encounter with a pathogen based on memory.
o Lymph nodes − Located at different
It is pathogen specific.
points throughout the immune
o When a pathogen for the first time
system, they trap the antigens present
infects a person, low intensity immune
in lymph or tissue fluid, and these
response is generated (primary
antigens cause activation of
response).
lymphocytes and generation of
o When the same pathogen attacks
immune response.
again, intensified immune response in
MALT (Mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue) −
generated, thereby preventing the
Lines major tracts (respiratory, digestive,
occurrence of disease (secondary
urogenital, etc); constitutes 50% of lymphoid
response).
tissue in body
o Acquired immunity involves two types
Immunity
of cells − B-lymphocytes and T-
What is immunity?
lymphocytes.
The ability of body to fight the disease-causing o B-lymphocytes − Secrete proteins
called antibodies in response to
organisms is called immunity.
pathogens Antibodies are specialized
Types of immunity proteins with 4 peptide chains (2 light
UNIT 3
PARASITOLOGY
Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, Gyrodactylus salaris, a monogenean parasite
and the relationship between them. As a biological of salmon, which can wipe out populations which
discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined are not resistant.
by the organism or environment in question, but by This is the study of structures of proteins from
their way of life. This means it forms a synthesis of parasites. Determination of parasitic protein
other disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields structures may help to better understand how these
such as cell proteins function differently from homologous
biology, bioinformatics, biochemistry, molecular proteins in humans. In addition, protein structures
biology, immunology, genetics, evolution and ecology. may inform the process of drug discovery.
Parasitology may include various different fields such Parasites exhibit an aggregated distribution among
as;Medical parasitology Veterinary parasitology host individuals, thus the majority of parasites live in
Structural parasitology Quantitative parasitology the minority of hosts. This feature forces
Parasite ecology. parasitologists to use advanced biostatistical
"Humans are hosts to nearly 300 species of parasitic methodologies.
worms and over 70 species of protozoa, some derived Parasites can provide information about host
from our primate ancestors and some acquired from population ecology. In fisheries biology, for example,
the animals we have domesticated or come in contact parasite communities can be used to distinguish
with during our relatively short history on Earth". distinct populations of the same fish species co-
inhabiting a region. Additionally, parasites possess a
medical parasitology is the subject which deals with
variety of specialized traits and life-history strategies
the parasites that infect humans, the diseases caused
that enable them to colonize hosts. Understanding
by them, clinical picture and the response generated by
these aspects of parasite ecology, of interest in their
humans against them. It is also concerned with the
own right, can illuminate parasite-avoidance strategies
various methods of their diagnosis, treatment and
employed by hosts.
finally their prevention & control. A parasite is an
Parasitism
organism that live on or within another organism
Parasitism is a non-mutual symbiotic relationship
called the host . These include organisms such as:
between species, where one species, the parasite,
Plasmodium spp., the protozoan parasite which benefits at the expense of the other, the host.
causes malaria. The four species of malaria Traditionally parasite referred primarily to organisms
parasites infective to humans are Plasmodium visible to the naked eye, or macroparasites (such
falciparum,Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium as helminths). Parasite now includes microparasites,
vivax & Plasmodium ovale. which are typically smaller, such
Leishmania donovani, the unicellular organism as protozoans,[1][2] viruses and bacteria.[3] Some
which causes leishmaniasis examples of parasites include the
Entamoeba and Giardia, which cause intestinal plants mistletoe and cuscuta, and animals such
infections (dysentery and diarrhoea) as hookworms.
Multicellular organisms and worms such Unlike predators, parasites do not kill their host, are
as Schistosoma spp., Wuchereria generally much smaller than their host, and will often
bancrofti, Necator americanus (hookworm) live in or on their host for an extended period. Both are
and Taenia spp. (tapeworm) special cases of consumer-resource
Ectoparasites such as ticks, scabies and lice interactions. [4] Parasites show a high degree
The study of parasites that cause economic losses of specialization, and reproduce at a faster rate than
in agriculture or aquaculture operations, or which their hosts. Classic examples of parasitism include
infect companion animals. Examples of species studied interactions between vertebrate hosts
are: and tapeworms, flukes, the Plasmodium species,
and fleas. Parasitism differs from
Lucilia sericata, a blowfly, which lays eggs on the
the parasitoid relationship because parasitoids
skins of farm animals. The maggots hatch and
generally kill their hosts
burrow into the flesh, distressing the animal and
Parasites reduce host biological fitness by general or
causing economic loss to the farmer
specialized pathology, such as parasitic castration and
Otodectes cynotis, the cat ear mite, responsible for
impairment of secondary sex characteristics, to the
Canker.
modification of host behavior. Parasites increase their
fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for
their survival, e.g. food, water, heat, habitat,
Dr. B. J. Koppar; Associate Professor, Government College, Daman Page 17
and transmission. Although parasitism applies
unambiguously to many cases, it is part of a
continuum of types of interactions between species,
rather than an exclusive category. In many cases, it is
difficult to demonstrate that the host is harmed. In
others, there may be no apparent specialization on the
part of the parasite, or the interaction between the
organisms may be short-lived.
TYPE and LIFE HISTORY OF Ascaris
Ascaris is a genus
of parasitic nematode worms known as the "small
intestinal roundworms". One species, A. lumbricoides,
affects humans and causes the disease ascariasis.
Another species, A. suum, typically infects pigs. Their
eggs are deposited in feces and soil. Plants with the
eggs on them infect any organism that consumes
them. [1] A. lumbricoides is the largest intestinal
roundworm and is the most
common helminth infection of humans worldwide. 1. Adult worms live in the lumen of
Infestation can cause morbidity by compromising the small intestine. A female may
nutritional status,[2] affecting cognitive produce up to 240,000 eggs per day,
processes,[citation needed] inducing tissue reactions such as which are passed with the feces .
granuloma to larval stages, and by causing intestinal 2. Fertile eggs embryonate and become
obstruction, which can be fatal. infective after 18 days to several
Ascaris lumbricoides is the giant weeks ,
roundworm of humans, growing to a length of up to 3. Depending on the environmental
35 cm.[1] An ascarid nematode of the conditions (optimum: moist, warm,
phylum Nematoda, it is the largest and most shaded soil).
common parasitic worm in humans, responsible for 4. After infective eggs are swallowed ,
the disease ascariasis. One-sixth of the human 5. the larvae hatch ,
population is estimated to be infected by A. 6. Invade the intestinal mucosa, and are
lumbricoides or another roundworm.[2] Ascariasis is carried via the portal, then systemic
prevalent worldwide, especially
circulation to the lungs .
in tropical and subtropical countries.
7. The larvae mature further in the lungs
(10-14 days), penetrate the alveolar
Life cycle
walls, ascend the bronchial tree to the
Ascaris lumbricoides, a roundworm, infects humans throat, and are swallowed .
when an ingested fertilised egg becomes a larval
worm that penetrates the wall of the duodenum and 8. Upon reaching the small intestine,
enters the blood stream. From there, it is carried to they develop into adult worms .
the liver and heart, and enters pulmonary Between 2 and 3 months are required
circulation to break free in the alveoli, where it grows from ingestion of the infective eggs to
and molts. In three weeks, the larvae pass from oviposition by the adult female. Adult
the respiratory system to be coughed up, swallowed, worms can live 1 to 2 years.
and thus returned to the small intestine, where they
Symptoms/Pathology
mature to adult male and female
Infection with Ascaris lumbricoides often causes no
worms. Fertilization can now occur and the female
symptoms. Infections with a large number of worms
produces as many as 200,000 eggs per day for a year.
may cause abdominal pain or intestinal
These fertilized eggs become infectious after two weeks
obstruction. Adults feed on the contents of the small
in soil; they can persist in soil for 10 years or more.[3]
intestine and in heavy infections this may compound
The eggs have a lipid layer which makes them resistant
problems in malnourished individuals (especially
to the effects of acids and alkalis, as well as other
children).
chemicals. This resilience helps to explain why
Migration of larvae may cause localized reactions in
this nematode is such a ubiquitous parasite.
various organs. Penetration of the larvae from
A. lumbricoides is characterized by its great size. Males
capillaries into the lungs can lead to Loeffler's
are 2–4 mm in diameter and 15–31 cm long. The
pneumonia, in which pools of blood and dead
male's posterior end is curved ventrally and has a
epithelial cells clog air spaces in the lungs. Resulting
bluntly pointed tail. Females are 3–6 mm wide and
bacterial infections can be fatal.
20–49 cm long. The vulva is located in the anterior
Diagnosis: The standard method for diagnosing
end and accounts for about one-third of its body
ascariasis is by identifying Ascaris eggs in a stool
length. Uteri may contain up to 27 million eggs at a
sample using a microscope. Because eggs may be
time, with 200,000 being laid per day. Fertilized eggs
difficult to find in light infections, a concentration
are oval to round in shape and are 45-75 μms long and
procedure is recommended.
35-50 μm wide with a thick outer shell. Unfertilized
TREATMENT: Anthelminthic medications (drugs
eggs measure 88-94 μm long and 44 μm wide.
that rid the body of parasitic worms), such as
albendazole and mebendazole, are the drugs of choice
for treatment of Ascaris infections. Infections are
generally treated for 1-3 days. The drugs are effective
and appear to have few side effects.
The best way to prevent ascariasis is to always:
Avoid ingesting soil that may be contaminated with
human feces, including where human fecal matter
("night soil") or wastewater is used to fertilize crops.
Wash your hands with soap and warm water before
handling food.
The ethology can be well understood by studying the iii. Social Transmission
various aspects such as; iv. Teaching
1. Instinct
2. Learning Nesting Behaviour in Birds
a. Habituation Nest building requires demanding activity of birds, as
b. Associative learning well it should be. Nest provide birds with support and
c. Imprinting insulation, concealment from predators, and shelter
d. Observational Learning from rain. Building a nest takes time, time that might
i. Imitation be spent feeding or hiding from predators. The nesting
ii. Stimulus enhancement habits of each species have evolved over the ages and
Behavioral Disorders
By definition, Behavioral disorders, also known
as disruptive behavioral disorders are the most
common reasons that parents are told to take their
kids for mental health assessments and
treatment. Behavioral disorders are also common
Bee architecture: bees cooperate to make in adults. Behavioral disorders may be broken down
elaborate nests into a few types, which include:
Honey bees nest in large cavities such as hollowed-out Anxiety disorders
trees. They take well to other enclosed spaces, whether Disruptive behavioral disorders
these occur in nature or are made by Dissociative disorders
humans. Humans have taken advantage of this habit Emotional disorders
by creating bee hives-- boxes that have an appropriate
Pervasive developmental disorders
entrance and are the right size and shape to house a
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
colony of honey bees. From wax secreted by glands in
According to Centers for Disease Control and
their abdomens, honey bees build vertical sheets of
Prevention, ADHD is a condition that impairs an
hexagonal honey comb, in which they store honey and
individual‘s ability to properly focus and to control
pollen. An individual honey comb hexagon (called