CONTENT STANDARD - Demonstrates understanding of fitness and exercise in

optimizing one’s health as a habit; as requisite for physical activity assessment

performance, and as a career opportunity.

PERFORMANCE STANDARD - Leads fitness events with proficiency and confidence

resulting in independent pursuit and in influencing others positively.

EXERCISE FOR FITNESS

a. Aerobic activities
b. Muscle and bone strengthening activities (resistance training)

LEARNING COMPETENCIES
A. Distinguishes aerobic from muscle-and bonestrengthening activities (PEH11FH-
Ia-1)
B. Explains how to optimize the energy systems for safe and improved performance
(PEH11FH-Ib-c-2)
C. Relates health behaviors (eating habits, sleep and stress management) to health
risks factors and physical activity assessment performance (PEH11FH-Id-3)
D. Differentiates types of eating (fueling for performance, emotional eating, social
eating, eating while watching tv or sports events) (PEH11FH-Ie-4)
E. Recognizes the role of physical activity assessments in managing one’s stress
(PEH11FH-If-5)
F. Self-assesses health-related fitness (HRF). status, barriers to physical activity
assessment participation and one’s diet (PEH11FH-Ig-i-6)
G. Sets Frequency Intensity Time Type (FITT) goals based on training principles to
achieve and/or maintain health-related fitness (HRF). (PEH11FH-Ii-j-7)
H. Engages in moderate to vigorous physical activities (MVPAs) for at least 60
minutes most days of the week in a variety of settings in- and out-of school
(PEH11FH-Ia-t-8)

1
I. Analyzes physiological indicators such as heart rate, rate of perceived exertion
and pacing associated with MVPAs to monitor and/or adjust participation or
effort. (PEH11FH-Ik-t-9)
J. Observes personal safety protocol to avoid dehydration, overexertion, hypo- and
hyperthermia during MVPA participation (PEH11FH-Ik-t-10)
K. Identifies school and community resources in case of an injury or emergency
(PEH11FH-Ii-j-11)
L. Demonstrates proper etiquette and safety in the use of facilities and equipment
(PEH11FH-Ia-t-12)
M. Participates in an organized event that addresses health/fitness issues and
concerns (PEH11FH-Ik-o-13)
N. Recognizes the value of optimizing one’s health through participation in physical
activity assessments (PEH11FH-Id-t-14)
O. Displays initiative, responsibility and leadership in fitness activities (PEH11FH-Ik-
t-15)
P. Realizes one’s potential for health-and fitness related career opportunities
(PEH11FH-Ip-q-16)
Q. Organizes fitness event for a target health issue or concern (PEH11FH-Io-t-17)

Physical activity involves any bodily movement such as walking to and from
work, taking the stairs instead of elevators and escalators, gardening, and doing
household chores. For inactive people, there’s no doubt that increasing this sort
of activity can reduce risk for disease and improve health. Exercise, however, is
a type of physical activity that requires planned, structured, and repetitive bodily
movement with the intent of improving or maintaining your physical fitness level.
Exercise can be accomplished through activities such as cycling, dancing,
walking, swimming, yoga, working out at the gym, or running, just to name a few.
Regular exercise, depending upon the kind, improves aerobic fitness, muscular
strength, and flexibility. Aerobic fitness is the ability of the body’s cardiovascular
system to supply energy during continuous physical activities such as biking and
running. Studies show that this type of exercise provides many health benefits

2
such as decreasing risk for heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, type II
diabetes and some cancers. The 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans
state that most health benefits occur with at least 150 minutes/week of moderate-
intensity aerobic activity. Examples of aerobic activities that would meet this
recommendation include walking at a brisk pace, swimming, jogging, dancing,
etc. Muscular strength is the ability of the muscles to exert a force during an
activity such as lifting weights. Muscle strengthening exercises involve using your
muscles to work against a resistance such as your body weight, elastic bands or
weights. The Physical Activity Guidelines recommend that adults participate in
muscle strengthening exercises for all major muscles groups at least two days a
week. Bone strengthening exercise, or any weight-bearing activity that
produces a force on the bone, is also important to overall health for children and
adults. This force is usually produced by impact with the ground and results in
bone growth in children and healthy maintenance of bone density in adults.
Examples of bone strengthening activities include jumping, walking, jogging, and
weight lifting exercises. As you can see, some exercises such as walking or
jogging serve a dual purpose of strengthening our bones and our aerobic system.
Lastly, flexibility is the ability of the joints to move through a full range of motion.
Stretching exercises can be an excellent way of increasing flexibility. While the
2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans do not include specific
recommendations for increasing flexibility, some individuals such as dancers and
some athletes may need to include flexibility activities as part of their exercise
regimen.

The bottom line is that increasing your everyday physical activity and regularly
participating in aerobic, muscle and bone strengthening exercises are all
beneficial to your health and will improve your quality of life.

The body needs energy to function at its peak capacity, the simplest way to do
this is to eat a nutritious breakfast containing carbohydrates like oatmeal and
proteins and fats like eggs to improve the metabolism. Foods with too much fat

3
should be avoided because they can lead to less energy. It is also important to
eat after a physical activity to recharge the body's energy.

Optimization of Energy System Energy comes from what we eat which are in the
form of:
1. Carbohydrates- our muscles live and store carbohydrate in what is known as
Glycogen. - is used as fuel by the body when it is broken down a glucose
2. Fat – it serves as insulation for the body to prevent heat loss.
3. Protein- used for the repair and growth of body tissue.

Health Behaviors, Health Risks factors, and Physical Activity (PA) Health
Behaviors:
1. Eating Behavior- proper nutrition, choice of food
2. Sleep- rest, sleep and relax
3. Stress management
4. Post –traumatic stress- caused by an unnaturally traumatic experiences,
leading to the disruption of a person’s ability to cope and function effectively.

Chronic stress- occurs someone experiences repeated and continuing demands

that inhibit the person’s function. Health Risk factors:
1. Family history
2. cigarette smoking
3. hypertension (high blood)
4. hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol count)
5. impaired fasting glucose levels (high blood sugar)
6. obesity
7. sedentary lifestyle (Physical inactivity)

Health promotion is defined by the World Health Organization as the process of

enabling people to increase control over their health and its determinants, and
thereby improve their health. Two important organizations in the U.S. that

4
accomplish this task are the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
and National Institutes of Health (NIH). These agencies serve as centers of
information for people who have questions about a certain disease or health-
related goals, such as exercise or nutrition. They also conduct research into the
latest preventative strategies with respect to maintaining a healthy lifestyle and
preventing disease, be it infectious or otherwise (like cancer). In fact, these
agencies provide you with health behavior-related information. Health behavior
refers to a person's beliefs and actions regarding their health and well-being. As
a good example of this, some people's health behaviors jive well with promoting
and maintaining a healthy lifestyle. People on their best health behavior:
1. Do not smoke or use any other tobacco products.
2. Do not drink in excess. This means no more than two drinks per day for a
man under age 65 and one drink per day for a woman of any age or a man
over age 65.
3. They also exercise regularly. As a case in point, you can perform two and a
half hours of brisk walking every week to help improve your physical fitness.
4. And furthermore, such people eat well. This doesn't solely imply you should
just eat more fruits and vegetables, which is true. It also means you should
simultaneously cut back on salty food, greasy meals, and too many things
with simple sugar, like cola or sweets.

One important aspect of managing stress is practicing good nutrition and healthy
eating habits. These habits can help you through your stressful times now, and
even prevent a heart attack 30 years down the road. Eating well will increase
your physical, mental, and emotional stamina. Fueling yourself with nutrient
dense foods can boost your immune system, help you maintain a healthy weight,
and help you feel better about yourself. Healthy eating plays a crucial role in your
ability to deal with times of extra stress. Carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, and
minerals are all important for energy, mental concentration, and emotional
stability. Some great healthy foods that can reduce stress are fresh fruits and
vegetables, which contain stress-busting antioxidants, especially berries and

5
green, leafy veggies. Another great option is oatmeal with cinnamon and honey
which can bump up the feel-good hormone serotonin. It is also packed with slow-
to-digest fiber; therefore, it will not cause an inconsistent spike in blood sugar
levels. Dark chocolate-covered almonds can also reduce levels of stress
hormones because they are rich in energy-boosting protein and good-for-you
monounsaturated fat. Stress may weaken your immune system and increase
your body's need for certain nutrients. A balanced diet will help you stay focused,
alert, energetic, and healthy during times of stress. However, if you live off of fast
food or skip meals, you are more likely to perform poorly or get sick during
stressful times. A daily multivitamin/mineral supplement can be helpful at any
age, but it will not replace the role that whole foods play in maintaining a healthy
body. Whole foods contain many substances, such as phytochemicals and fiber,
which boost the immune system and maintain health. Any discussion about
eating and stress must include caffeine and sugar. Many people use high sugar
foods to keep their energy up and caffeine to keep going when they need rest.
Too much caffeine will contribute to poor quality sleep and add to the negative
effects of stress on the body. Sugar will satisfy you in the short term, but leave
you with less energy and feeling more hungry after an hour or two. Whole foods
will provide you with energy that will last for several hours.

Here are some other quick tips for managing stress in your daily life:
 Think and act constructively
 Take control
 Problem-solve
 Modify your expectations
 Be positive
 Cultivate your sense of humor
 Weed out trivia
 Learn from others
 Go with the flow
 Create strong, social support systems

6
  Practice good communication skills
 Get enough sleep
 Recognize how you respond to stress
 Practice optimism
 Be patient
 Make healthy lifestyle choices
 Utilize your work benefits plan
 Enjoy life!
 Focus on yourself
 Clear your mind
 Reflect – feelings, emotions, challenges
 Approach stress as an opportunity for growth

Healthy Lifestyle Actions to Reduce and Manage Stress

Stress is a normal response to dealing with changes and challenges in daily life.
In the short term, stress can help you perform better under pressure, but
constant stress can pose problems for your health. Stress causes the release of
cortisol, the stress hormone, as well as adrenaline, which influences your blood
pressure, heart rate, eating habits, sleep patterns, blood sugar levels, fat
metabolism and your ability to fight-off illness. Long term stress can also increase
your risk of heart attack or stroke and contribute to depression.

These lifestyle actions can help you reduce or manage the stress in your life.

Adopt a Healthy Lifestyle

 Eat a healthy diet.
 Exercise regularly.
 Reduce caffeine and sugar.
 Avoid cigarettes, alcohol and other drugs.
 Get enough sleep.

7
  Take a break.
 Ask for help.
 Try Deep Breathing - sit tall and comfortably, breath in slowly through your
nose and exhale through your mouth while counting to yourself.
 Reframe problems - pause, regroup and look at the situation from a
positive angle. For example, if you are stuck in traffic, enjoy the alone
time.

Avoid Stress
 Avoid people who stress you out.
 Avoid topics that get you upset or cross.
 If there are topics you constantly argue over, such as religion or politics,
change the topic or remove yourself from the conversation when it arises.
 Manage your time and plan ahead to avoid the last minute stress and
running behind.

Increase Physical Activity

 Regular physical activity is an important step in reducing your stress and
improving your health.
 Physical activity can help regulate your hormones and offset the negative
effects stress can cause on your body.
 Aim to complete 30 minutes of moderate physical activity per day on most
days of the week.
 Brisk walking is an excellent way to increase your physical activity.

Think Positively
 Look for the bright side of the situation.
 Challenges are opportunities for personal growth.
 Reflect on stressful situations and learn from your experience.

8
Learn How to Relax and Have Fun
 Set aside time for yourself each day.
 Time to relax, rest and take a break from all your responsibilities.
 Keep your sense of humour!
 Connect with others. Spend time with people who have a positive impact
on your life.
 Have lunch or go for a walk with a friend.
 Do something you enjoy every day.
 Listen to music you enjoy.

Be Willing to Adapt
 If you can't change the situation, change your expectations and your
response.
 Be willing to compromise. You may want someone else to change. You
will have a better chance of finding a resolution if you are willing to
compromise to a middle ground.
 Look at the big picture. Will it matter in a month? A year? Is it worth getting
upset and stressed?
 Adjust your standards. Perfect may not be possible. Set reasonable
standards that can be achieved and learn to live with "good enough".
 Learn to forgive. Let go of anger and resentment. Accept an imperfect
world.
 Don't try to control the uncontrollable. Some things are beyond our control,
focus on the things you can change and the way you react to the
situation.

Take Charge
 While you may not be able to change the situation, you are in control of
how you respond.
 Set a schedule, plan ahead so you are prepared for stressful situations
and jobs you need to do.
9
  Manage your time to fit in what needs to be accomplished.
 Take charge of your environment, find a space that inspires you or adapt
your work space to be positive and encouraging.
 Be more assertive. Take charge of your life and make decisions.
 Delegate to others. Have your children or family help out with chores and
jobs they are capable of to reduce your workload.
 Avoid procrastination. Putting things off only increases the stress later on.
 Find someone to talk to, talking through problems and challenges can
alleviate stress associated with the situation.
 Learn to say "no". Limit yourself to only what you are comfortable with
doing.
 Limit and prioritize your "to do" list. Sort out the "must do's" and the
"should do's". Deal with important jobs right away and delay or drop
unnecessary tasks.

Fueling for Performance

How proper timing of meals affects both sport and academic performance
Nutrition is critical for both academic and sports performance. A diet that is
adequate in carbohydrate, protein, healthy fat, vitamins, minerals, and fluid is the
foundation of day-to-day eating for overall health. As important as what to eat,
though, is when a student athlete eats. The right fuel at the right time influences
how well they feel, learn, perform, and recover. In order for student athletes to
meet their daily energy needs, they need to fuel early and often. Studies show
that students who eat breakfast before school have better concentration,
attention span, and memory, three benefits that are significant for both sports
and scholastic performance. (1) Consuming food and fluid at regular intervals
throughout the day has also been shown to impact total health, body
composition, and overall feelings of satiety (appetite satisfaction) and well-being.
The bottom line: When and how often the student athlete eats impacts how
nutrients will be used, health, body composition, athletic performance, and
recovery.

10
Timing Foods and Fluids before Exercise
Fueling before exercise has been shown to improve performance over exercising
in the fasted state. Carbohydrate-rich foods and fluids help to increase or “top off”
muscle glycogen stores, prevent hunger, and provide a mental boost for the
athlete. It is recommended that athletes consume approximately 1 g/kg
carbohydrate 1 hour before exercise, 2 g/kg 2 hours before, and so on. As the
time before exercise increases, the amount of carbohydrate will increase. Larger
amounts of carbohydrate (3 to 4 g/kg) are appropriate when more time is
available (3 to 4 hours prior). The time required for foods to digest depends on
the type and quantity of the food consumed. Eating a smaller amount of food and
choosing foods lower in fat and fiber will help to reduce risk of gastrointestinal
(GI) distress. In addition to foods, timing the pre-exercise fluid is critical to
prevent dehydration and allow adequate time for excretion of any excess fluid. At
least 4 hours before exercise, individuals should aim to drink 5 to 7 mL/kg water
or a sports drink (or 2-3 mL/lb).

Timing Foods and Fluids during Exercise

Athletes who perform endurance or intermittent high-intensity exercise for more
than an hour are at risk for glycogen depletion, hypoglycemia, and fatigue during
exercise. Consuming 30 to 60 grams of carbohydrate each hour during
prolonged exercise will prevent the under-fueling trap. This recommendation is
based on the maximum rate of glucose absorption from the GI tract, which is
estimated to be 1 g/minute or 60 g/hour. Carbohydrate consumption should begin
shortly after the start of exercise. Sports drinks that contain 6 to 8% carbohydrate
are a popular and convenient choice among athletes during exercise as a quick
source of fluid, carbohydrate, and electrolytes. Consumption of 6 to 12 ounces
(180 to 360 mL) of sports drink with a 6 to 8% CHO every 15 to 30 minutes
during exercise has been shown to extend exercise capacity of athletes that
participate in intermittent exercise such as basketball, tennis, soccer and

11
volleyball. However, each athlete should refine these strategies according to his
or her own sweat rate.

Timing Foods and Fluids after Exercise

The goal of recovery nutrition is to replace fluid, electrolytes, and glycogen that
were lost during activity, make new muscle protein, red blood cells, and other
cellular components, and provide adequate carbohydrate, amino acids, and
minerals to promote proper immune function. Both carbohydrate and insulin are
needed to optimize glycogen stores—consuming carbohydrate-rich foods or
fluids provides glucose, which stimulates the release of insulin from the
pancreas. The 45 minutes after exercise is considered the “window of
opportunity” for recovery nutrition due to multiple factors, such as increased
blood flow and insulin sensitivity, facilitating an increase in glucose uptake and
glycogen restoration. To maximize the rate at which muscle glycogen is replaced,
athletes should consume a carbohydrate-rich snack within this window. Athletes
should aim to consume 1 to 1.2 g/kg/hour for the first 4 hours after glycogen
depleting exercise. When glycogen restoration must happen quickly (such as for
athletes who perform multiple, prolonged training bouts in the same day), a
medium to high glycemic index meal is the best post-exercise choice. Examples
include foods with quickly digested and absorbed carbohydrate and little fiber or
fat. For most athletes, muscle glycogen can be adequately restored through
lower glycemic index carbohydrates that do not promote a significant spike in
insulin. After exercise it is important to provide the body with the nutrition it needs
to resynthesize tissues that were catabolized during exercise. The stimulation of
muscle growth may be further enhanced by the inclusion of 15 to 25 grams
protein with carbohydrate and fluid in the post-exercise meal.

Timing of Day-to-Day Nutrition

While the amount and timing of carbohydrate before, during, and after exercise
plays an important role in sports performance, it must not be considered more
important than the day-to-day diet. Total dietary intake over the course of days,

12
weeks, and months must be adequate or else training and performance will be
negatively affected. First and foremost, the body must meet its daily energy
needs. Insufficient overall calories will limit storage of carbohydrate as muscle or
liver glycogen. All athletes should make it a priority to eat regularly throughout
the day. A sports dietitian can help an athlete understand these guidelines by
translating the science of meal timing into practical examples of what, when, and
how much food and fluid to consume at any given time. Refer to the Eating
Frequency fact sheet for a practical application of meal timing.

Emotional eating is when people use food as a way to deal with feelings instead
of to satisfy hunger. We've all been there, finishing a whole bag of chips out of
boredom or downing cookie after cookie while cramming for a big test. But when
done a lot — especially without realizing it — emotional eating can affect weight,
health, and overall well-being. Not many of us make the connection between
eating and our feelings. But understanding what drives emotional eating can help
people take steps to change it. One of the biggest myths about emotional eating
is that it's prompted by negative feelings. Yes, people often turn to food when
they're stressed out, lonely, sad, anxious, or bored. But emotional eating can be
linked to positive feelings too, like the romance of sharing dessert on Valentine's
Day or the celebration of a holiday feast. Sometimes emotional eating is tied to
major life events, like a death or a divorce. More often, though, it's the countless
little daily stresses that cause someone to seek comfort or distraction in food.
People learn emotional eating patterns: A child who is given candy after a big
achievement may grow up using candy as a reward for a job well done. A kid
who is given cookies as a way to stop crying may learn to link cookies with
comfort. It's not easy to "unlearn" patterns of emotional eating. But it is possible.
And it starts with an awareness of what's going on.

"Comfort" Foods
We all have our own comfort foods. Interestingly, they may vary according to
moods and gender. One study found that happy people seem to want to eat

13
things like pizza, while sad people prefer ice cream and cookies. Bored people
crave salty, crunchy things, like chips. Researchers also found that guys seem to
prefer hot, homemade comfort meals, like steaks and casseroles. Girls go for
chocolate and ice cream. This can make you wonder: Why does no one take
comfort in carrots and celery sticks? High-fat foods, like ice cream, may activate
chemicals in the body that create a sense of contentment and fulfillment. This
almost addictive quality may actually make you reach for these foods again when
feeling upset.

Physical Hunger vs. Emotional Hunger

We're all emotional eaters to some extent (who hasn't suddenly found room for
dessert after a filling dinner?). But for some people, emotional eating can be a
real problem, causing serious weight gain or cycles of binge eating. The trouble
with emotional eating is that once the pleasure of eating is gone, the feelings that
cause it remain. And you often may feel worse about eating the amount or type
of food you did. That's why it helps to know the differences between physical
hunger and emotional hunger.

Next time you reach for a snack, check in and see which type of hunger is driving
it.

Physical hunger:
 comes on gradually and can be postponed
 can be satisfied with any number of foods
 means you're likely to stop eating when full
 doesn't cause feelings of guilt

Emotional hunger:
 feels sudden and urgent
 causes very specific cravings (e.g., for pizza or ice cream)
 you tend to eat more than you normally would

14
  can cause guilt afterward

Eating behaviour is strongly influenced by social context. We eat differently when

we are with other people compared with when we eat alone. Our dietary choices
also tend to converge with those of our close social connections. One reason for
this is that conforming to the behaviour of others is adaptive and we find it
rewarding. Norms of appropriate eating are set by the behaviour of other people,
but also shared cultural expectations and environmental cues. We are more likely
to follow an eating norm if it is perceived to be relevant based on social
comparison. Relevant norms are set by similar others and those with whom we
identify. If a norm is relevant then there may be matching of behaviour to the
norm, but this will depend on other factors, such as how much attention is paid to
the norm, how concerned we are about social acceptance and the presence of
other competing norms such as personal norms and consumption stereotypes.
Norm matching involves processes such as synchronisation of eating actions,
consumption monitoring and altered food preferences. There is emerging
evidence that social eating norms may play a role in the development and
maintenance of obesity. Social eating norms constitute a novel target for
interventions to encourage healthier eating.

Stress management is one of the most important life skills that we all need to
learn in this fast- paced life. Sources of stress are around us, from work,
business, money, love, marriage, and even family. Thus, learning ways to cope
with stress is inevitable. There are numerous ways to deal with stress depending
on the stress level of the individual and overall attitude towards life. Medics and
other health experts have identified exercising as one of the most effective ways
to deal with stress. The simple explanation for this is that physical activity
improves both oxygen intake and blood flow in the body. This, in turn, leads to
the production of hormone endorphins which is responsible for euphoria and
overall improved well-being. However, this is not the only way that exercising
helps to deal with stress. Exercising helps you to focus more on your body and

15
less on your brain. To understand this, we need to define stress. According to
Mayo clinic, stress a form of mental tension resulting from some adverse
demands, or simply put, when you feel you have to deal with more than you can
handle. Thus, to answer the question what is stress management? It is all about
taking control of your brain, emotions, anxiety and overall well-being. When you
exercise you are focusing your energy on your body as opposed to your brain, or
ease the tension and congestion in your brain. This way, you can think more
clearly, more strategically and in a more organized way and get the solutions to
the demands. Therefore, the next time someone tells you I need to clear my
mind, understand that it is one of the best ways to cope with stress.

Stress Management Techniques

1. Yoga - advocates believe that yoga bridges the gap between western and
alternative styles of medicine. The practice of asanas (or postures) in yoga
have been used to combat stress along with decreasing depression and
anxiety. Some researchers claim yoga will calm a restless mind, creating
peace within oneself. o Subsequently, when an individual’s mind becomes
rested they become relaxed, which will ultimately reduce stress. There are
many different types of yoga: o Bikram (hot yoga), o Vinyasa (flowing/aerobic
yoga) or o Hatha (slow, posture focused yoga).
2. Humor - laughter is not only free but it is contagious. Laughter is almost
cathartic, once you start laughing usually you feel some of your stress and
anxiety instantly release.
3. Meditation - deep, slow breathing and positive thoughts can help ease any
stressful mind. Meditation is one of the easiest and most convenient stress
management techniques, and it is also free. All that is necessary is a quiet
space with a comfortable place to sit or lie down. Meditation can be done in
many forms ranging from guided imagery or visualization (focusing on being
in a beautiful place), mindful meditation (focusing on the present moment and
your breath while releasing any unpleasant thoughts) and tai chi (self-paced
series of postures or movements in a slow, graceful manner while practicing

16
 deep breathing). There is no right or wrong way to mediate; just find a way to
help reduce your stress levels.
4. Exercise - the health benefits of daily exercise are indisputable. Research
unanimously suggests that daily exercise can improve most chronic
conditions and improve overall emotional health. It is a great way to reduce
stress and there are different forms of exercise you can participate in: a short
run, a power walk or even an organized class or exercise video. Group
exercise promotes collaboration among your peers, which can also help you
talk about what may be making you anxious and stressed, therefore
mitigating some of your daily frustrations.

Fitness is defined in the health context as a state of good health or physical

condition, primarily as a result of exercise and proper nutrition. Conventional
methods of measuring fitness are expensive, time consuming and require
specialised methods. There is a need for noninvasive, fast methods of assessing
health-related fitness and activity in athlete and non-athlete populations. The aim
of this study was to establish any correlation between participants’ self-assessed
health-related fitness (HRF) index and the HRF index determined by sports
scientists, as well as the laboratory-assessed HRF index and maximum oxygen
uptake (VO2max) determined by sports scientists via direct methods in a
laboratory, and finally, to determine any potential correlation between an activity-
recall questionnaire (Kasari) and VO2max.

The definition of health-related fitness involves exercise activities that you do in

order to try to improve your physical health and stay healthy, particularly in the
categories of cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, muscular
endurance and body composition.

Cardiovascular Fitness (Aerobic Fitness)

This is also sometimes known as stamina and is the ability of your body to
continuously provide enough energy to sustain submaximal levels of exercise. To

17
do this the circulatory and respiratory systems must work together efficiently to
provide the working muscles with enough Oxygen to enable aerobic metabolism.
This type of fitness has enormous benefits to our lifestyle as it allows us to be
active throughout the day, for example walking to the shops, climbing stairs or
running to catch a bus. It also allows us to get involved in sports and leisure
pursuits.

Strength
Strength is vitally important, not only in sports but in day-to-day life. We need to
be strong to perform certain tasks, such as lifting heavy bags or using our legs to
stand up from a chair. Strength is defined as the ability of a muscle to exert a
force to overcome resistance.

Flexibility
Flexibility is the movement available at our joints, usually controlled by the length
of our muscles. This is often thought to be less important than strength, or
cardiovascular fitness. However, if we are not flexible our movement decreases
and joints become stiff. Flexibility in sports allows us to perform certain skills
more efficiently, for example, a gymnast, dancer or diver must be highly flexible,
but it is also important in other sports to aid performance and decrease the risk of
injury.

Muscular Endurance
Muscular endurance, unlike strength, is the ability of a muscle to make repeated
contractions over a period of time. This is used in day-to-day life in activities such
as climbing stairs, digging the garden and cleaning. Muscular endurance is also
important in sports, such as football (repeated running and kicking), tennis
(repeated swinging of the arm to hit the ball) and swimming (repeating the
stroke).

Body Composition

18
Body composition is the amount of muscle, fat, bone, cartilage etc that makes up
our bodies. In terms of health, fat is the main point of interest and everything else
is termed lean body tissue. The amount of fat we carry varies from person to
person and healthy averages vary with gender and age. A healthy amount of fat
for a man is between 15&18% and for women is higher at 20-25%.

Barriers to Physical Activity Assessment participation

Personal Barriers
With technological advances and conveniences, people’s lives have in many
ways become increasingly easier, as well as less active. In addition, people have
many personal reasons or explanations for being inactive. The most common
reasons adults don't adopt more physically active lifestyles are cited as:
 insufficient time to exercise
 inconvenience of exercise
 lack of self-motivation
 non-enjoyment of exercise
 boredom with exercise
 lack of confidence in their ability to be physically active (low self-efficacy)
 fear of being injured or having been injured recently
 lack of self-management skills, such as the ability to set personal goals,
monitor
 progress, or reward progress toward such goals
 lack of encouragement, support, or companionship from family and friends
 non-availability of parks, sidewalks, bicycle trails, or safe and pleasant
walking
 paths close to home or the workplace

The top three barriers to engaging in physical activity across the adult lifespan
are:
 time

19
  energy
 motivation

Other barriers include

 cost
 facilities
 illness or injury
 transportation
 partner issues
 skill
 safety considerations
 child care
 uneasiness with change
 unsuitable programs

Environmental barriers
The environment in which we live has a great influence on our level of physical
activity. Many factors in our environment affect us. Obvious factors include the
accessibility of walking paths, cycling trails, and recreation facilities. Factors such
as traffic, availability of public transportation, crime, and pollution may also
have an effect. Other environmental factors include our social environment, such
as support from family and friends, and community spirit. It is possible to make
changes in our environment through campaigns to support active transportation,
legislation for safer communities, and the creation of new recreation facilities

Overcoming Barriers

Lack of time Identify available time slots.

 Monitor your daily activities for one week. Identify at least three 30-minute
time slots you could use for physical activity.

20
  Add physical activity to your daily routine. For example, walk or ride your
bike to work or shopping, organise school activities around physical
activity, walk the dog, exercise while you watch TV, park farther away from
your destination, etc.
 Select activities requiring minimal time, such as walking, jogging, or stair
climbing.

Social influence
 Explain your interest in physical activity to friends and family. Ask them to
support your efforts.
 Invite friends and family members to exercise with you. Plan social
activities involving exercise.
 Develop new friendships with physically active people. Join a group, such
as the YMCA or a hiking club.

Lack of energy
 Schedule physical activity for times in the day or week when you feel
energetic.
 Convince yourself that if you give it a chance, physical activity will
increase your energy level; then, try it.

Lack of motivation
 Plan ahead. Make physical activity a regular part of your daily or weekly
schedule and write it on your calendar.
 Invite a friend to exercise with you on a regular basis and write it on both
your calendars.
 Join an exercise group or class.

Fear of injury
 Learn how to warm up and cool down to prevent injury.

21
  Learn how to exercise appropriately considering your age, fitness level,
skill level, and health status.
 Choose activities involving minimum risk.

Lack of skill
 Select activities requiring no new skills, such as walking, climbing stairs, or
jogging.
 Take a class to develop new skills.

Lack of resources
 Select activities that require minimal facilities or equipment, such as
walking, jogging, jumping rope, or calisthenics.
 Identify inexpensive, convenient resources available in your community
(community education programs, park and recreation programs, worksite
programs, etc.).

Weather conditions
 Develop a set of regular activities that are always available regardless of
weather (indoor cycling, aerobic dance, indoor swimming, calisthenics,
stair climbing, rope skipping, mall walking, dancing, gymnasium games,
etc.)

Travel
 Put a jump rope in your suitcase and jump rope.
 Walk the halls and climb the stairs in hotels.
 Stay in places with swimming pools or exercise facilities.
 Join the YMCA or YWCA (ask about reciprocal membership agreement).
 Visit the local shopping mall and walk for half an hour or more.
 Bring your mp3 player your favourite aerobic exercise music.

Family obligations

22
  Trade babysitting time with a friend, neighbour, or family member who
also has small children.
 Exercise with the kids-go for a walk together, play tag or other running
games, get an aerobic dance or exercise tape for kids (there are several
on the market) and exercise together. You can spend time together and
still get your exercise.
 Jump rope, do calisthenics, ride a stationary bicycle, or use other home
gymnasium equipment while the kids are busy playing or sleeping.
 Try to exercise when the kids are not around (e.g., during school hours or
their nap time).

Retirement years
 Look upon your retirement as an opportunity to become more active
instead of less. Spend more time gardening, walking the dog, and playing
with your grandchildren. Children with short legs and grandparents with
slower gaits are often great walking partners.
 Learn a new skill you've always been interested in, such as ballroom
dancing, square dancing, or swimming.
 Now that you have the time, make regular physical activity a part of every
day. Go for a walk every morning or every evening before dinner. Treat
yourself to an exercycle and ride every day while reading a favourite book
or magazine.

The FITT Principle (or formula) is a great way of monitoring your exercise
program. The acronym FITT outlines the key components, or training guidelines,
for an effective exercise program, and the initials F, I, T, T, stand for: Frequency,
Intensity, Time and Type.
 Frequency: refers to the frequency of exercise undertaken or how often
you exercise. Frequency is a key component of the FITT Principle.
Remember that it’s important to know why you’re exercising and what you
want to achieve before rushing into any exercise program. Adjust the

23
 number of times you exercise per week to reflect your current fitness level,
the time you realistically have available, your other commitments like
family and work, and the goals you’ve set for yourself.
 Intensity: refers to the intensity of exercise undertaken or how hard you
exercise. This is an extremely important aspect of the FITT Principle and
is probably the hardest factor to monitor. The best way to gauge the
intensity of your exercise is to monitor your heart rate. There are a couple
of ways to monitor your heart rate but the best way by far is to purchase
an exercise heart rate monitor. These can be purchased at most good
sports stores and retail from $50 to $400. They consist of an elastic belt
that fits around your chest and a wrist watch that displays your exercise
heart rate in beats per minute. If you don’t want to spend the money on a
heart rate monitor, simply count your heart rate over a 15 second period.
All you need is a wrist watch that has a “seconds” display. Feel for your
heart beat by either placing your hand over your heart or by feeling for
your pulse in your neck or on your wrist. Count the beats over a 15 second
period and then multiply by 4. This will give you your exercise heart rate in
beats per minute.
 Time: refers to the time you spend exercising or how long you exercise
for. The time you spend exercising is also an important part of the FITT
Principle. The time dedicated to exercise usually depends on the type of
exercise undertaken. For example, it’s recommended that to improve
cardio-vascular fitness you’ll need at least 20 to 30 minutes of non stop
exercise. For weight loss, more time is required; at least 40 minutes of
moderate weight bearing exercise. However, when talking about the time
required for muscular strength improvements, time is often measured as a
number of “sets” and “reps.” A typical recommendation would be 3 sets of
8 reps.
 Type: refers to the type of exercise undertaken or what kind of exercise
you do. Like time, the type of exercise you choose will have a big effect on
the results you achieve. That’s why it’s important to know what you want

24
 to gain from your efforts. For example, if you’re looking to improve your
cardio-vascular fitness, then exercises like walking, jogging, swimming,
bike riding, stair climbing, aerobics and rowing are very effective. For
weight loss, any exercise that using a majority of your large muscle groups
will be effective. To improve muscular strength the best exercises include
the use of free weights, machine weights and body weight exercises like
push-ups, chin-ups and dips.
Exercise experts measure activity in metabolic equivalents, or METs. One MET
is defined as the energy it takes to sit quietly. For the average adult, this is about
one calorie per every 2.2 pounds of body weight per hour; someone who weighs
160 pounds would burn approximately 70 calories an hour while sitting or
sleeping. Moderate-intensity activities are those that get you moving fast enough
or strenuously enough to burn off three to six times as much energy per minute
as you do when you are sitting quietly, or exercises that clock in at 3 to 6 METs.
Vigorous-intensity activities burn more than 6 METs. One limitation to this way of
measuring exercise intensity is that it does not consider the fact that some
people have a higher level of fitness than others. Thus, walking at 3 to 4 miles-
per-hour is considered to require 4 METs and to be a moderate-intensity activity,

25
regardless of who is doing the activity a young marathon runner or a 90-year-old
grandmother. As you might imagine, a brisk walk would likely be an easy activity
for the marathon runner, but a very hard activity for the grandmother.

A normal resting heart rate for adults ranges from 60 to 100beats per minute.
Generally, a lower heart rate at rest implies more efficient heart function and
better cardiovascular fitness. For example, a well-trained athlete might have a
normal resting heart rate closer to 40 beats per minute.

How do you get your heart rate in the target zone?

When you work out, are you doing too much or not enough? There’s a simple
way to know: Your target heart rate helps you hit the bullseye so you can get
max benefit from every step, swing and squat. Even if you’re not a gym rat or
elite athlete, knowing your heart rate (or pulse) can help you track your health
and fitness level.

First Things First: Resting Heart Rate

Your resting heart rate is the number of times your heart beats per minute
when you’re at rest. A good time to check it is in the morning after you’ve had a
good night’s sleep, before you get out of bed or grab that first cup of java!

For most of us, between 60 and 100 beats per minute (bpm) is normal. The
rate can be affected by factors like stress, anxiety, hormones, medication, and
how physically active you are. An athlete or more active person may have a
resting heart rate as low as 40 beats per minute. Now that’s chill!

When it comes to resting heart rate, lower is better. It usually means your
heart muscle is in better condition and doesn’t have to work as hard to maintain
a steady beat. Studies have found that a higher resting heart rate is linked with
lower physical fitness and higher blood pressure and body weight.

26
Know Your Numbers: Maximum and Target Heart Rate

Exercise intensity is important to gauge because it can tell you whether you are
working too hard or not working hard enough. One common way to do this is
using a Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE). The talk test, your target heart rate
range, and the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) are all methods for
determining how hard you are exercising. Learn how to use your RPE to
determine whether you are exercising in the moderate-intensity or vigorous-
intensity zones.

Perceived exertion is how hard you feel your body is working. When you are
exercising your heart beats faster, your breathing becomes faster and deeper,
you work up a sweat, and your muscles begin to tire and complain. These
feelings are not objective as when you actually measure your heart rate, but they
can give you a number that is an estimate of your heart rate and your exercise
intensity zone.

27
The Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) Scale
You should rate your perception of your exertion when you exercise. Don't focus
on just one sensation, get a general sense of how hard you are exercising. Use
your feelings of exertion rather than measures such as speed while running or
cycling or comparing yourself to someone else. Then assign your exertion a
number from 6 to 20 on the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion scale.

The scale starts at 6, which means you feel no exertion, similar to simply
standing still. Level 9 is what you feel like when you are walking at an easy pace.
At level 12 to 14 you are in the moderate-intensity zone and if feels somewhat
hard, as when walking briskly or jogging at an easy pace. At level 15 and above
you feel heavy exertion and you are in the vigorous-intensity zone, as when
running.

28
How Borg RPE Reflects Heart Rate
You may wonder why the Borg RPE scale starts at 6 and goes to 20. This is
because it is designed to give you a fairly good estimate of your actual heart rate
during activity. To do this, multiply your RPE by 10 to get an estimated heart rate.
For example, if your RPE is 12, then 12 x 10 = 120 beats per minute. This scale
was designed for the average healthy adult. Your age and physical condition
affect your maximum heart rate, and therefore your heart rate zones for different
levels of intensity. You should check which heart rate matches which zone for
you personally. The Borg RPE is useful for people who take medications that
affect their heart rate or pulse, since measuring their heart rate is not a good
indication of their exercise intensity.

How to Use the Perceived Exertion Scale

After warming up at a light level of exertion, begin your workout. After a few
minutes, assess your RPE from the scale. If you are still at an RPE under 12,
pick up your pace or add resistance to increase your intensity. A walker, runner,
or cyclist would do this by going faster, seeking out inclines, or adding high-
intensity intervals. If you are feeling an intensity of 19 you might want to slow
your pace or decrease the resistance until you are back in the vigorous-intensity
or moderate-intensity zone.

Almost anyone, at any age, can exercise safely and get meaningful benefits. You
can be active even if you have a chronic condition, like heart disease, diabetes,
or arthritis. Staying safe while you exercise is always important, whether you’re
just starting a new activity or haven’t been active for a long time.

To play it safe and reduce your risk of injury:

 Begin your exercise program slowly with low-intensity exercises.
 Wear appropriate shoes for your activity.
 Warm up before exercising, and cool down afterward.
 Pay attention to your surroundings when exercising outdoors.

29
  Drink water before, during, and after your workout session, even if you
don’t feel thirsty.
 Dress appropriately for the temperature outdoors, or opt for an indoor
activity if it’s very hot or cold.
 If you have specific health conditions, discuss your exercise and physical
activity plan with your health care provider.

Physical activity carries risks as well as benefits. The most common adverse
effects of physical activity are burnout and musculoskeletal injury. Depending on
the type of activity, injury risk can be augmented with increased intensity,
frequency and duration of activity. To minimize the risk of activity-induced
injuries, you should be aware of the signs of over-exertion (such as
breathlessness and muscle soreness), and take reasonable precautions.

Here are some exercise precautions and safety tips:

 Wear comfortable clothing and well-padded shoes that can protect the
heels and arches of the feet;
 Put on appropriate gear for the activity, such as helmets and protective
pads for cycling;
 Always warm up before doing exercise and cool down afterwards to lower
the risk of strains and sprains;
 Take appropriate breaks during the activity;
 Do not exercise with an empty stomach. Eat something light (such as
toast with jam or skimmed milk) to give you some stamina. Do not
exercise immediately after a full meal because this will affect digestion;
 Replenish extra fluids before, during and after physical activity, especially
for prolonged exercise like hiking;
 Beware of the weather and environmental conditions. Avoid doing outdoor
vigorous exercises in hot or humid weather;
 Listen to the body. Do not exercise when unwell. If there is dizziness,
shortness of breath, chest pain, nausea or vomiting, or muscle and joint

30
 pain during exercise, stop the activity and seek medical advice as soon as
possible.

Injury - Unintentional or intentional damage to the body resulting from acute

exposure to thermal, mechanical, electrical, or chemical energy or from the
absence of such essentials as heat or oxygen. Injuries can be further classified
based on the events and behaviors that precede them as well as the intent of the
persons involved. At the broadest level, injuries are classified as either violence
or unintentional injuries.

Schools have a responsibility to prevent injuries from occurring on school

property and at school-sponsored events. In addition, schools can teach students
the skills needed to promote safety and prevent unintentional injuries, violence,
and suicide while at home, at work, at play, in the community, and throughout
their lives.

However, educational interventions alone cannot produce major reductions in

injury or injury risks. Effective school- based injury-prevention efforts address
policies and procedures, staff development, the physical environment of the
school, and the curriculum in a coordinated manner. School efforts to promote
safety can be part of a coordinated school health program, which is "an
integrated set of planned, sequential, and school-affiliated strategies, activities,
and services designed to promote the optimal physical, emotional, social, and
educational development of students.
A coordinated school health program involves and is supportive of families and is
determined by the local community based on community needs, resources,
standards, and requirements. It is coordinated by a multidisciplinary team and
accountable to the community for program quality and effectiveness“.

Just as individual strategies cannot be implemented in isolation from each other,

schools cannot effectively address unintentional injury, violence, and suicide

31
problems in isolation. School personnel, students, families, community
organizations and agencies, and businesses can collaborate to develop,
implement, and evaluate injury-prevention efforts.

Ideally, coordinated school health programs should include multiple components

 comprehensive health education;
 physical education;
 school health services [school counseling, and psychological and social
services];
 school nutrition services;
 healthy and safe school environment;
 school-site health promotion for staff members;
 staff development;
 and family and community involvement.
 Coordinated school health programs can improve the health, safety, and
educational prospects of students.

Rule #1 - Take care in using facilities & equipment

Rule #2 - Only use equipment you already know how to use
Rule #3 - Be alert & aware of the training area
Rule #4 - In performing exercises & movement in general, practice good form
first
Rule #5 - Bring back all equipment in place after use
Rule #6 - Do not hug the equipment
Rule #7 - Return the equipment properly or leave the venue clean
Rule #8 - Check yourself - practice proper hygiene & clean
Rule #9 - Move on the double, don't loiter around the venue or hang on the
equipment doing nothing
Rule #10 - Remember to be nice, as a general rule

32
Asthma is a chronic lung condition in which airway inflammation results in
recurrent breathing problems. Approximately 5 million children and adolescents
in the United States have been diagnosed with asthma. However, it is likely that
asthma goes undiagnosed in many children and adolescents. Minorities,
particularly African Americans, experience a higher incidence of asthma than
whites. Children and adolescents living in the inner city also suffer from a
disproportionately high incidence of asthma. In addition, children and
adolescents from families with low incomes and from single-parent households
are more likely to have an asthma-related disability. Asthma in children and
adolescents is a leading cause of school absenteeism and ranks first among
chronic conditions that limit children’s and adolescents’ participation in physical
activity. And children with asthma and obesity have more frequent and longer-
lasting asthma attacks. Vigorous physical activity may cause asthma symptoms
in children and adolescents whose asthma is poorly controlled. As a result, many
children and adolescents with asthma limit their physical activity, which can lead
to poor physical fitness status. Children and adolescents with asthma who limit
their physical activity usually do so because of misinformation, fear, or
mismanagement of their condition, not because the condition demands these
limitations. Improved understanding of and treatments for asthma will help
children and adolescents with asthma participate fully in physical activity.
Exercise-induced asthma (EIA), which occurs in almost 90 percent of children
and adolescents who have asthma and in approximately 40 percent of children
and adolescents who have allergic rhinitis, can occur without other forms of
asthma. People who do not suffer from chronic asthma can still have EIA, an
intermittent physical-activity-triggered narrowing of the airways. It is believed to
be caused by a loss of heat, water, or both from the lungs during physical
activity, triggered by rapid, deep breathing of air that is cooler and drier than the
interior of the respiratory tree. EIA usually occurs during vigorous physical activity
or several minutes after, reaches its peak 5 to 10 minutes after cessation of
activity, and resolves in another 20 to 30 minutes. Identification, avoidance, and
control of triggers, in conjunction with an asthma-management plan and

33
appropriate asthma medications, allow children and adolescents with asthma to
participate in physical activity. In some instances this may mean modifying
physical activities to match the child’s or adolescent’s current asthma status.
With effective management, even children and adolescents with severe asthma
can participate in a variety of physical activities, including competitive sports.
Children and adolescents with asthma whose physical fitness status is good and
whose asthma is well controlled respond to physical activity as their peers do;
their maximal heart rate, breathing capacity, blood pressure, and work capacity
stay within the normal range. In addition, children and adolescents with asthma
who are physically active have fewer exacerbations of their condition, use less
medication, and miss less school. Children and adolescents with asthma who are
sedentary are at increased risk for exacerbations of their condition.

Children and adolescents with special health care needs have been defined as
those “who have or are at increased risk for chronic physical, developmental,
behavioral, or emotional conditions and who require health and related services
of a type or amount beyond that required by children generally Children and
adolescents with special health care needs benefit from regular physical activity.
It can make the tasks of daily living easier for them, 93 improve their health
status, and ultimately reduce morbidity from secondary conditions during
adulthood. Physical activity for children and adolescents with special health care
needs can:
 Help control or slow the progression of the chronic condition or disability,
minimize its side effects, and reduce associated disabilities.
 Improve overall health and function.
 Minimize the psychological and social impact of the condition or disability
on children and adolescents and their families, and help normalize their
daily living experiences.

Chronic conditions and disabilities range in severity from minor (i.e., no obvious
signs of the condition or disability) to severe (i.e., multiple physical and

34
psychological conditions or disabilities). Medical advances are helping children
and adolescents with special health care needs live longer. Promoting physical
activity in early childhood can help children and adolescents improve their
physical fitness, reduce the negative consequences of their condition or
disability, and ultimately enhance their quality of life. Health professionals need to
counsel children and adolescents with special health care needs and their
parents about the benefits and risks of participating in physical activity. The
benefits and risks vary depending on the child’s or adolescent’s condition or
disability; however, in general, the benefits overwhelmingly outweigh the risks.
Benefits include weight control, increased flexibility, and improved cardiovascular
functioning. There are also psychological benefits, such as increased self-esteem
and improved social skills.

Children and adolescents with special health care needs vary in their ability to
participate in physical activity. To select appropriate activities and duration,
health professionals, along with children, adolescents, and parents, must
consider the child’s or adolescent’s needs and concerns, as well as adaptations
that may be needed for specific activities. Individual screening and assessment
should be conducted before a child or adolescent with special health care needs
begins any physical activity. The cognitive abilities and social skills of the child or
adolescent should be evaluated, and the impact of the special health care need
and treatment on the child’s or adolescent’s participation in any given activity
should be taken into account. Activities may need to be adapted to help ensure
that the child or adolescent has a positive experience participating in them.
Working together with the child or adolescent and parents is essential in order for
the health professional to determine which level of participation is best. Health
professionals need to promote physical activity in children and adolescents with
special health care needs and their parents to help them adopt a physically
active lifestyle. Physical activities that can be done together as a family (e.g.,
walking, biking, hiking) provide physiological and psychological benefits for
children, adolescents, and parents. Participation in physical activity with others

35
(e.g., baseball, soccer) helps children and adolescents enhance their cognitive,
creative, and motor skills. These activities are especially important for children
and adolescents with special health care needs because they offer opportunities
for them to socialize with their peers.

36
The benefits associated with being physically active are well documented, but a
significant proportion of the population is insufficiently active. Physical inactivity is
a major health risk factor in our society, and physical education programs are
consistently identified as a means to address this concern. The purpose of this
article is to use the social-ecological model as a framework to examine ways in
which physical education programs can play an important role in promoting
physical activity. Policies that require time allocations and resources for physical
education and physical activity in schools and community designs that provide
infrastructure that makes being physically active accessible and convenient are
important factors in making schools and communities healthier spaces. It is clear,
however, that policies alone are not sufficient to address concerns about physical

37
inactivity. We must consider individual factors that influence decisions to be
physically active in efforts to engage children in physical education programs that
promote active lifestyles. The learning climate that teachers create determines
what students do and learn in physical education classes. Ensuring that students
see value in the content presented and structuring classes so that students
believe they can experience success when they exert effort are key elements in
an effective motivational climate. Efforts to address public health concerns about
physical inactivity require a comprehensive approach including quality physical
education. It is critical that kinesiology professionals emerge as leaders in these
efforts to place physical education programs at the center of promoting children's
physical activity.

The benefits of exercise extend far beyond weight management. Research

shows that regular physical activity can help reduce your risk for several
diseases and health conditions and improve your overall quality of life. Regular
physical activity can help protect you from the following health problems.
 Heart Disease and Stroke. Daily physical activity can help prevent heart
disease and stroke by strengthening your heart muscle, lowering
your blood pressure, raising your high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels
(good cholesterol) and lowering low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels (bad
cholesterol), improving blood flow, and increasing your heart's working
capacity. Optimizing each of these factors can provide additional benefits
of decreasing the risk for Peripheral Vascular Disease.
 High Blood Pressure. Regular physical activity can reduce blood pressure
in those with high blood pressure levels. Physical activity reduces body
fat, which is associated with high blood pressure.
 Noninsulin-Dependent Diabetes. By reducing body fat, physical activity
can help to prevent and control this type of diabetes.
 Obesity. Physical activity helps to reduce body fat by building or
preserving muscle mass and improving the body's ability to use calories.

38
 When physical activity is combined with proper nutrition, it can help control
weight and prevent obesity, a major risk factor for many diseases.
 Back Pain. By increasing muscle strength and endurance and improving
flexibility and posture, regular exercise helps to prevent back pain.
 Osteoporosis. Regular weight-bearing exercise promotes bone formation
and may prevent many forms of bone loss associated with aging.
 Self Esteem And Stress Management. Studies on the psychological
effects of exercise have found that regular physical activity can improve
your mood and the way you feel about yourself. Researchers have found
that exercise is likely to reduce depression and anxiety and help you to
better manage stress.
 Disability. Running and aerobic exercise have been shown to postpone
the development of disability in older adults and maintains quality of life
longer for seniors.

Fitness Leaders are people who instruct and/or otherwise facilitate other people
to undertake activities intended to improve or maintain individuals level of
physical (and sometimes mental) wellbeing. The job of being a Fitness Leader
has changed greatly over the past few decades, and looks certain to continue
changing. In the mid 20th century, fitness leaders were fewer in number, and
often just amateur fitness enthusiasts conducting exercise classes in a
community centre or hall. Throughout the second half of the 20th century, public
interest in fitness increased, as did the capacity of people in more affluent
countries to pay people to help them improve their level of fitness. Growth in
interest, demand and economic potential has led the industry to develop in
different ways in different countries. What was once dominated by amateurs and
volunteers, has blossomed into an industry that employs people in a wide range
of roles (eg. "Gym Managers", "Life Coaches", Personal Trainers, "Health
Consultants", "Fitness Leaders", "Recreation Officers" etc.). Concerns over legal
liability have made it important for these "professionals" and their employers to
be protected against legal action from disgruntled clients.

39
Types of Job Opportunities
This category of sports jobs includes those who rush onto the field when a player
is down; who tape the boxer’s hands so that they will endure the championship
bout; who teach a high-school kid how to give it her all without causing herself
permanent injury; who save careers and lives.

Sports teams are supported by teams of health and fitness experts. Colleges and
high schools have them on staff as teachers and research scientists, as well as
for the student body. Health clubs and fitness centers employ health and fitness
professionals.

Along with education and training in science, medicine and related disciplines,
the health and fitness professional knows sports and athletics. In order to know
how best to protect the athletes from injury, improve their performance and
nurture body, mind and soul, these specialists know not only how the human
body works, they know the dynamics of different sports. The right weight and
body fat percentage for a football center are not the same as for the team’s tight
end. The strengthening of a certain muscle should not be done in the same way
for a tennis player as for a swimmer. It’s not always easy and it’s not always
pretty, but this career track rightfully earns respect and admiration, and knowing
that you are making people’s lives better – that you are helping others achieve
their highest goals – is a higher calling.

Careers in health and fitness are extremely popular, especially for those with a
background that includes athletics. The Health and Fitness jobs category is very
broad and includes these specialties:
 Athletic Trainer - The Athletic Trainer is the person who helps athletes be
the best they can be, safely. The job of a Certified Athletic Trainer is
recognized by the American Medical Association as an allied health
profession. Conditioning is an important part of the work, both to improve

40
 performance and to prevent injuries. The trainer is always on hand at the
game, on the sidelines, and close by the athlete, working with the coach,
the Team Physician and others to build capabilities, prevent injuries,
evaluate and treat injuries and supervise rehabilitation and physical
improvement training. A Bachelor’s Degree is the minimum requirement, a
Master’s Degree is preferred, and Certification by The National Athletic
Trainers Association is best for your career. Work is in all sports and
athletic venues, from high schools to the professional teams, as well as in
clinics and hospitals. Entry-level pay for a high school is in the range of
$25,000 per year without certification, while a pro team Athletic Trainer
can earn $150,000 with an advanced degree, certification and experience.
 Physical Therapist Jobs - A Physical Therapist is a certified professional,
graduate of an approved physical therapy school and licensed by the
State. The work involves evaluating the athlete’s needs or the extent of
injuries, testing, developing treatment and exercise programs and working
with the athletes, medical staff and others to help recovery, rehabilitation
and physical conditioning. A Bachelor’s or Master’s Degree is best, along
with work experience, to get into this field. Salaries around $50,000 can be
expected. The professional organization is the American Physical Therapy
Association.
 Medical Assistant - As a college student or upon entry into the field of
Sports Health and Fitness, you should work as an Assistant, or Aid, to
learn the specialization that you’ll want as your career; get the experience
you need; and work toward professional certification.
 Sports Medicine Aid (or Aide)
 Physical Therapy Assistant
 Sports Massage Therapist Jobs - Sports Massage Therapy is a
continuously growing field, with college and pro teams hiring their own
therapists and private individual athletes-even recreational players-going
to massage therapists more and more. Preparing for sports and athletics
physically, mentally and emotionally can benefit from your knowledge and

41
 skills, as can the injured athlete who wants to rebuild. The American
Massage Therapy Association is a good place to begin by finding a school
program that suits your style.
 Sports and Fitness Nutritionist - The Sports and Fitness Nutritionist knows
food, the athlete’s likes and dislikes and the mental as well as the physical
aspects of eating right. Although you can get a Bachelor’s Degree in
Nutrition, you can work into this field with a related background in any of
the other Health and Fitness jobs, a medical or holistic health career, or
simply through your own interest and studies in health, nutrition and
sports. This allied health profession is growing, with work available in
schools, with sports teams and in public venues such as health clubs.
 Strength and Conditioning (S&C) Coach - A Strength and Conditioning
Coach should have a Master’s Degree in Exercise Physiology. The
National Strength and Conditioning Association certifies Strength and
Conditioning Specialists. The job is coaching, training and overseeing
exercise and weight training for athletes, working with other trainers,
coaches and the team physician to build strength, improve flexibility and
help in rehabilitation from injuries. Professional Strength and Conditioning
Coaches can earn salaries in the range of $60,000 to $80,000.
 Exercise Physiologist - An Exercise Physiologist is a sports scientist.
Using research with athletes, film, video and computers, you can analyze
athletics, sports and the human body and discover how to get the best
possible performance. A Master’s Degree is a necessity, and a Doctorate
is common in this field. The work of studying sports and improving abilities
is available in sports medicine centers, corporate fitness centers, college
sports centers and university research labs. You should enjoy a good
education in science to prepare for this career, along with studies in
physical education, media such as videotape and equipment such as
computers.
 Sports Physician - The Sports Physician is at the center of the sports
medical team, with tremendous responsibilities for the safety and health of

42
 athletes and excellent opportunities to enjoy the work. A professional
medical doctor, this person will likely be an orthopedist, a specialist in
bones, joints and muscles. The sports physician does exams to determine
if an athlete is ready, whether to begin a fitness program, join a team or
return to play following an injury. Another important part of the job is to
advise coaches and trainers along with the athlete, and to maintain the
authority to make health-related decisions. As you would expect of most
positions for a physician, salaries are commonly $150,000 or more as
one’s practice gets built up.
 Sports Psychologist - The career opportunities for a Sports Psychologist
are growing, although full-time positions are not that wide-spread so far.
It’s a career that will continue to grow, as more individuals and teams
appreciate the benefits this person can offer them in mental fitness, self-
confidence, relaxation, control and other important aspects of sports.
Athletes want to perform well and enjoy sports and fitness activities, and
the Sports Psychologist helps them attain and maintain mental health and
self-improvement that shows in not only a better game, but a better life.
With a Master’s Degree or a Doctorate in Clinical Psychology or in Sports
Psychology, you’ll earn $50,000 to $100,000 (perhaps more with a
professional sports team), help people and feel good about yourself.
 Sports Performance Management Specialist

43
CONTENT STANDARD - Demonstrates understanding of sports in optimizing one’s
health as a habit; as requisite for physical activity assessment performance, and as a
career opportunity.

PERFORMANCE STANDARD - Leads sports events with proficiency and confidence

resulting in independent pursuit and in influencing others positively

SPORT
a. Individual/Dual
b. Team Sport

LEARNING COMPETENCIES
A. Discusses the nature of the different sports activities (PEH11FH-IIa-18)
B. Explains how to optimize the energy systems for safe and improved performance
(PEH11FH-IIb-c-2)
C. Illustrates the relationship of health behaviors (eating habits, sleep and stress
management) to health risks factors and physical activity assessment
performance (PEH11FH-IId-3)
D. Differentiates types of eating (fueling for performance, emotional eating, social
eating, eating while watching tv or sports events) (PEH11FH-IIe-4)
E. Describes the role of physical activity assessments in managing one’s stress
(PEH11FH-IIf-5)
F. Self-assesses health-related fitness (HRF) status, barriers to physical activity
assessment participation and one’s diet (PEH11FH-IIg-i-6)
G. Sets FITT goals based on training principles to achieve and/or maintain HRF.
(PEH11FH-IIi-j-7)
H. Engages in moderate to vigorous physical activities (MVPAs) for at least 60
minutes most days of the week in a variety of settings in- and out-of school
(PEH11FH-IIa-t-8)

44
I. Analyzes physiological indicators such as heart rate, rate of perceived exertion
and pacing associated with MVPAs to monitor and/or adjust participation or
effort. (PEH11FH-IIk-t-9)
J. Observes personal safety protocol to avoid dehydration, overexertion, hypo- and
hyperthermia during MVPA participation (PEH11FH-IIk-t-10)
K. Identifies school and community resources in case of an injury or emergency
(PEH11FH-IIi-j-11)
L. Demonstrates proper etiquette and safety in the use of facilities and equipment
(PEH11FH-IIa-t-12)
M. Participates in an organized event that addresses health/sports issues and
concerns (PEH11FH-IIk-o-13)
N. Explains the value of optimizing one’s health through participation in physical
activity assessment (PEH11FH-IId-t-14)
O. Displays initiative, responsibility and leadership in sports activities (PEH11FH-IIk-
t-15)
P. Recognizes one’s potential for health-and sports related career opportunities
(PEH11FH-IIp-q-16)
Q. Organizes sports event for a target health issue or concern (PEH11FH-IIo-t-17)

In individual sports, no partner is required to compete or play the game, while

dual sports are sports that require two players on each side. Some sports, such
as tennis, can fall into both categories.

Marathon running and snowboarding are examples of sports that have just one
competitor. People may compete as part of a team in these sports, or represent a
certain state or country, but they are still judged and evaluated based on their
own individual performance. Some sports, like tennis, can fall into both
categories. This is the case with singles tennis and doubles tennis. In singles
tennis, the game is played one-on-one with two participants on the court. In
doubles tennis, the game is played by two players on each team, which amounts
to four people competing in total on the court. Along with single and dual sports,

45
there is another category of sports called team sports. Team sports are those
that have more than two players or participants per side. Crew, soccer, football
and hockey are examples of team sports that require the collaboration of several
individuals working together in a game or tournament.

Pros and Cons of Each, as with any sport, there are advantages and
disadvantages to competing on each type of team. Individual sports can be
advantageous in the sense that they let one person focus on doing his or her
best without having to adapt and adjust to meet another's needs. This situation is
particularly beneficial for strong players and participants, such as top tennis
players who may be at a disadvantage when having to play with another team
member.

In contrast, weaker players may benefit from a stronger partner's superior skills
and talent. An example might be a doubles tennis team where one person has a
strong forehand but a weak backhand, and his or her partner has a strong
backhand.

Many of the same sets of pros and cons typically extend to team sports too. For
those playing in a situation with more than one person, the "me" component of
the competition is subordinate to what the team needs, whether the team is two
people or five. This is beneficial for people with one particular strength, such as a
soccer player who excels as a goalie but is not as good at offense. There can
also be less pressure for an individual to perform at his or her peak capacity in a
team setting than there is in individual sports. That also means that if a person is
having an off day, the team can provide support by picking up the slack. In
individual sports, in contrast, a person having an off day does not have that
support, and his or her final result may be negatively affected. In dual and team
sports, the emphasis is more on the team's strength, and an individual's mistakes
are more easily overlooked and forgiven.

46
Sports Pressure, in any sport, there can be considerable pressure on an
individual to compete and perform at his or her peak capacity. This is particularly
true for high-level sports and teams with a strong winning record. Individually
judged athletes on teams, such as gymnastics, also face this pressure.

a. Badminton
Badminton is a racquet sport played using racquets to hit a shuttlecock across
a net. Although it may be played with larger teams, the most common forms of
the game are "singles" (with one player per side) and "doubles" (with two players
per side). Badminton is often played as a casual outdoor activity in a yard or on a
beach; formal games are played on a rectangular indoor court. Points are scored
by striking the shuttlecock with the racquet and landing it within the opposing
side's half of the court.

Each side may only strike the shuttlecock once before it passes over the net.
Play ends once the shuttlecock has struck the floor or if a fault has been called
by the umpire, service judge, or (in their absence) the opposing side. The
shuttlecock is a feathered or (in informal matches) plastic projectile which flies
differently from the balls used in many other sports. In particular, the feathers
create much higher drag, causing the shuttlecock to decelerate more rapidly.
Shuttlecocks also have a high top speed compared to the balls in other racquet
sports. The flight of the shuttlecock gives the sport its distinctive nature.

History
An 1804 depiction of battledore and shuttlecock An 1854 depiction of battledore
and shuttlecock by John Leech. Games employing shuttlecocks have been
played for centuries across Eurasia, but the modern game of badminton
developed in the mid-19th century among the British as a variant of the earlier
game of battledore and shuttlecock. ("Battledore" was an older term for
"racquet".)Its exact origin remains obscure. The name derives from the Duke of
Beaufort's Badminton House in Gloucestershire, but why or when remains

47
unclear. As early as 1860, a London toy dealer named Isaac Spratt published a
booklet entitled Badminton Battledore – A New Game, but no copy is known to
have survived. An 1863 article in The Cornhill Magazine describes badminton as
"battledore and shuttlecock played with sides, across a string suspended some
five feet from the ground".

The game may have originally developed among expatriate officers in British
India, where it was very popular by the 1870s. Ball badminton, a form of the
game played with a wool ball instead of a shuttlecock, was being played
in Thanjavur as early as the 1850sand was at first played interchangeably with
badminton by the British, the woollen ball being preferred in windy or wet
weather. Early on, the game was also known as Poona or Poonah after the
garrison town of Pune, where it was particularly popular and where the first rules
for the game were drawn up in 1873. By 1875, officers returning home had
started a badminton club in Folkestone. Initially, the sport was played with sides
ranging from 1 to 4 players, but it was quickly established that games between
two or four competitors worked the best. The shuttlecocks were coated with India
rubber and, in outdoor play, sometimes weighted with lead. Although the depth of
the net was of no consequence, it was preferred that it should reach the ground.
The sport was played under the Pune rules until 1887, when J. H. E. Hart of
the Bath Badminton Club drew up revised regulations. In 1890, Hart and Bagnel
Wild again revised the rules. The Badminton Association of England (BAE)
published these rules in 1893 and officially launched the sport at a house called
"Dunbar" in Portsmouth on 13 September. The BAE started the first badminton
competition, the All England Open Badminton Championships for gentlemen's
doubles, ladies' doubles, and mixed doubles, in 1899. Singles competitions were
added in 1900 and an England–Ireland championship match appeared in 1904.
England, Scotland, Wales, Canada, Denmark, France, Ireland, the Netherlands,
and New Zealand were the founding members of the International Badminton
Federation in 1934, now known as the Badminton World Federation. India joined
as an affiliate in 1936. The BWF now governs international badminton. Although

48
initiated in England, competitive men's badminton has traditionally been
dominated in Europe by Denmark.

Rules

Court
The court is rectangular and divided into halves by a net. Courts are usually
marked for both singles and doubles play, although badminton rules permit a
court to be marked for singles only. The doubles court is wider than the singles
court, but both are of the same length. The exception, which often causes
confusion to newer players, is that the doubles court has a shorter serve-length
dimension. The full width of the court is 6.1 metres (20 ft), and in singles this
width is reduced to 5.18 metres (17 ft). The full length of the court is 13.4 metres
(44 ft). The service courts are marked by a centre line dividing the width of the
court, by a short service line at a distance of 1.98 metres (6 ft 6 inch) from the
net, and by the outer side and back boundaries. In doubles, the service court is
also marked by a long service line, which is 0.76 metres (2 ft 6 inch) from the
back boundary. The net is 1.55 metres (5 ft 1 inch) high at the edges and
1.524 metres (5 ft) high in the centre. The net posts are placed over the doubles
sidelines, even when singles is played.

The minimum height for the ceiling above the court is not mentioned in the Laws
of Badminton. Nonetheless, a badminton court will not be suitable if the ceiling is
likely to be hit on a high serve.

Serving
When the server serves, the shuttlecock must pass over the short service line on
the opponents' court or it will count as a fault. At the start of the rally, the server
and receiver stand in diagonally opposite service courts (see court dimensions).
The server hits the shuttlecock so that it would land in the receiver's service
court. This is similar to tennis, except that a badminton serve must be hit below

49
waist height and with the racquet shaft pointing downwards, the shuttlecock is
not allowed to bounce and in badminton, the players stand inside their service
courts, unlike tennis. When the serving side loses a rally, the server immediately
passes to their opponent(s) (this differs from the old system where sometimes
the serve passes to the doubles partner for what is known as a "second serve").
In singles, the server stands in their right service court when their score is even,
and in her/his left service court when her/his score is odd.

In doubles, if the serving side wins a rally, the same player continues to serve,
but he/she changes service courts so that she/he serves to a different opponent
each time. If the opponents win the rally and their new score is even, the player
in the right service court serves; if odd, the player in the left service court serves.
The players' service courts are determined by their positions at the start of the
previous rally, not by where they were standing at the end of the rally. A
consequence of this system is that each time a side regains the service, the
server will be the player who did not serve last time.

Scoring
Each game is played to 21 points, with players scoring a point whenever they win
a rally regardless of whether they served (this differs from the old system where
players could only win a point on their serve and each game was played to 15
points). A match is the best of three games. If the score reaches 20-all, then the
game continues until one side gains a two-point lead (such as 24–22), except
when there is a tie at 29-all, in which the game goes to a golden point. Whoever
scores this point will win.

At the start of a match, the shuttlecock is cast and the side towards which the
shuttlecock is pointing serves first. Alternatively, a coin may be tossed, with the
winners choosing whether to serve or receive first, or choosing which end of the
court to occupy first, and their opponents making the leftover the remaining
choice. In subsequent games, the winners of the previous game serve first.

50
Matches are best out of three: a player or pair must win two games (of 21 points
each) to win the match. For the first rally of any doubles game, the serving pair
may decide who serves and the receiving pair may decide who receives. The
players change ends at the start of the second game; if the match reaches a third
game, they change ends both at the start of the game and when the leading
player's or pair's score reaches 11 points.

The server and receiver must remain within their service courts, without touching
the boundary lines, until the server strikes the shuttlecock. The other two players
may stand wherever they wish, so long as they do not block the vision of the
server or receiver.

Lets
If a let is called, the rally is stopped and replayed with no change to the score.
Lets may occur because of some unexpected disturbance such as a shuttlecock
landing on a court (having been hit there by players playing in adjacent court) or
in small halls the shuttle may touch an overhead rail which can be classed as a
let. If the receiver is not ready when the service is delivered, a let shall be called;
yet, if the receiver attempts to return the shuttlecock, the receiver shall be judged
to have been ready.

Equipment

Racquets
Badminton racquets are lightweight, with top quality racquets weighing between
70 and 95 grams (2.5 and 3.4 ounces) not including grip or strings. They are
composed of many different materials ranging from carbon fibre
composite (graphite reinforced plastic) to solid steel, which may be augmented
by a variety of materials. Carbon fibre has an excellent strength to weight ratio, is
stiff, and gives excellent kinetic energy transfer. Before the adoption of carbon
fibre composite, racquets were made of light metals such as aluminium. Earlier

51
still, racquets were made of wood. Cheap racquets are still often made of metals
such as steel, but wooden racquets are no longer manufactured for the ordinary
market, because of their excessive mass and cost. Nowadays, nanomaterials
such ascarbon nanotubes and fullerene are added to racquets giving them
greater durability.

There is a wide variety of racquet designs, although the laws limit the racquet
size and shape. Different racquets have playing characteristics that appeal to
different players. The traditional oval head shape is still available, but
an isometric head shape is increasingly common in new racquets.

Strings
Badminton strings for racquets are thin, high performing strings with thicknesses
ranging from about 0.62 to 0.73 mm. Thicker strings are more durable, but many
players prefer the feel of thinner strings. String tension is normally in the range of
80 to 160 N (18 to 36 lbf). Recreational players generally string at lower tensions
than professionals, typically between 80 and 110 N (18 and 25 lbf). Professionals
string between about 110 and 160 N (25 and 36 lbf). Some string manufacturers
measure the thickness of their strings under tension so they are actually thicker
than specified when slack. Ashaway Micropower is actually 0.7mm but Yonex
BG-66 is about 0.72mm.

It is often argued that high string tensions improve control, whereas low string
tensions increase power. The arguments for this generally rely on crude
mechanical reasoning, such as claiming that a lower tension string bed is more
bouncy and therefore provides more power. This is, in fact, incorrect, for a higher
string tension can cause the shuttle to slide off the racquet and hence make it
harder to hit a shot accurately. An alternative view suggests that the optimum
tension for power depends on the player: the faster and more accurately a player
can swing their racquet, the higher the tension for maximum power. Neither view
has been subjected to a rigorous mechanical analysis, nor is there clear

52
evidence in favour of one or the other. The most effective way for a player to find
a good string tension is to experiment.

Grip
The choice of grip allows a player to increase the thickness of their racquet
handle and choose a comfortable surface to hold. A player may build up the
handle with one or several grips before applying the final layer. Players may
choose between a variety of grip materials. The most common choices
are PU synthetic grips or towelling grips. Grip choice is a matter of personal
preference. Players often find that sweat becomes a problem; in this case, a
drying agent may be applied to the grip or hands, sweatbands may be used, the
player may choose another grip material or change his/her grip more frequently.
There are two main types of grip: replacement grips and overgrips. Replacement
grips are thicker and are often used to increase the size of the handle. Overgrips
are thinner (less than 1 mm), and are often used as the final layer. Many players,
however, prefer to use replacement grips as the final layer. Towelling grips are
always replacement grips. Replacement grips have an adhesive backing,
whereas overgrips have only a small patch of adhesive at the start of the tape
and must be applied under tension; overgrips are more convenient for players
who change grips frequently, because they may be removed more rapidly without
damaging the underlying material.

Shuttlecock
A shuttlecock (often abbreviated to shuttle; also called a birdie) is a high-
drag projectile, with an open conical shape: the cone is formed from sixteen
overlapping feathers embedded into a rounded cork base. The cork is covered
with thin leather or synthetic material. Synthetic shuttles are often used by
recreational players to reduce their costs as feathered shuttles break easily.
These nylon shuttles may be constructed with either natural cork or synthetic
foam base and a plastic skirt.

53
Badminton rules also provide for testing a shuttlecock for the correct speed:
3.1: To test a shuttlecock, hit a full underhand stroke which makes contact with
the shuttlecock over the back boundary line. The shuttlecock shall be hit at an
upward angle and in a direction parallel to the sidelines.
3.2: A shuttlecock of the correct speed will land not less than 530 mm and not
more than 990 mm short of the other back

Shoes
Badminton shoes are lightweight with soles of rubber or similar high-grip, non-
marking materials. Compared to running shoes, badminton shoes have
little lateral support. High levels of lateral support are useful for activities where
lateral motion is undesirable and unexpected. Badminton, however, requires
powerful lateral movements. A highly built-up lateral support will not be able to
protect the foot in badminton; instead, it will encourage catastrophic collapse at
the point where the shoe's support fails, and the player's ankles are not ready for
the sudden loading, which can cause sprains. For this reason, players should
choose badminton shoes rather than general trainers or running shoes, because
proper badminton shoes will have a very thin sole, lower a person's centre of
gravity, and therefore result in fewer injuries. Players should also ensure that
they learn safe and proper footwork, with the knee and foot in alignment on all
lunges. This is more than just a safety concern: proper footwork is also critical in
order to move effectively around the court.

Techniques

Strokes
Badminton offers a wide variety of basic strokes, and players require a high level
of skill to perform all of them effectively. All strokes can be played
either forehand or backhand. A player's forehand side is the same side as their
playing hand: for a right-handed player, the forehand side is their right side and
the backhand side is their left side. Forehand strokes are hit with the front of the

54
hand leading (like hitting with the palm), whereas backhand strokes are hit with
the back of the hand leading (like hitting with the knuckles). Players frequently
play certain strokes on the forehand side with a backhand hitting action, and vice
versa.

In the forecourt and midcourt, most strokes can be played equally effectively on
either the forehand or backhand side; but in the rear court, players will attempt to
play as many strokes as possible on their forehands, often preferring to play
a round-the-head forehand overhead (a forehand "on the backhand side") rather
than attempt a backhand overhead. Playing a backhand overhead has two main
disadvantages. First, the player must turn their back to their opponents,
restricting their view of them and the court. Second, backhand overheads cannot
be hit with as much power as forehands: the hitting action is limited by the
shoulder joint, which permits a much greater range of movement for a forehand
overhead than for a backhand. The backhand clear is considered by most
players and coaches to be the most difficult basic stroke in the game, since the
precise technique is needed in order to muster enough power for the shuttlecock
to travel the full length of the court. For the same reason, backhand
smashes tend to be weak.

Position of the shuttlecock and receiving player

The choice of stroke depends on how near the shuttlecock is to the net, whether
it is above net height, and where an opponent is currently positioned: players
have much better attacking options if they can reach the shuttlecock well above
net height, especially if it is also close to the net. In the forecourt, a high
shuttlecock will be met with a net kill, hitting it steeply downwards and attempting
to win the rally immediately. This is why it is best to drop the shuttlecock just over
the net in this situation. In the midcourt, a high shuttlecock will usually be met
with a powerful smash, also hitting downwards and hoping for an outright winner
or a weak reply. Athletic jump smashes, where players jump upwards for a
steeper smash angle, are a common and spectacular element of elite men's

55
doubles play. In the rearcourt, players strive to hit the shuttlecock while it is still
above them, rather than allowing it to drop lower. This overhead hitting allows
them to play smashes, clears (hitting the shuttlecock high and to the back of the
opponents' court), and drop shots (hitting the shuttlecock softly so that it falls
sharply downwards into the opponents' forecourt). If the shuttlecock has dropped
lower, then a smash is impossible and a full-length, high clear is difficult.

Vertical position of the shuttlecock

When the shuttlecock is well below net height, players have no choice but to hit
upwards. Lifts, where the shuttlecock is hit upwards to the back of the opponents'
court, can be played from all parts of the court. If a player does not lift, his only
remaining option is to push the shuttlecock softly back to the net: in the forecourt,
this is called a net shot; in the midcourt or rear court, it is often called
a push or block. When the shuttlecock is near to net height, players can
hit drives, which travel flat and rapidly over the net into the opponents' rear
midcourt and rear court. Pushes may also be hit flatter, placing the shuttlecock
into the front midcourt. Drives and pushes may be played from the midcourt or
forecourt, and are most often used in doubles: they are an attempt to regain the
attack, rather than choosing to lift the shuttlecock and defend against smashes.
After a successful drive or push, the opponents will often be forced to lift the
shuttlecock.

b. Boxing
Boxing is a combat sport in which two people, usually wearing protective gloves,
throw punches at each other for a predetermined amount of time in a boxing ring.
Amateur boxing is both an Olympic and Commonwealth Games sport and is a
common fixture in most international games—it also has its own World
Championships. Boxing is overseen by a referee over a series of one- to three-
minute intervals called rounds. The result is decided when an opponent is
deemed incapable to continue by a referee, is disqualified for breaking a rule, or
resigns by throwing in a towel. If a fight completes all of its allocated rounds, the

56
victor is determined by judges' scorecards at the end of the contest. In the event
that both fighters gain equal scores from the judges, professional bouts are
considered a draw. In Olympic boxing, because a winner must be declared,
judges award the content to one fighter on technical criteria.

History
The earliest known depiction of boxing comes from a Sumerian relief in Iraq from
the 3rd millennium BC. Later depictions from the 2nd millennium BC are found in
reliefs from the Mesopotamian nations of Assyria and Babylonia, and in Hittite art
from Asia Minor. A relief sculpture from Egyptian Thebes (c. 1350 BC) shows
both boxers and spectators. These early Middle-Eastern and Egyptian depictions
showed contests where fighters were either bare-fisted or had a band supporting
the wrist. The earliest evidence of fist fighting with the use of gloves can be found
on Minoan Crete (c. 1500–1400 BC).

Various types of boxing existed in ancient India. The earliest references to musti-
yuddha come from classical Vedic epics such as the Ramayana and Rig Veda.
The Mahabharata describes two combatants boxing with clenched fists and
fighting with kicks, finger strikes, knee strikes and headbutts. Duels (niyuddham)
were often fought to the death.[citation needed] During the period of the Western
Satraps, the ruler Rudradaman - in addition to being well-versed in "the great
sciences" which included Indian classical music, Sanskrit grammar, and logic -
was said to be an excellent horseman, charioteer, elephant rider, swordsman
and boxer. The Gurbilas Shemi, an 18th-century Sikh text, gives numerous
references to musti-yuddha.

In Ancient Greece boxing was a well developed sport and enjoyed consistent
popularity. In Olympic terms, it was first introduced in the 23rd Olympiad, 688
BC. The boxers would wind leather thongs around their hands in order to protect
them. There were no rounds and boxers fought until one of them acknowledged
defeat or could not continue. Weight categories were not used, which meant

57
heavyweights had a tendency to dominate. The style of boxing practiced typically
featured an advanced left leg stance, with the left arm semi-extended as a guard,
in addition to being used for striking, and with the right arm drawn back ready to
strike. It was the head of the opponent which was primarily targeted, and there is
little evidence to suggest that targeting the body was common. Boxing was a
popular spectator sport in Ancient Rome. In order for the fighters to protect
themselves against their opponents they wrapped leather thongs around their
fists. Eventually harder leather was used and the thong soon became a weapon.
The Romans even introduced metal studs to the thongs to make the cestus.
Fighting events were held at Roman Amphitheatres. The Roman form of boxing
was often a fight until death to please the spectators who gathered at such
events. However, especially in later times, purchased slaves and trained combat
performers were valuable commodities, and their lives were not given up without
due consideration. Often slaves were used against one another in a circle
marked on the floor. This is where the term ring came from. In AD 393, during the
Roman gladiator period, boxing was abolished due to excessive brutality. It was
not until the late 16th century that boxing re-surfaced in London.

Records of Classical boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the

Western Roman Empire when the wearing of weapons became common once
again and interest in fighting with the fists waned. However, there are detailed
records of various fist-fighting sports that were maintained in different cities and
provinces of Italy between the 12th and 17th centuries. There was also a sport
in ancient Rus called Kulachniy Boy or "Fist Fighting". As the wearing of swords
became less common, there was renewed interest in fencing with the fists. The
sport would later resurface in England during the early 16th century in the form
of bare-knuckle boxing sometimes referred to as prizefighting. The first
documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in
the London Protestant Mercury, and the first English bare-knuckle champion
was James Figg in 1719. This is also the time when the word "boxing" first came
to be used. This earliest form of modern boxing was very different. Contests in

58
Mr. Figg's time, in addition to fist fighting, also contained fencing and cudgeling.
On 6 January 1681, the first recorded boxing match took place in Britain
when Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle (and later Lieutenant Governor
of Jamaica) engineered a bout between his butler and his butcher with the latter
winning the prize.

Early fighting had no written rules. There were no weight divisions or round limits,
and no referee. In general, it was extremely chaotic. An early article on boxing
was published in Nottingham, 1713, by Sir Thomas Parkyns, a successful
Wrestler from Bunny, Nottinghamshire, who had practised the techniques he
described. The article, a single page in his manual of wrestling and
fencing, Progymnasmata: The inn-play, or Cornish-hugg wrestler, described a
system of headbutting, punching, eye-gouging, chokes, and hard throws, not
recognized in boxing today.

The first boxing rules, called the Broughton's rules, were introduced by
champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths
sometimes occurred. Under these rules, if a man went down and could not
continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter
and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton encouraged the use of
'mufflers', a form of padded bandage or mitten, to be used in 'jousting' or sparring
sessions in training, and in exhibition matches.

These rules did allow the fighters an advantage not enjoyed by today's boxers;
they permitted the fighter to drop to one knee to end the round and begin the 30-
second count at any time. Thus a fighter realizing he was in trouble had an
opportunity to recover. However, this was considered "unmanly" and was
frequently disallowed by additional rules negotiated by the Seconds of the
Boxers. In modern boxing, there is a three-minute limit to rounds (unlike the
downed fighter ends the round rule). Intentionally going down in modern boxing
will cause the recovering fighter to lose points in the scoring system.

59
Furthermore, as the contestants did not have heavy leather gloves and
wristwraps to protect their hands, they used different punching technique to
preserve their hands because the head was a common target to hit full out.
Almost all period manuals have powerful straight punches with the whole body
behind them to the face (including forehead) as the basic blows. The London
Prize Ring Rules introduced measures that remain in effect for professional
boxing to this day, such as outlawing butting, gouging, scratching, kicking, hitting
a man while down, holding the ropes, and using resin, stones or hard objects in
the hands, and biting.

Rules
The Marquess of Queensberry rules have been the general rules governing
modern boxing since their publication in 1867.

A boxing match typically consists of a determined number of three-minute

rounds, a total of up to 9 to 12 rounds. A minute is typically spent between each
round with the fighters in their assigned corners receiving advice and attention
from their coach and staff. The fight is controlled by a referee who works within
the ring to judge and control the conduct of the fighters, rule on their ability to
fight safely, count knocked-down fighters, and rule on fouls.

Up to three judges are typically present at ringside to score the bout and assign
points to the boxers, based on punches and elbows that connect, defense,
knockdowns, hugging and other, more subjective, measures. Because of the
open-ended style of boxing judging, many fights have controversial results, in
which one or both fighters believe they have been "robbed" or unfairly denied a
victory. Each fighter has an assigned corner of the ring, where his or her coach,
as well as one or more "seconds" may administer to the fighter at the beginning
of the fight and between rounds. Each boxer enters into the ring from their
assigned corners at the beginning of each round and must cease fighting and
return to their corner at the signalled end of each round.

60
A bout in which the predetermined number of rounds passes is decided by the
judges, and is said to "go the distance". The fighter with the higher score at the
end of the fight is ruled the winner. With three judges, unanimous and split
decisions are possible, as are draws. A boxer may win the bout before a decision
is reached through a knock-out; such bouts are said to have ended "inside the
distance". If a fighter is knocked down during the fight, determined by whether
the boxer touches the canvas floor of the ring with any part of their body other
than the feet as a result of the opponent's punch and not a slip, as determined by
the referee, the referee begins counting until the fighter returns to his or her feet
and can continue. Some jurisdictions require the referee to count to
eight regardless of if the fighter gets up before.

Should the referee count to ten, then the knocked-down boxer is ruled "knocked
out" (whether unconscious or not) and the other boxer is ruled the winner
by knockout(KO). A "technical knock-out" (TKO) is possible as well, and is ruled
by the referee, fight doctor, or a fighter's corner if a fighter is unable to safely
continue to fight, based upon injuries or being judged unable to effectively defend
themselves. Many jurisdictions and sanctioning agencies also have a "three-
knockdown rule", in which three knockdowns in a given round result in a TKO. A
TKO is considered a knockout in a fighter's record. A "standing eight" count rule
may also be in effect. This gives the referee the right to step in and administer a
count of eight to a fighter that he or she feels may be in danger, even if no
knockdown has taken place. After counting the referee will observe the fighter,
and decide if he or she is fit to continue. For scoring purposes, a standing eight
count is treated as a knockdown.

In general, boxers are prohibited from hitting below the belt, holding, tripping,
pushing, biting, or spitting. The boxer's shorts are raised so the opponent is not
allowed to hit to the groin area with intent to cause pain or injury. Failure to abide
by the former may result in a foul. They also are prohibited from kicking, head-

61
butting, or hitting with any part of the arm other than the knuckles of a closed fist
(including hitting with the elbow, shoulder or forearm, as well as with open
gloves, the wrist, the inside, back or side of the hand). They are prohibited as
well from hitting the back, back of the head or neck (called a "rabbit-punch") or
the kidneys. They are prohibited from holding the ropes for support when
punching, holding an opponent while punching, or ducking below the belt of their
opponent (dropping below the waist of your opponent, no matter the distance
between).

If a "clinch" – a defensive move in which a boxer wraps his or her opponents

arms and holds on to create a pause – is broken by the referee, each fighter
must take a full step back before punching again (alternatively, the referee may
direct the fighters to "punch out" of the clinch). When a boxer is knocked down,
the other boxer must immediately cease fighting and move to the furthest neutral
corner of the ring until the referee has either ruled a knockout or called for the
fight to continue.

Violations of these rules may be ruled "fouls" by the referee, who may issue
warnings, deduct points, or disqualify an offending boxer, causing an automatic
loss, depending on the seriousness and intentionality of the foul. An intentional
foul that causes injury that prevents a fight from continuing usually causes the
boxer who committed it to be disqualified. A fighter who suffers an accidental
low-blow may be given up to five minutes to recover, after which they may be
ruled knocked out if they are unable to continue. Accidental fouls that cause
injury ending a bout may lead to a "no contest" result, or else cause the fight to
go to a decision if enough rounds (typically four or more, or at least three in a
four-round fight) have passed.

Unheard of in the modern era, but common during the early 20th Century in
North America, a "newspaper decision (NWS)" might be made after a no decision
bout had ended. A "no decision" bout occurred when, by law or by pre-

62
arrangement of the fighters, if both boxers were still standing at the fight's
conclusion and there was no knockout, no official decision was rendered and
neither boxer was declared the winner. But this did not prevent the pool of
ringside newspaper reporters from declaring a consensus result among
themselves and printing a newspaper decision in their publications. Officially,
however, a "no decision" bout resulted in neither boxer winning or losing. Boxing
historians sometimes use these unofficial newspaper decisions in compiling fight
records for illustrative purposes only. Often, media outlets covering a match will
personally score the match, and post their scores as an independent sentence in
their report.

Boxing Styles
Boxer/out-fighter
A classic "boxer" or stylist (also known as an "out-fighter") seeks to maintain
distance between himself and his opponent, fighting with faster, longer range
punches, most notably the jab, and gradually wearing his opponent down. Due to
this reliance on weaker punches, out-fighters tend to win by point decisions
rather than by knockout, though some out-fighters have notable knockout
records. They are often regarded as the best boxing strategists due to their ability
to control the pace of the fight and lead their opponent, methodically wearing him
down and exhibiting more skill and finesse than a brawler. Out-fighters need
reach, hand speed, reflexes, and footwork.

Notable out-fighters include Muhammad Ali, Larry Holmes, Joe

Calzaghe, Wilfredo Gómez, Salvador Sanchez, Cecilia Brækhus, Gene
Tunney, Ezzard Charles, Willie Pep, Meldrick Taylor, Ricardo Lopez, Floyd
Mayweather Jr., Roy Jones Jr., Sugar Ray Leonard, Miguel Vazquez, Sergio
"Maravilla" Martínez, Vitali Klitschko, Wladimir Klitschko and Guillermo
Rigondeaux. This style was also used by fictional boxer Apollo Creed.

Boxer-puncher

63
A boxer-puncher is a well-rounded boxer who is able to fight at close range with
a combination of technique and power, often with the ability to knock opponents
out with a combination and in some instances a single shot. Their movement and
tactics are similar to that of an out-fighter (although they are generally not as
mobile as an out-fighter),but instead of winning by decision, they tend to wear
their opponents down using combinations and then move in to score the
knockout. A boxer must be well rounded to be effective using this style.

Notable boxer-punchers include Muhammad Ali, Canelo Álvarez, Wladimir

Klitschko, Vasyl Lomachenko, Lennox Lewis, Joe Louis, Wilfredo Gómez, Oscar
de la Hoya, Archie Moore, Miguel Cotto, Nonito Donaire, Sam Langford,Henry
Armstrong, Sugar Ray Robinson Tony Zale, Carlos Monzón, Alexis Argüello, Erik
Morales, Terry Norris, Marco Antonio Barrera, Naseem Hamed, Thomas Hearns,
and Gennady Golovkin.

Counter puncher
Counter punchers are slippery, defensive style fighters who often rely on their
opponent's mistakes in order to gain the advantage, whether it be on the score
cards or more preferably a knockout. They use their well-rounded defense to
avoid or block shots and then immediately catch the opponent off guard with a
well placed and timed punch. A fight with a skilled counter-puncher can turn into
a war of attrition, where each shot landed is a battle in itself. Thus, fighting
against counter punchers requires constant feinting and the ability to avoid
telegraphing one's attacks. To be truly successful using this style they must have
good reflexes, a high level of prediction and awareness, pinpoint accuracy and
speed, both in striking and in footwork.

Notable counter punchers include Muhammad Ali, Joe Calzaghe, Vitali

Klitschko, Evander Holyfield, Max Schmeling, Chris Byrd, Jim Corbett, Jack
Johnson, Bernard Hopkins, Laszlo Papp, Jerry Quarry, Anselmo Moreno, James
Toney, Marvin Hagler, Juan Manuel Márquez, Humberto Soto, Floyd

64
Mayweather Jr., Roger Mayweather, Pernell Whitaker, Sergio Gabriel
Martinez and Guillermo Rigondeaux. This style of boxing is also used by fictional
boxer Little Mac.

Brawler/slugger
A brawler is a fighter who generally lacks finesse and footwork in the ring, but
makes up for it through sheer punching power. Many brawlers tend to lack
mobility, preferring a less mobile, more stable platform and have difficulty
pursuing fighters who are fast on their feet. They may also have a tendency to
ignore combination punching in favor of continuous beat-downs with one hand
and by throwing slower, more powerful single punches (such as hooks and
uppercuts). Their slowness and predictable punching pattern (single punches
with obvious leads) often leaves them open to counter punches, so successful
brawlers must be able to absorb substantial amounts of punishment. However,
not all brawler/slugger fighters are not mobile; some can move around and switch
styles if needed but still have the brawler/slugger style such as Wilfredo
Gómez, Prince Naseem Hamed and Danny García.

A brawler's most important assets are power and chin (the ability to absorb
punishment while remaining able to continue boxing). Examples of this style
include George Foreman, Rocky Marciano, Julio César Chávez, Roberto
Duran, Danny García, Wilfredo Gómez, Sonny Liston, John L. Sullivan, Max
Baer, Prince Naseem Hamed, Ray Mancini, David Tua, Arturo Gatti, Micky
Ward, Brandon Ríos, Ruslan Provodnikov, Michael Katsidis, James
Kirkland, Marcos Maidana, Jake LaMotta, Manny Pacquiao, and Ireland's John
Duddy. This style of boxing was also used by fictional boxers Rocky Balboa and
James "Clubber" Lang.

Swarmer/in-fighter
In-fighters/swarmers (sometimes called "pressure fighters") attempt to stay close
to an opponent, throwing intense flurries and combinations of hooks and

65
uppercuts. Mainly Mexican, Irish, Irish-American, Puerto Rican, and Mexican-
American boxers popularized this style. A successful in-fighter often needs a
good "chin" because swarming usually involves being hit with many jabs before
they can maneuver inside where they are more effective. In-fighters operate best
at close range because they are generally shorter and have less reach than their
opponents and thus are more effective at a short distance where the longer arms
of their opponents make punching awkward. However, several fighters tall for
their division have been relatively adept at in-fighting as well as out-fighting.

The essence of a swarmer is non-stop aggression. Many short in-fighters use

their stature to their advantage, employing a bob-and-weave defense by bending
at the waist to slip underneath or to the sides of incoming punches. Unlike
blocking, causing an opponent to miss a punch disrupts his balance, this permits
forward movement past the opponent's extended arm and keeps the hands free
to counter. A distinct advantage that in-fighters have is when throwing uppercuts,
they can channel their entire bodyweight behind the punch; Mike Tyson was
famous for throwing devastating uppercuts. Marvin Hagler was known for his
hard "chin", punching power, body attack and the stalking of his opponents.
Some in-fighters, like Mike Tyson, have been known for being notoriously hard to
hit. The key to a swarmer is aggression, endurance, chin, and bobbing-and-
weaving.

Notable in-fighters include Henry Armstrong, Aaron Pryor, Julio César

Chávez, Jack Dempsey, Shawn Porter, Miguel Cotto, Joe Frazier, Danny
García, Mike Tyson, Manny Pacquiao, Rocky Marciano, Wayne
McCullough, Gerry Penalosa, Harry Greb, David Tua, James Toney and Ricky
Hatton. This style was also used by the Street Fighter character Balrog.

c. Equestrian
Equestrianism (from Latin equester, equestr-, equus, horseman, horse), more
often known as horse riding (British English) or horseback riding (American

66
English), refers to the skill and sport of
riding, driving, steeplechasing or vaulting with horses. This broad description
includes the use of horses for practical working purposes, transportation,
recreational activities, artistic or cultural exercises, and competitive sport.

History
Though there is controversy over the exact date horses were domesticated and
when they were first ridden, the best estimate is that horses first were ridden
approximately 3500 BC. Indirect evidence suggests that horses were ridden long
before they were driven. There is some evidence that about 3,000 BC, near
the Dnieper River and the Don River, people were using bitson horses, as a
stallion that was buried there shows teeth wear consistent with using a bit.
However, the most unequivocal early archaeological evidence of equines put to
working use was of horses being driven. Chariot burials about 2500 BC present
the most direct hard evidence of horses used as working animals. In ancient
times chariot warfare was followed by the use of war horses as light and
heavy cavalry. The horse played an important role throughout human history all
over the world, both in warfare and in peaceful pursuits such
as transportation, trade and agriculture. Horses lived in North America, but died
out at the end of the Ice Age. Horses were brought back to North America by
European explorers, beginning with the second voyage of Columbus in
1493. Equestrianism was introduced in the 1900 Summer Olympics as an
Olympic sport with jumping events.

Types of horse racing

Under saddle
 Thoroughbred horse racing is the most popular form worldwide. In the UK,
it is known as flat racing and is governed by the Jockey Club in the
United Kingdom. In the USA, horse racing is governed by The Jockey
Club.

67
 Steeplechasing involves racing on a track where the horses also jump
over obstacles. It is most common in the UK, where it is also
called National Hunt racing.
 American Quarter Horse racing—races over distances of approximately a
quarter-mile. Seen mostly in the United States, sanctioned by
the American Quarter Horse Association.
 Arabian horses, Akhal-Teke, Appaloosas, American Paint Horses and
other light breeds are also raced worldwide.
 Endurance riding, a sport in which the Arabian horse dominates at the top
levels, has become very popular in the United States and in Europe.
The Federation Equestre International (FEI) governs international races,
and the American Endurance Ride Conference (AERC) organizes the
sport in North America. Endurance races take place over a given,
measured distance and the horses have an even start. Races are usually
50 to 100 miles (80 to 161 km), over mountainous or other natural terrain,
with scheduled stops to take the horses' vital signs, check soundness and
verify that the horse is fit to continue. The first horse to finish and be
confirmed by the veterinarian as fit to continue is the winner. Additional
awards are usually given to the best-conditioned horses who finish in the
top 10. Limited distance rides of about 25–20 miles (40–32 km) are
offered to newcomers.
 Ride and Tie (in North America, organized by Ride and Tie Association).
Ride and Tie involves three equal partners: two humans and one horse.
The humans alternately run and ride.
 Show jumping is when a horse carries a rider over an obstacle also
commonly known as a jump. There are multiple jumps in a show, and if
the horse hits or refuses a jump, points will be deducted from the rider
score. This is also a timed event, and the rider is expected to complete the
course in a certain amount of time, without error. There are also the hunter
divisions. In the hunters, riders have to make their horses look good whilst
they ride their courses. The judges look at the quality of the course, and if

68
 there are two or more riders who had put down amazing courses, then the
judge or judges looks at how the horse looks and acts with the rider.

d. Fencing
Fencing is a group of three related combat sports. The three disciplines in
modern fencing are the foil, the épée, and the sabre; winning points are made
through the contact with an opponent. A fourth discipline, singlestick, appeared in
the 1904 Olympics but was dropped after that, and is not a part of modern
fencing. Fencing was one of the first sports to be played in the Olympics. Based
on the traditional skills of swordsmanship, the modern sport arose at the end of
the 19th century, with the Italian school having modified the historical European
martial art of classical fencing, and the Frenchschool later refining the Italian
system. There are three forms of modern fencing, each of which uses a different
kind of weapon and has different rules; thus the sport itself is divided into three
competitive scenes: foil, épée, and sabre. Most competitive fencers choose to
specialize in one weapon only. Competitive fencing is one of the five activities
which have been featured in every modern Olympic Games, the other four
being athletics, cycling, swimming, and gymnastics.

History
Fencing traces its roots to the development of swordsmanship for duels and self
defense. Fencing is believed to have originated in Spain; some of the most
significant books on fencing were written by Spanish fencers. Treatise on
Armswas written by Diego de Valera between 1458 and 1471 and is one of the
oldest surviving manuals on western fencing (in spite of the title, the book of
Diego Valera was on heraldry, not about fencing) shortly before dueling came
under official ban by the Catholic Monarchs. In conquest, the Spanish forces
carried fencing around the world, particularly to southern Italy, one of the major

69
areas of strife between both nations. Fencing was mentioned in the play The
Merry Wives of Windsor written sometime prior to 1602.

The mechanics of modern fencing originated in the 18th century in an Italian

school of fencing of the Renaissance, and under their influence, were improved
by the French school of fencing. The Spanish school of fencing stagnated and
was replaced by the Italian and French schools.

The shift towards fencing as a sport rather than as military training happened
from the mid-18th century, and was led by Domenico Angelo, who established a
fencing academy, Angelo's School of Arms, in Carlisle House, Soho, London in
1763. There, he taught the aristocracy the fashionable art of swordsmanship. His
school was run by three generations of his family and dominated the art of
European fencing for almost a century.

He established the essential rules of posture and footwork that still govern
modern sport fencing, although his attacking and parrying methods were still
much different from current practice. Although he intended to prepare his
students for real combat, he was the first fencing master to emphasize
the healthand sporting benefits of fencing more than its use as a killing art,
particularly in his influential book L'École des armes (The School of Fencing),
published in 1763.

The first regularized fencing competition was held at the inaugural Grand Military
Tournament and Assault at Arms in 1880, held at the Royal Agricultural Hall,
in Islington in June. The Tournament featured a series of competitions
between army officers and soldiers. Each bout was fought for five hits and the
foils were pointed with black to aid the judges. The Amateur Gymnastic &
Fencing Association drew up an official set of fencing regulations in 1896.
Fencing was part of the Olympic Games in the summer of 1896. Sabre events
have been held at every Summer Olympics; foil events have been held at every

70
Summer Olympics except 1908; épée events have been held at every Summer
Olympics except in the summer of 1896 because of unknown reasons. Starting
with épée in 1933, side judges were replaced by the Laurent-Pagan electrical
scoring apparatus, with an audible tone and a red or green light indicating when
a touch landed. Foil was automated in 1956, sabre in 1988. The scoring box
reduced the bias in judging, and permitted more accurate scoring of faster
actions, lighter touches, and more touches to the back and flank than before.

Equipment

Weapon

Foil
The foil is a light thrusting weapon with a maximum weight of 500 grams. The foil
targets the torso, but not the arms or legs. The foil has a small circular hand
guard that serves to protect the hand from direct stabs. As the hand is not a valid
target in foil, this is primarily for safety. Touches are scored only with the tip; hits
with the side of the blade do not register on the electronic scoring apparatus (and
do not halt the action). Touches that land outside the target area (called an off-
target touch and signaled by a distinct color on the scoring apparatus) stop the
action, but are not scored. Only a single touch can be awarded to either fencer at
the end of a phrase. If both fencers land touches within a close enough interval of
milliseconds to register two lights on the machine, the referee uses the rules of
"right of way" to determine which fencer is awarded the touch, or if an off-target
hit has priority over a valid hit, in which case no touch is awarded. If the referee is
unable to determine which fencer has right of way, no touch is awarded.

Épée
The épée is a thrusting weapon like the foil, but heavier, with a maximum total
weight of 775 grams. In épée, the entire body is valid target. The hand guard on
the épée is a large circle that extends towards the pommel, effectively covering

71
the hand, which is a valid target in épée. Like foil, all hits must be with the tip and
not the sides of the blade. Hits with the side of the blade do not register on the
electronic scoring apparatus (and do not halt the action). As the entire body is
legal target, there is no concept of an off-target touch, except if the fencer
accidentally strikes the floor, setting off the light and tone on the scoring
apparatus. Unlike foil and sabre, épée does not use "right of way", and awards
simultaneous touches to both fencers. However, if the score is tied in a match at
the last point and a double touch is scored, the point is null and void.

Sabre
The sabre is a light cutting and thrusting weapon that targets the entire body
above the waist, except the weapon hand. Sabre is the newest weapon to be
used. Like the foil, the maximum legal weight of a sabre is 500 grams. The hand
guard on the sabre extends from hilt to the point at which the blade connects to
the pommel. This guard is generally turned outwards during sport to protect the
sword arm from touches. Hits with the entire blade or point are valid. As in foil,
touches that land outside the target area are not scored. However, unlike foil,
these off-target touches do not stop the action, and the fencing continues. In the
case of both fencers landing a scoring touch, the referee determines which
fencer receives the point for the action, again through the use of "right of way".

Protective Clothing

The complete fencing kit includes:

Jacket
The jacket is form-fitting, and has a strap (croissard) that passes between the
legs. In sabre fencing, jackets are cut along the waist.[clarification needed] A
small gorgetof folded fabric is sewn in around the collar to prevent an opponent's
blade from slipping under the mask and along the jacket upwards towards the

72
neck. Fencing instructors may wear a heavier jacket, such as one reinforced by
plastic foam, to deflect the frequent hits an instructor endures.

Plastron
A plastron is an underarm protector worn underneath the jacket. It provides
double protection on the side of the sword arm and upper arm. There is no seam
under the arm, which would line up with the jacket seam and provide a weak
spot.

Glove
The sword hand is protected by a glove with a gauntlet that prevents blades from
going up the sleeve and causing injury. The glove also improves grip.

Breeches
Breeches or knickers are short trousers that end just below the knee. The
breeches are required to have 10 cm of overlap with the jacket. Most are
equipped with suspenders (braces).

Socks
Fencing socks are long enough to cover the knee; some cover most of the thigh.

Shoes
Fencing shoes have flat soles, and are reinforced on the inside for the back foot,
and in the heel for the front foot. The reinforcement prevents wear from lunging.

Mask
The fencing mask has a bib that protects the neck. The mask should support 12
kilograms (26 lb) on the metal mesh and 350 newtons (79 lbf) of penetration
resistance on the bib. FIE regulations dictate that masks must withstand 25
kilograms (55 lb) on the mesh and 1,600 newtons (360 lbf) on the bib. Some
modern masks have a see-through visor in the front of the mask. These have

73
been used at high level competitions (World Championships etc.), however, they
are currently banned in foil and épée by the FIE, following a 2009 incident in
which a visor was pierced during the European Junior Championship
competition. There are foil, sabre, and three-weapon masks.

Chest protector
A chest protector, made of plastic, is worn by female fencers and, sometimes, by
boys. Fencing instructors also wear them, as they are hit far more often during
training than their students. In foil fencing, the hard surface of a chest protector
decreases the likelihood that a hit registers.

Lamé
A lamé is a layer of electrically conductive material worn over the fencing jacket
in foil and sabre fencing. The lamé covers the entire target area, and makes it
easier to determine whether a hit fell within the target area. (In épée fencing the
lamé is unnecessary, since the target area spans the competitor's entire body.) In
sabre fencing, the lamé's sleeves end in a straight line across the wrist; in foil
fencing, the lamé is sleeveless. A body cord is necessary to register scoring. It
attaches to the weapon and runs inside the jacket sleeve, then down the back
and out to the scoring box. In sabre and foil fencing, the body cord connects to
the lamé in order to create a circuit to the scoring box.

Sleeve
An instructor or master may wear a protective sleeve or a leg leather to protect
their fencing arm or leg, respectively.

Techniques

Offensive
 Attack: A basic fencing technique, also called a thrust, consisting of the
initial offensive action made by extending the arm and continuously

74
 threatening the opponent's target. They are four different attacks (straight
thrust, disengage attack, counter-disengage attack and cutover) In sabre,
attacks are also made with a cutting action.
 Riposte: An attack by the defender after a successful parry. After the
attacker has completed their attack, and it has been parried, the defender
then has the opportunity to make an attack, and (at foil and sabre) take
right of way.
 Feint: A false attack with the purpose of provoking a reaction from the
opposing fencer.
 Lunge: A thrust while extending the front leg by using a slight kicking
motion and propelling the body forward with the back leg.
 Beat attack: In foil and sabre, the attacker beats the opponent's blade to
gain priority (right of way) and continues the attack against the target area.
In épée, a similar beat is made but with the intention to disturb the
opponent's aim and thus score with a single light.
 Disengage: A blade action whereby the blade is moved around the
opponent's blade to threaten a different part of the target or deceive a
parry.
 Compound attack: An attack preceded by one or more feints which oblige
the opponent to parry, allowing the attacker to deceive the parry.
 Continuation/renewal of Attack: A typical épée action of making a 2nd
attack after the first attack is parried. This may be done with a change in
line; for example, an attack in the high line (above the opponent's
bellguard, such as the shoulder) is then followed with an attack to the low
line (below the opponent's bellguard, such as the thigh, or foot); or from
the outside line (outside the bellguard, such as outer arm) to the inside
line (inside the bellguard, such as the inner arm or the chest). A second
continuation is stepping slight past the parry and angulating the blade to
bring the tip of the blade back on target. A renewal may also be direct
(without a change of line or any further blade action), in which case it is
called a remise. In foil or sabre, a renewal is considered to have lost right

75
 of way, and the defender's immediate riposte, if it lands, will score instead
of the renewal.
 Flick: a technique used primarily in foil and épée. It takes advantage of the
extreme flexibility of the blade to use it like a whip, bending the blade so
that it curves over and strikes the opponent with the point; this allows the
fencer to hit an obscured part of the target (e.g., the back of the shoulder
or, at épée, the wrist even when it is covered by the guard). This
technique has become much more difficult due to timing changes which
require the point to stay depressed for longer to set off the light.

Defensive
 Parry: Basic defence technique, block the opponent's weapon while it is
preparing or executing an attack to deflect the blade away from the
fencer's valid area and (in foil and sabre) to give fencer the right of way.
Usually followed by a riposte, a return attack by the defender.
 Circle parry: A parry where the weapon is moved in a circle to catch the
opponent's tip and deflect it away.
 Counter attack: A basic fencing technique of attacking your opponent
while generally moving back out of the way of the opponent's attack. Used
quite often in épée to score against the attacker's hand/arm. More difficult
to accomplish in foil and sabre unless one is quick enough to make the
counterattack and retreat ahead of the advancing opponent without being
scored upon, or by evading the attacking blade via moves such as the In
Quartata (turning to the side) or Passata-sotto (ducking). Counterattacks
can also be executed in opposition, grazing along the opponent's blade
and deflecting it to cause the attack to miss.
 Point-in-line: A specific position where the arm is straight and the point is
threatening the opponent's target area. In foil and sabre, this gives one
priority if the extension is completed before the opponent begins the final
action of their attack. When performed as a defensive action, the attacker
must then disturb the extended weapon to re-take priority; otherwise the

76
 defender has priority and the point-in-line will win the touch if the attacker
does not manage a single light. In épée, there is no priority; the move may
be used as a means by either fencer to achieve a double-touch and
advance the score by 1 for each fencer. In all weapons, the point-in-line
position is commonly used to slow the opponent's advance and cause
them to delay the execution of their attack.

e. Swimming
Swimming is an individual or team sport that requires the use of one's entire body
to move through water. The sport takes place in pools or open water (e.g., in a
sea or lake). Competitive swimming is one of the most popular Olympic
sports, with varied distance events
in butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle, and individual medley. In addition
to these individual events, four swimmers can take part in either a freestyle or
medley relay. A medley relay consists of four swimmers who will each swim a
different stroke. The order for a medley relay is: backstroke, breaststroke,
butterfly, and freestyle. Swimming each stroke requires a set of specific
techniques; in competition, there are distinct regulations concerning the
acceptable form for each individual stroke. There are also regulations on what
types of swimsuits, caps, jewelry and injury tape that are allowed at competitions.
Although it is possible for competitive swimmers to incur several injuries from the
sport, such as tendinitis in the shoulders or knees, there are also multiple health
benefits associated with the sport.

History
Evidence of recreational swimming in prehistoric times has been found, with the
earliest evidence dating to Stone Agepaintings from around 10,000 years ago.
Written references date from 2000 BC, with some of the earliest references to
swimming including the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Bible, Beowulf, the Quran and
others. In 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, a Swiss professor of languages, wrote the

77
first book about swimming, The Swimmer or A Dialogue on the Art of
Swimming (Der Schwimmer oder ein Zweigespräch über die Schwimmkunst).
Swimming emerged as a competitive recreational activity in the 1830s in
England. In 1828, the first indoor swimming pool, St George's Baths was opened
to the public. By 1837, the National Swimming Society was holding regular
swimming competitions in six artificial swimming pools, built around London. The
recreational activity grew in popularity and by 1880, when the first national
governing body, the Amateur Swimming Association was formed, there were
already over 300 regional clubs in operation across the country.

In 1844 two Native American participants at a swimming competition in London

introduced the front crawl to a European audience. Sir John Arthur
Trudgen picked up the hand-over stroke from some South American natives and
successfully debuted the new stroke in 1873, winning a local competition in
England. His stroke is still regarded as the most powerful to use today.

Captain Matthew Webb was the first man to swim the English Channel (between
England and France), in 1875. Using the breaststroke technique, he swam the
channel 21.26 miles (34.21 km) in 21 hours and 45 minutes. His feat was not
replicated or surpassed for the next 36 years, until T.W. Burgess made the
crossing in 1911.

Other European countries also established swimming federations; Germany in

1882, France in 1890 and Hungary in 1896. The first European amateur
swimming competitions were in 1889 in Vienna. The world's first women's
swimming championship was held in Scotland in 1892.

Men's swimming became part of the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in
Athens. In 1902, the Australian Richmond Cavillintroduced freestyle to the
Western world. In 1908, the world swimming association, Fédération
Internationale de Natation (FINA), was formed. Women's swimming was

78
introduced into the Olympics in 1912; the first international swim meet for women
outside the Olympics was the 1922 Women's Olympiad. Butterfly was developed
in the 1930s and was at first a variant of breaststroke, until it was accepted as a
separate style in 1952.

Equipment
 Swimsuit - Competitive swimwear seeks to improve upon bare skin for a
speed advantage and coverage. In 2009, FINA rules and regulations were
altered and suits made with polyurethane were banned because they
made athletes more buoyant. These rules also banned suits which go
above the navel or below the knee for men and suits which extend past
the shoulders or cover the neck for women.
 Swim cap - A swim cap (a.k.a. cap) keeps the swimmer's hair out of the
way to reduce drag. Caps may be made of latex, silicone, spandex or
lycra.
 Goggles - Goggles keep water and chlorine out of swimmers' eyes.
Goggles may be tinted to counteract glare at outdoor pools. Prescription
goggles may be used by swimmers who wear corrective lenses.
 Swim Fins - Rubber fins are used to help kick faster and build strength
and technique, but are illegal in a race. They also improve technique by
keeping the feet in the proper position while kicking.
 Drag suit - Swimmers use drag suits in training to increase resistance.
This allows a swimmer to be challenged even more when practicing and
let the swimmer feel less resistance when racing. Drag suits are not used
in competitive races.
 Hand paddles - Swimmers use these plastic devices to build arm and
shoulder strength while refining hand-pulling technique. Hand
paddles attach to the hand with rubber tubing or elastic material. They
come in many different shapes and sizes, depending on swimmer
preference and hand size.

79
  Kickboard - A kickboard is a foam board that swimmers use to support the
weight of the upper body while they focus on kicking. Kicking is the
movement of the legs only which helps to increase leg muscle for future
strength.
 Pull buoy - Often used at the same time as hand paddles, pull buoys
support swimmers' legs (and prevent them from kicking) while they focus
on pulling. Pull buoys are made of foam so they float in the water.
Swimmers hold them in between the thighs. They can also be used as a
kickboard to make kicking a little harder.
 Ankle bands- Improving balance will minimize the need for this kick to
provide an upward, instead of a forward vector, and in some cases
completely corrects the kick. Using an ankle band will have the immediate
effect of turning off your kick, which then forces you to make efforts to
correct your balance. If you are successful in discovering these, then the
ankle band has done part of its job.
 Snorkel - A snorkel is a plastic device that helps swimmers breathe while
swimming. This piece of equipment helps the swimmer practice keeping
their head in one position, along with training them for the proper
breathing technique of breathing in through the mouth and out the nose.
This technique is the opposite of a common runner's breathing pattern,
which is in the nose and out the mouth.
 Tempo trainer - A beeping clock attached to a swimmers cap or goggles
helps maintain a certain arm tempo or speed. As each beep is heard, the
next stroke, or cycles of strokes, should be taken.
 Zoomers - A type of rubber swimming fins, zoomers are cut off fins with
the holes in the bottom. They help make the swimmer kick faster, but at
the cost of working harder.

Swimming Styles
 The butterfly (colloquially shortened to fly) is a swimming stroke swum on
the chest, with both arms moving symmetrically, accompanied by the

80
 butterfly kick (also known as the "dolphin kick"). While other styles like
the breaststroke, front crawl, or backstroke can be swum adequately by
beginners, the butterfly is a more difficult stroke that requires good
technique as well as strong muscles. It is the newest swimming style
swum in competition, first swum in 1933 and originating out of the
breaststroke.
 Backstroke is one of the four swimming styles used in competitive events
regulated by FINA, and the only one of these styles swum on the back.
This swimming style has the advantage of easy breathing, but the
disadvantage of swimmers not being able to see where they are going. It
also has a different start from the other three competition swimming styles.
The swimming style is similar to an upside down front crawl or freestyle.
Both backstroke and front crawl are long-axis strokes. In individual medley
backstroke is the second style swum; in the medley relay it is the first style
swum.
 Breaststroke is a swimming style in which the swimmer is on
their chest and the torso does not rotate. It is the most popular
recreational style due to the swimmer's head being out of the water a large
portion of the time, and that it can be swum comfortably at slow speeds. In
most swimming classes, beginners learn either the breaststroke or the
freestyle (front crawl) first. However, at the competitive level, swimming
breaststroke at speed requires comparable endurance and strength to
other strokes. Some people refer to breaststroke as the "frog" stroke, as
the arms and legs move somewhat like a frog swimming in the water. The
stroke itself is the slowest of any competitive strokes and is thought to be
the oldest of all swimming strokes.
 Freestyle is a category of swimming competition, defined by the rules of
the International Swimming Federation (FINA), in which competitors are
subject to few limited restrictions on their swimming stroke. Freestyle
races are the most common of all swimming competitions, with distances
beginning with 50 meters (50 yards) and reaching 1500 meters (1650

81
 yards), also known as the mile. The term 'freestyle stroke' is sometimes
used as a synonym for 'front crawl', as front crawl is the fastest swimming
stroke. It is now the most common stroke used in freestyle competitions.

f. Table Tennis
Table tennis, also known as ping-pong, is a sport in which two or four players hit
a lightweight ball back and forth across a table using small rackets. The game
takes place on a hard table divided by a net. Except for the initial serve, the rules
are generally as follows: players must allow a ball played toward them to bounce
one time on their side of the table, and must return it so that it bounces on the
opposite side at least once. A point is scored when a player fails to return the ball
within the rules. Play is fast and demands quick reactions. Spinning the ball
alters its trajectory and limits an opponent's options, giving the hitter a great
advantage.

History
The sport originated in Victorian England, where it was played among the upper-
class as an after-dinner parlour game. It has been suggested that makeshift
versions of the game were developed by British military officers in India in around
1860s or 1870s, who brought it back with them. A row of books stood up along
the center of the table as a net, two more books served as rackets and were
used to continuously hit a golf-ball.

The name "ping-pong" was in wide use before British manufacturer J. Jaques &
Son Ltd trademarked it in 1901. The name "ping-pong" then came to describe the
game played using the rather expensive Jaques's equipment, with other
manufacturers calling it table tennis. A similar situation arose in the United
States, where Jaques sold the rights to the "ping-pong" name to Parker Brothers.
Parker Brothers then enforced its trademark for the term in the 1920s making the
various associations change their names to "table tennis" instead of the more
common, but trademarked, term.

82
The next major innovation was by James W. Gibb, a British enthusiast of table
tennis, who discovered novelty celluloid balls on a trip to the US in 1901 and
found them to be ideal for the game. This was followed by E.C. Goode who, in
1901, invented the modern version of the racket by fixing a sheet of pimpled, or
stippled, rubber to the wooden blade. Table tennis was growing in popularity by
1901 to the extent that tournaments were being organized, books being written
on the subject, and an unofficial world championship was held in 1902.

In 1921, the Table Tennis Association was founded, and in 1926 renamed the
English Table Tennis Association. The International Table Tennis
Federation (ITTF) followed in 1926. London hosted the first official World
Championships in 1926. In 1933, the United States Table Tennis Association,
now called USA Table Tennis, was formed.

In the 1930s, Edgar Snow commented in Red Star Over China that the
Communist forces in the Chinese Civil War had a "passion for the English game
of table tennis" which he found "bizarre". On the other hand, the popularity of the
sport waned in 1930s Soviet Union, partly because of the promotion of team and
military sports, and partly because of a theory that the game had adverse health
effects.

In the 1950s, paddles that used a rubber sheet combined with an underlying
sponge layer changed the game dramatically, introducing greater spin and
speed. These were introduced to Britain by sports goods manufacturer S.W.
Hancock Ltd. The use of speed glue increased the spin and speed even further,
resulting in changes to the equipment to "slow the game down". Table tennis was
introduced as an Olympic sport at the Olympics in 1988.

Equipment

Ball
83
The international rules specify that the game is played with a sphere having a
mass of 2.7 grams (0.095 oz) and a diameter of 40 millimetres (1.57 in). The
rules say that the ball shall bounce up 24–26 cm (9.4–10.2 in) when dropped
from a height of 30.5 cm (12.0 in) onto a standard steel block thereby having
a coefficient of restitution of 0.89 to 0.92. Balls are now made of a polymer
instead of celluloid as of 2015, colored white or orange, with a matte finish. The
choice of ball color is made according to the table color and its surroundings. For
example, a white ball is easier to see on a green or blue table than it is on a grey
table. Manufacturers often indicate the quality of the ball with a star rating
system, usually from one to three, three being the highest grade. As this system
is not standard across manufacturers, the only way a ball may be used in official
competition is upon ITTF approval (the ITTF approval can be seen printed on the
ball).

The 40 mm ball was introduced after the 2000 Summer Olympics.[19] However,
this created some controversy at the time as the Chinese National Team argued
that this was merely to give non-Chinese players a better chance of winning
since the new type of ball has a slower speed (a 40 mm table tennis ball is
slower and spins less than the original 38 mm one, and at that time, most
Chinese players were playing with fast attack and smashes).[citation
needed]China won all four Olympic gold medals, three silvers and one bronze
in 2000.

Table
The table is 2.74 m (9.0 ft) long, 1.525 m (5.0 ft) wide, and 76 cm (2.5 ft) high
with any continuous material so long as the table yields a uniform bounce of
about 23 cm (9.1 in) when a standard ball is dropped onto it from a height of
30 cm (11.8 in), or about 77%. The table or playing surface is uniformly dark
coloured and matte, divided into two halves by a net at 15.25 cm (6.0 in) in
height. The ITTF approves only wooden tables or their derivates. Concrete tables

84
with a steel net or a solid concrete partition are sometimes available in outside
public spaces, such as parks.

Racket/paddle
Players are equipped with a laminated wooden racket covered with rubber on
one or two sides depending on the grip of the player. The ITTF uses the term
"racket", though "bat" is common in Britain, and "paddle" in the U.S. and Canada.
The wooden portion of the racket, often referred to as the "blade", commonly
features anywhere between one and seven plies of wood, though cork, glass
fiber, carbon fiber, aluminum fiber, and Kevlar are sometimes used. According to
the ITTF regulations, at least 85% of the blade by thickness shall be of natural
wood. Common wood types include balsa, limba, and cypress or "hinoki", which
is popular in Japan. The average size of the blade is about 17 centimetres
(6.7 in) long and 15 centimetres (5.9 in) wide, although the official restrictions
only focus on the flatness and rigidity of the blade itself, these dimensions are
optimal for most play styles.

Table tennis regulations allow different surfaces on each side of the

racket. Various types of surfaces provide various levels of spin or speed, and in
some cases they nullify spin. For example, a player may have a rubber that
provides much spin on one side of their racket, and one that provides no spin on
the other. By flipping the racket in play, different types of returns are possible. To
help a player distinguish between the rubber used by his opposing player,
international rules specify that one side must be red while the other side must be
black. The player has the right to inspect their opponent's racket before a match
to see the type of rubber used and what colour it is. Despite high speed play and
rapid exchanges, a player can see clearly what side of the racket was used to hit
the ball. Current rules state that, unless damaged in play, the racket cannot be
exchanged for another racket at any time during a match.

Game play

85
Starting a game
According to ITTF rule 2.13.1, the first service is decided by lot,[32] normally
a coin toss. It is also common for one player (or the umpire/scorer) to hide the
ball in one or the other hand, usually hidden under the table, allowing the other
player to guess which hand the ball is in. The correct or incorrect guess gives the
"winner" the option to choose to serve, receive, or to choose which side of the
table to use. (A common but non-sanctioned method is for the players to play the
ball back and forth three times and then play out the point. This is commonly
referred to as "serve to play", "rally to serve", "play for serve", or "volley for
serve".)

Service and return

In game play, the player serving the ball commences a play. The server first
stands with the ball held on the open palm of the hand not carrying the paddle,
called the freehand, and tosses the ball directly upward without spin, at least
16 cm (6.3 in) high. The server strikes the ball with the racket on the ball's
descent so that it touches first his court and then touches directly the receiver's
court without touching the net assembly. In casual games, many players do not
toss the ball upward; however, this is technically illegal and can give the serving
player an unfair advantage.

The ball must remain behind the endline and above the upper surface of the
table, known as the playing surface, at all times during the service. The server
cannot use his/her body or clothing to obstruct sight of the ball; the opponent and
the umpire must have a clear view of the ball at all times. If the umpire is doubtful
of the legality of a service they may first interrupt play and give a warning to the
server. If the serve is a clear failure or is doubted again by the umpire after the
warning, the receiver scores a point. If the service is "good", then the receiver
must make a "good" return by hitting the ball back before it bounces a second
time on receiver's side of the table so that the ball passes the net and touches

86
the opponent's court, either directly or after touching the net assembly.
Thereafter, the server and receiver must alternately make a return until the rally
is over. Returning the serve is one of the most difficult parts of the game, as the
server's first move is often the least predictable and thus most advantageous
shot due to the numerous spin and speed choices at his or her disposal.

Let
A Let is a rally of which the result is not scored, and is called in the following
circumstances:
 The ball touches the net in service (service), provided the service is
otherwise correct or the ball is obstructed by the player on the receiving
side. Obstruction means a player touches the ball when it is above or
traveling towards the playing surface, not having touched the player's
court since last being struck by the player.
 When the player on the receiving side is not ready and the service is
delivered.
 Player's failure to make a service or a return or to comply with the Laws is
due to a disturbance outside the control of the player.
 Play is interrupted by the umpire or assistant umpire.

A let is also called foul service, if the ball hits the server's side of the table, if the
ball does not pass further than the edge and if the ball hits the table edge and
hits the net.

Scoring
A point is scored by the player for any of several results of the rally:
 The opponent fails to make a correct service or return.
 After making a service or a return, the ball touches anything other than the
net assembly before being struck by the opponent.
 The ball passes over the player's court or beyond their end line without
touching their court, after being struck by the opponent.

87
  The opponent obstructs the ball.
 The opponent strikes the ball twice successively. Note that the hand that
is holding the racket counts as part of the racket and that making a good
return off one's hand or fingers is allowed. It is not a fault if the ball
accidentally hits one's hand or fingers and then subsequently hits the
racket.
 The opponent strikes the ball with a side of the racket blade whose
surface is not covered with rubber.
 The opponent moves the playing surface or touches the net assembly.
 The opponent's free hand touches the playing surface.
 As a receiver under the expedite system, completing 13 returns in a rally.
 The opponent that has been warned by the umpire commits a second
offense in the same individual match or team match. If the third offence
happens, 2 points will be given to the player. If the individual match or the
team match has not ended, any unused penalty points can be transferred
to the next game of that match.

A game shall be won by the player first scoring 11 points unless both players
score 10 points, when the game shall be won by the first player subsequently
gaining a lead of 2 points. A match shall consist of the best of any odd number of
games. In competition play, matches are typically best of five or seven games.

g. Tennis
Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent
(singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses
a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with
felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the game is
to maneuver the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid
return. The player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the
opposite player will.

88
Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society and at all ages.
The sport can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, including wheelchair
users. The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the late
19th century as lawn tennis. It had close connections both to various field (lawn)
games such as croquet and bowls as well as to the older racket sport today
called real tennis. During most of the 19th century, in fact, the
term tennis referred to real tennis, not lawn tennis.

The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s. Two exceptions
are that from 1908 to 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all
times, and the adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s. A recent addition to
professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology
coupled with a point-challenge system, which allows a player to contest the line
call of a point, a system known as Hawk-Eye.

Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is also a popular

worldwide spectator sport. The four Grand Slam tournaments (also referred to as
the Majors) are especially popular: the Australian Open played on hard courts,
the French Open played on red clay courts, Wimbledon played on grass courts,
and the US Open also played on hard courts.

History
Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in 12th century
northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of the hand. Louis X of
France was a keen player of jeu de paume ("game of the palm"), which evolved
into real tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis
courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and
accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris "around the end of the
13th century". In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over
Europe. In June 1316 at Vincennes, Val-de-Marne and following a particularly
exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently

89
died of either pneumonia or pleurisy, although there was also suspicion of
poisoning. Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is
history's first tennis player known by name. Another of the early enthusiasts of
the game was King Charles V of France, who had a court set up at the Louvre
Palace.

It wasn't until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the game began to
be called "tennis", from the French term tenez, which can be translated as
"hold!", "receive!" or "take!", an interjection used as a call from the server to his
opponent. It was popular in England and France, although the game was only
played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was
a big fan of this game, which is now known as real tennis. During the 18th and
early 19th centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in
England.

Further, the patenting of the first lawn mower in 1830, in Britain, is strongly
believed to have been the catalyst, worldwide, for the preparation of modern-
style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn
led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis,
most football codes, lawn bowls and others

Between 1859 and 1865 Harry Gem, a solicitor and his friend Augurio
Perera developed a game that combined elements of racquetsand the Basque
ball game pelota, which they played on Perera's croquet lawn in Birmingham,
England, United Kingdom. In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded
the world's first tennis club on Avenue Road, Leamington Spa. This is where
"lawn tennis" is used as a name of activity by a club for the first time. After
Leamington, the second club to take up the game of lawn tennis appears to have
been the Edgbaston Archery and Croquet Society, also in Birmingham.

90
In Tennis: A Cultural History, Heiner Gillmeister reveals that on December 8,
1874, British army officer Walter Clopton Wingfield wrote to Harry Gem,
commenting that he (Wingfield) had been experimenting with his version of lawn
tennis “for a year and a half”. In December 1873, Wingfield designed and
patented a game which he called sphairistikè (Greek: σφαιριστική, meaning "ball-
playing"), and was soon known simply as "sticky" – for the amusement of guests
at a garden party on his friend's estate of Nantclwyd Hall, in Llanelidan,
Wales. According to R. D. C. Evans, turfgrass agronomist, "Sports historians all
agree that [Wingfield] deserves much of the credit for the development of modern
tennis." According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield
"popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a
net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game – and most importantly you had his
rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the
world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the
aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874." The
world's oldest annual tennis tournament took place at Leamington Lawn Tennis
Club in Birmingham in 1874. This was three years before the All England Lawn
Tennis and Croquet Club would hold its first championships at Wimbledon, in
1877. The first Championships culminated a significant debate on how to
standardize the rules.

In the U.S. in 1874 Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned from
Bermuda with a sphairistikè set. She became fascinated by the game of tennis
after watching British army officers play. She laid out a tennis court at the Staten
Island Cricket Club at Camp Washington, Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New
York. The first American National championship was played there in September
1880. An Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver
cup worth $100, by defeating Canadian I. F. Hellmuth. There was also a doubles
match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club.
The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York.

91
On 21 May 1881, the oldest nationwide tennis organization in the world was
formed, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United
States Tennis Association) in order to standardize the rules and organize
competitions. The U.S. National Men's Singles Championship, now the US Open,
was first held in 1881 at the Newport Casino, Newport, Rhode Island. The U.S.
National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 in Philadelphia.
Tennis also became popular in France, where the French Championships dates
to 1891 although until 1925 it was open only to tennis players who were
members of French clubs. Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open,
and the Australian Open (dating to 1905) became and have remained the most
prestigious events in tennis. Together these four events are called the Majors
or Slams (a term borrowed from bridge rather than baseball).

In 1913, the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF), now the International
Tennis Federation (ITF), was founded and established three official tournaments
as the major championships of the day. The World Grass Court
Championships were awarded to Great Britain. The World Hard Court
Championships were awarded to France; the term "hard court" was used for clay
courts at the time. Some tournaments were held in Belgium instead. And
the World Covered Court Championships for indoor courts was awarded
annually; Sweden, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Switzerland and Spain each
hosted the tournament. At a meeting held on 16 March 1923 in Paris, the title
'World Championship' was dropped and a new category of Official Championship
was created for events in Great Britain, France, the United States, and Australia
– today's Grand Slam events. The impact on the four recipient nations to replace
the ‘world championships’ with ‘official championships’ was simple in a general
sense: each became a major nation of the federation with enhanced voting
power and each now operated a major event.
The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the ILTF, have remained
largely stable in the ensuing eighty years, the one major change being the
addition of the tiebreak system designed by Jimmy Van Alen. That same year,

92
tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games but returned 60 years
later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was
credited by the efforts by the then ITF President Philippe Chatrier, ITF General
Secretary David Gray and ITF Vice President Pablo Llorens, and support from
IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was
overwhelming and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full medal sport at
Seoul in 1988.

The Davis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to
1900. The analogous competition for women's national teams, the Fed Cup, was
founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the
founding of the ITF.

In 1926, promoter C. C. Pyle established the first professional tennis tour with a
group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to
paying audiences. The most notable of these early professionals were the
American Vinnie Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen. Once a
player turned pro he or she was no longer permitted to compete in the major
(amateur) tournaments.

In 1968, commercial pressures and rumors of some amateurs taking money

under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the Open
Era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were
able to make their living from tennis. With the beginning of the Open Era, the
establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from
the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the
sport has shed its middle-class English-speaking image (although it is
acknowledged that this stereotype still exists).

In 1954, Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a non-profit
museum in Newport, Rhode Island. The building contains a large collection of

93
tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members and
tennis players from all over the world. Each year, a grass court tournament and
an induction ceremony honoring new Hall of Fame members are hosted on its
grounds.

Equipment
Rackets
The components of a tennis racket include a handle, known as the grip,
connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of
tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were
made of wood and of standard size, and strings were of animal gut. Laminated
wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the
20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics,
and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials
enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power.
Meanwhile, technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of
gut yet with added durability.
Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following
guidelines;
 The hitting area, composed of the strings, must be flat and generally
uniform.
 The frame of the hitting area may not be more than 29 inches (74 cm) in
length and 12.5 inches (32 cm) in width.
 The entire racket must be of a fixed shape, size, weight, and weight
distribution. There may not be any energy source built into the rackets.
 The rackets must not provide any kind of communication, instruction or
advice to the player during the match.

The rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and
engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the

94
frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) until 1997, when it was shortened to 29
inches (74 cm).

Balls
Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and
stuffed with feathers. Modern tennis balls are made of hollow vulcanized
rubber with a felt coating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour was
gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for
improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size,
weight, deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The
International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41–
68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and
2.10 oz).[45] Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United
States and Europe. Although the process of producing the balls has remained
virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now
takes place in the Far East. The relocation is due to cheaper labour costs and
materials in the region.[46] Tournaments that are played under the ITF Rules of
Tennis must use balls that are approved by the International Tennis Federation
(ITF) and be named on the official ITF list of approved tennis balls.

Game play
Court
Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78 feet (23.77 m)
long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles
matches.[48] Additional clear space around the court is required in order for
players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the
court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by
either a metal cable or cord that can be no more than 0.8 cm (1⁄3 in). The net is
3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the
center.[48] The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each
side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side.

95
The modern tennis court owes its design to Major Walter Clopton Wingfield. In
1873, Wingfield patented a court much the same as the current one for his stické
tennis (sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that
exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with
the hourglass shape of his court changed to a rectangle.

Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces. Grass, clay,

and hardcourts of concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common.
Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been
historically used. Artificial turf courts can also be found.

Lines
The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest
back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the center of
each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the center mark. The
outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines. These
are the boundaries used when doubles is being played. The lines to the inside of
the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines and are used as boundaries in
singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles
sideline is called the doubles alley, which is considered playable in doubles play.
The line that runs across the center of a player's side of the court is called the
service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the
service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where
a player legally stands when making a serve.

The line dividing the service line in two is called the center line or center service
line. The boxes this center line creates are called the service boxes; depending
on a player's position, he or she will have to hit the ball into one of these when
serving.[53]A ball is out only if none of it has hit the line or the area inside the
lines upon its first bounce. All lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches

96
(25 and 51 mm) in width, with the exception of the baseline which can be up to 4
inches (100 mm) wide (although in practice it is often created the same width as
the rest)

Play of a single point

The players (or teams) start on opposite sides of the net. One player is
designated the server, and the opposing player is the receiver. The choice to be
server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends is decided by a coin
toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates game by game between the
two players (or teams). For each point, the server starts behind the baseline,
between the center mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on
their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server will serve, although
the receiver must play to the pace of the server.

In a legal service, the ball travels over the net (without touching it) and into the
diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service
box, this is a let or net service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve.
The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always
treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the
service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a "foot fault", which occurs
when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the center mark
before the ball is hit. If the second service is also a fault, the server double
faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered
a legal service.

A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across
the net. A legal return consists of the player or team hitting the ball before it has
bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net, provided that it still falls in the
server's court. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must
travel past the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a
rally is still considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side

97
of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point.
The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new
point.

Scoring

Game
A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving. A
game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at
least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is
described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are
described as "love", "15", "30", and "40", respectively. If at least three points have
been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at 40 apiece, the
score is not called out as "40–40", but rather as "deuce". If at least three points
have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his
opponent, the score of the game is "advantage" for the player in the lead. During
informal games, "advantage" can also be called "ad in" or "van in" when the
serving player is ahead, and "ad out" or "van out" when the receiving player is
ahead. The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving
player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count
(e.g., "15-love") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also
announces the winner of the game and the overall score.

Set
A set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between
games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a
player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more
than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an
additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins
the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) a tie-break is
played. A tie-break, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to

98
win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A "love" set
means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a 'jam donut'
in the USA. In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set
and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning
player's score first, e.g. "6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5".

Match
A match consists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a
best of three or five sets system. On the professional circuit, men play best-of-
five-set matches at all four Grand Slam tournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of
the Olympic Games and best-of-three-set matches at all other tournaments,
while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first player
to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the
match. Only in the final sets of matches at the Australian Open, the French
Open, Wimbledon, the Olympic Games, Davis Cup (until 2015), and Fed Cup are
tie-breaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player
has a two-game lead, leading to some remarkably long matches.

In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the end of the match with the
well-known phrase "Game, set, match" followed by the winning person's or
team's name.

A team sport includes any sport where individuals are organized into
opposing teams which compete to win. Team members act together towards a
shared objective. This can be done in a number of ways such as outscoring the
opposing team. Team members set goals, make decisions, communicate,
manage conflict, and solve problems in a supportive, trusting atmosphere in
order to accomplish their objectives.
Team sports are practiced between opposing teams, where the players interact
directly and simultaneously between them to achieve an objective. The objective

99
generally involves teammates facilitating the movement of a ball or similar object
in accordance with a set of rules, in order to score points.

The meaning of a "team sport" has been disputed in recent years. Some types of
sports have different objectives or rules than "traditional" team sports. These
types of team sports do not involve teammates facilitating the movement of a ball
or similar item in accordance with a set of rules, in order to score points. For
example, swimming, rowing, sailing, dragon boat racing, and track and
field among others can also be considered team sports. In other types of team
sports, there may not be an opposing team or point scoring, for
example, mountaineering. Instead of points scored against an opposing team,
the relative difficulty of the climb or walk is the measure of the achievement. In
some sports where participants are entered by a team, they do not only compete
against members of other teams but also against each other for points towards
championship standings. For example, motorsport, particularly Formula One.
In cycling however, team members whilst still in competition with each other, will
also work towards assisting one, usually a specialist, member of the team to the
highest possible finishing position. This process is known as team orders and
although previously accepted was banned in Formula One between 2002 and
2010. After a controversy involving team orders at the 2010 German Grand
Prix however, the regulation was removed as of the 2011 season.

Through the years, the popularity of team sport has continued to grow, positively
influencing not just athletes, but also fans, local and national economies. All over
the world, the impact of team sport can be seen as professional athletes live out
their dreams while serving as role models, youth athletes develop life skills and
follow in the footsteps of their role models, fans bond over the love of their teams
while supporting their economies with their support.

a. Basketball

100
Basketball is a team sport in which two teams, most commonly of five players
each, opposing one another on a rectangular court, compete with the primary
objective of shooting a basketball (approximately 9.4 inches (24 cm) in diameter)
through the defender's hoop (a basket 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter mounted 10
feet (3.048 m) high to a backboard at each end of the court) while preventing the
opposing team from shooting through their own hoop. A field goal is worth two
points, unless made from behind the three-point line, when it is worth three. After
a foul, timed play stops and the player fouled or designated to shoot a technical
foul is given one or more one-point free throws. The team with the most points at
the end of the game wins, but if regulation play expires with the score tied, an
additional period of play (overtime) is mandated.

Players advance the ball by bouncing it while walking or running (dribbling) or by

passing it to a teammate, both of which require considerable skill. On offense,
players may use a variety of shots—the lay-up, the jump shot, or a dunk; on
defense, they may steal the ball from a dribbler, intercept passes, or block shots;
either offense or defense may collect a rebound, that is, a missed shot that
bounces from rim or backboard. It is a violation to lift or drag one's pivot foot
without dribbling the ball, to carry it, or to hold the ball with both hands then
resume dribbling.

The five players on each side at a time fall into five playing positions: the tallest
player is usually the center, the tallest and strongest is the power forward, a
slightly shorter but more agile big man is the small forward, and the shortest
players or the best ball handlers are the shooting guard and the point guard, who
implements the coach's game plan by managing the execution of offensive and
defensive plays (player positioning). Informally, players may play three-on-three,
two-on-two, and one-on-one.

History

101
In early December 1891, Canadian James Naismith, a physical education
professor and instructor at the International Young Men's Christian Association
Training School (YMCA) (today, Springfield College)
in Springfield, Massachusetts, was trying to keep his gym class active on a rainy
day. He sought a vigorous indoor game to keep his students occupied and at
proper levels of fitness during the long New England winters. After rejecting other
ideas as either too rough or poorly suited to walled-in gymnasiums, he wrote the
basic rules and nailed a peach basket onto a 10-foot (3.0 m) elevated track. In
contrast with modern basketball nets, this peach basket retained its bottom, and
balls had to be retrieved manually after each "basket" or point scored; this proved
inefficient, however, so the bottom of the basket was removed, allowing the balls
to be poked out with a long dowel each time.

Basketball was originally played with a soccer ball. These round balls from
"association football" were made, at the time, with a set of laces to close off the
hole needed for inserting the inflatable bladder after the other sewn-together
segments of the ball's cover had been flipped outside-in. These laces could
cause bounce passes and dribbling to be unpredictable. Eventually a lace-free
ball construction method was invented, and this change to the game was
endorsed by Naismith. (Whereas in American football, the lace construction
proved to be advantageous for gripping and remains to this day.) The first balls
made specifically for basketball were brown, and it was only in the late 1950s
that Tony Hinkle, searching for a ball that would be more visible to players and
spectators alike, introduced the orange ball that is now in common use. Dribbling
was not part of the original game except for the "bounce pass" to teammates.
Passing the ball was the primary means of ball movement. Dribbling was
eventually introduced but limited by the asymmetric shape of early balls.
Dribbling only became a major part of the game around the 1950s[citation
needed], as manufacturing improved the ball shape.

102
The peach baskets were used until 1906 when they were finally replaced by
metal hoops with backboards. A further change was soon made, so the ball
merely passed through. Whenever a person got the ball in the basket, his team
would gain a point. Whichever team got the most points won the game. The
baskets were originally nailed to the mezzanine balcony of the playing court, but
this proved impractical when spectators in the balcony began to interfere with
shots. The backboard was introduced to prevent this interference; it had the
additional effect of allowing rebound shots. Naismith's handwritten diaries,
discovered by his granddaughter in early 2006, indicate that he was nervous
about the new game he had invented, which incorporated rules from a children's
game called duck on a rock, as many had failed before it.
Frank Mahan, one of the players from the original first game, approached
Naismith after the Christmas break, in early 1892, asking him what he intended
to call his new game. Naismith replied that he hadn't thought of it because he had
been focused on just getting the game started. Mahan suggested that it be called
"Naismith ball", at which he laughed, saying that a name like that would kill any
game. Mahan then said, "Why not call it basketball?" Naismith replied, "We have
a basket and a ball, and it seems to me that would be a good name for it." The
first official game was played in the YMCA gymnasium in Albany, New York, on
January 20, 1892, with nine players. The game ended at 1–0; the shot was made
from 25 feet (7.6 m), on a court just half the size of a present-
day Streetball or National Basketball Association(NBA) court.

At the time, football was being played with 10 to a team (which was increased to
11). When winter weather got too icy to play football, teams were taken indoors,
and it was convenient to have them split in half and play basketball with five on
each side. By 1897–1898 teams of five became standard.

Basketball's early adherents were dispatched to YMCAs throughout the United

States, and it quickly spread through the United States and Canada. By 1895, it
was well established at several women's high schools. While the YMCA was

103
responsible for initially developing and spreading the game, within a decade it
discouraged the new sport, as rough play and rowdy crowds began to detract
from the YMCA's primary mission. However, other amateur sports clubs,
colleges, and professional clubs quickly filled the void. In the years before World
War I, the Amateur Athletic Union and the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of
the United States (forerunner of the NCAA) vied for control over the rules for the
game. The first pro league, the National Basketball League, was formed in 1898
to protect players from exploitation and to promote a less rough game. This
league only lasted five years.

James Naismith was instrumental in establishing college basketball. His

colleague C.O. Beamis fielded the first college basketball team just a year after
the Springfield YMCA game at the suburban Pittsburgh Geneva
College. Naismith himself later coached at the University of Kansas for six years,
before handing the reins to renowned coach Forrest "Phog" Allen. Naismith's
disciple Amos Alonzo Stagg brought basketball to the University of Chicago,
while Adolph Rupp, a student of Naismith's at Kansas, enjoyed great success as
coach at the University of Kentucky. On February 9, 1895, the first intercollegiate
5-on-5 game was played at Hamline University between Hamline and the School
of Agriculture, which was affiliated with the University of Minnesota. The School
of Agriculture won in a 9–3 game.

In 1901, colleges, including the University of Chicago, Columbia

University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, the University of Minnesota,
the U.S. Naval Academy, the University of Colorado and Yale University began
sponsoring men's games. In 1905, frequent injuries on the football field
prompted President Theodore Roosevelt to suggest that colleges form a
governing body, resulting in the creation of the Intercollegiate Athletic Association
of the United States (IAAUS). In 1910, that body would change its name to
the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The first Canadian
interuniversity basketball game was played at the YMCA in Kingston, Ontario on

104
February 6, 1904, when McGill University—Naismith's alma mater—
visited Queen's University. McGill won 9–7 in overtime; the score was 7–7 at the
end of regulation play, and a ten-minute overtime period settled the outcome. A
good turnout of spectators watched the game.

The first men's national championship tournament, the National Association of

Intercollegiate Basketball tournament, which still exists as the National
Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) tournament, was organized in
1937. The first national championship for NCAA teams, the National Invitation
Tournament (NIT) in New York, was organized in 1938; the NCAA national
tournament would begin one year later. College basketball was rocked by
gambling scandals from 1948 to 1951, when dozens of players from top teams
were implicated in match fixing and point shaving. Partially spurred by an
association with cheating, the NIT lost support to the NCAA tournament.

Before widespread school district consolidation, most American high schools

were far smaller than their present-day counterparts. During the first decades of
the 20th century, basketball quickly became the ideal interscholastic sport due to
its modest equipment and personnel requirements. In the days before
widespread television coverage of professional and college sports, the popularity
of high school basketball was unrivaled in many parts of America. Perhaps the
most legendary of high school teams was Indiana's Franklin Wonder Five, which
took the nation by storm during the 1920s, dominating Indiana basketball and
earning national recognition.

Today virtually every high school in the United States fields a basketball team
in varsity competition. Basketball's popularity remains high, both in rural areas
where they carry the identification of the entire community, as well as at some
larger schools known for their basketball teams where many players go on to
participate at higher levels of competition after graduation. In the 2016–17
season, 980,673 boys and girls represented their schools in interscholastic

105
basketball competition, according to the National Federation of State High School
Associations. The states of Illinois, Indiana and Kentucky are particularly well
known for their residents' devotion to high school basketball, commonly
called Hoosier Hysteria in Indiana; the critically acclaimed film Hoosiers shows
high school basketball's depth of meaning to these communities.

There is currently no tournament to determine a national high school champion.

The most serious effort was the National Interscholastic Basketball Tournament
at the University of Chicago from 1917 to 1930. The event was organized
by Amos Alonzo Staggand sent invitations to state champion teams. The
tournament started out as a mostly Midwest affair but grew. In 1929 it had 29
state champions. Faced with opposition from the National Federation of State
High School Associations and North Central Association of Colleges and
Schools that bore a threat of the schools losing their accreditation the last
tournament was in 1930. The organizations said they were concerned that the
tournament was being used to recruit professional players from the prep ranks.
The tournament did not invite minority schools or private/parochial schools.

The National Catholic Interscholastic Basketball Tournament ran from 1924 to

1941 at Loyola University. The National Catholic Invitational Basketball
Tournament from 1954 to 1978 played at a series of venues, including Catholic
University, Georgetown and George Mason. The National Interscholastic
Basketball Tournament for Black High Schools was held from 1929 to 1942
at Hampton Institute. The National Invitational Interscholastic Basketball
Tournament was held from 1941 to 1967 starting out at Tuskegee Institute.
Following a pause during World War II it resumed at Tennessee State College in
Nashville. The basis for the champion dwindled after 1954 when Brown v. Board
of Education began an integration of schools. The last tournaments were held
at Alabama State College from 1964 to 1967.

106
Teams abounded throughout the 1920s. There were hundreds of
men's professional basketball teams in towns and cities all over the United
States, and little organization of the professional game. Players jumped from
team to team and teams played in armories and smoky dance halls. Leagues
came and went. Barnstorming squads such as the Original Celtics and two all-
African American teams, the New York Renaissance Five ("Rens") and the (still
existing) Harlem Globetrotters played up to two hundred games a year on their
national tours.

In 1946, the Basketball Association of America (BAA) was formed. The first game
was played in Toronto, Ontario, Canada between the Toronto Huskies and New
York Knickerbockers on November 1, 1946. Three seasons later, in 1949, the
BAA merged with the National Basketball League (NBL) to form the National
Basketball Association (NBA). By the 1950s, basketball had become a major
college sport, thus paving the way for a growth of interest in professional
basketball. In 1959, a basketball hall of fame was founded in Springfield,
Massachusetts, site of the first game. Its rosters include the names of great
players, coaches, referees and people who have contributed significantly to the
development of the game. The hall of fame has people who have accomplished
many goals in their career in basketball. An upstart organization, the American
Basketball Association, emerged in 1967 and briefly threatened the NBA's
dominance until the ABA-NBA merger in 1976. Today the NBA is the top
professional basketball league in the world in terms of popularity, salaries, talent,
and level of competition.

The NBA has featured many famous players, including George Mikan, the first
dominating "big man"; ball-handling wizard Bob Cousy and defensive genius Bill
Russellof the Boston Celtics; charismatic center Wilt Chamberlain, who originally
played for the barnstorming Harlem Globetrotters; all-around stars Oscar
Robertson and Jerry West; more recent big men Kareem Abdul-
Jabbar, Shaquille O'Neal, Hakeem Olajuwon and Karl Malone; playmakers John

107
Stockton, Isiah Thomas and Steve Nash; crowd-pleasing forwards Julius
Erving and Charles Barkley; European stars Dirk Nowitzki, Pau Gasol and Tony
Parker; more recent superstars LeBron James, Allen Iverson and Kobe Bryant;
and the three players who many credit with ushering the professional game to its
highest level of popularity during the 1980s and 1990s: Larry Bird, Earvin "Magic"
Johnson, and Michael Jordan.

In 2001, the NBA formed a developmental league, the National Basketball

Development League (later known as the NBA D-League and then the NBA G
League after a branding deal with Gatorade). As of the 2018–19 season, the G
League has 27 teams.

FIBA (International Basketball Federation) was formed in 1932 by eight founding

nations: Argentina, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, Romania and
Switzerland. At this time, the organization only oversaw amateur players. Its
acronym, derived from the French Fédération Internationale de Basket-ball
Amateur, was thus "FIBA". Men's basketball was first included at the Berlin 1936
Summer Olympics, although a demonstration tournament was held in 1904. The
United States defeated Canada in the first final, played outdoors. This
competition has usually been dominated by the United States, whose team has
won all but three titles. The first of these came in a controversial final game
in Munich in 1972 against the Soviet Union, in which the ending of the game was
replayed three times until the Soviet Union finally came out on top.[26] In 1950
the first FIBA World Championship for men, now known as the FIBA Basketball
World Cup, was held in Argentina. Three years later, the first FIBA World
Championship for women, now known as the FIBA Women's Basketball World
Cup, was held in Chile. Women's basketball was added to the Olympics in 1976,
which were held in Montreal, Quebec, Canada with teams such as the Soviet
Union, Brazil and Australia rivaling the American squads.

108
In 1989, FIBA allowed professional NBA players to participate in the Olympics for
the first time. Prior to the 1992 Summer Olympics, only European and South
American teams were allowed to field professionals in the Olympics. The United
States' dominance continued with the introduction of the original Dream Team. In
the 2004 Athens Olympics, the United States suffered its first Olympic loss while
using professional players, falling to Puerto Rico (in a 19-point loss)
and Lithuania in group games, and being eliminated in the semifinals
by Argentina. It eventually won the bronze medal defeating Lithuania, finishing
behind Argentina and Italy. The Redeem Team, won gold at the 2008 Olympics,
and the B-Team, won gold at the 2010 FIBA World Championship in Turkey
despite featuring no players from the 2008 squad. The United States continued
its dominance as they won gold at the 2012 Olympics, 2014 FIBA World Cup and
the 2016 Olympics.

Worldwide, basketball tournaments are held for boys and girls of all age levels.
The global popularity of the sport is reflected in the nationalities represented in
the NBA. Players from all six inhabited continents currently play in the NBA. Top
international players began coming into the NBA in the mid-1990s, including
Croatians Dražen Petrović and Toni Kukoč, Serbian Vlade Divac,
Lithuanians Arvydas Sabonis and Šarūnas Marčiulionis, Dutchman Rik Smits and
German Detlef Schrempf.

In the Philippines, the Philippine Basketball Association's first game was played
on April 9, 1975 at the Araneta Coliseum in Cubao, Quezon City. Philippines. It
was founded as a "rebellion" of several teams from the now-defunct Manila
Industrial and Commercial Athletic Association, which was tightly controlled by
the Basketball Association of the Philippines (now defunct), the then-FIBA
recognized national association. Nine teams from the MICAA participated in the
league's first season that opened on April 9, 1975. The NBL is Australia's pre-
eminent men's professional basketball league. The league commenced in 1979,
playing a winter season (April–September) and did so until the completion of the

109
20th season in 1998. The 1998–99 season, which commenced only months later,
was the first season after the shift to the current summer season format
(October–April). This shift was an attempt to avoid competing directly
against Australia's various football codes. It features 8 teams from around
Australia and one in New Zealand. A few players including Luc Longley, Andrew
Gaze, Shane Heal, Chris Anstey and Andrew Bogut made it big internationally,
becoming poster figures for the sport in Australia. The Women's National
Basketball League began in 1981.

Women's basketball began in 1892 at Smith College when Senda Berenson, a

physical education teacher, modified Naismith's rules for women. Shortly after
she was hired at Smith, she went to Naismith to learn more about the
game.[27] Fascinated by the new sport and the values it could teach, she
organized the first women's collegiate basketball game on March 21, 1893, when
her Smith freshmen and sophomores played against one another.[28] However,
the first women's interinstitutional game was played in 1892 between
the University of California and Miss Head's School. Berenson's rules were first
published in 1899, and two years later she became the editor of A. G. Spalding's
first Women's Basketball Guide. Berenson's freshmen played the sophomore
class in the first women's intercollegiate basketball game at Smith College,
March 21, 1893.[30] The same year, Mount Holyoke and Sophie Newcomb
College (coached by Clara Gregory Baer) women began playing basketball. By
1895, the game had spread to colleges across the country,
including Wellesley, Vassar, and Bryn Mawr. The first intercollegiate women's
game was on April 4, 1896. Stanford women played Berkeley, 9-on-9, ending in a
2–1 Stanford victory.

Women's basketball development was more structured than that for men in the
early years. In 1905, the Executive Committee on Basket Ball Rules (National
Women's Basketball Committee) was created by the American Physical
Education Association. These rules called for six to nine players per team and 11

110
officials. The International Women's Sports Federation (1924) included a
women's basketball competition. 37 women's high school varsity basketball or
state tournaments were held by 1925. And in 1926, the Amateur Athletic Union
backed the first national women's basketball championship, complete with men's
rules. The Edmonton Grads, a touring Canadian women's team based
in Edmonton, Alberta, operated between 1915 and 1940. The Grads toured all
over North America, and were exceptionally successful. They posted a record of
522 wins and only 20 losses over that span, as they met any team that wanted to
challenge them, funding their tours from gate receipts. The Grads also shone on
several exhibition trips to Europe, and won four consecutive exhibition Olympics
tournaments, in 1924, 1928, 1932, and 1936; however, women's basketball was
not an official Olympic sport until 1976. The Grads' players were unpaid, and had
to remain single. The Grads' style focused on team play, without overly
emphasizing skills of individual players. The first women's AAU All-America team
was chosen in 1929. Women's industrial leagues sprang up throughout the
United States, producing famous athletes, including Babe Didrikson of
the Golden Cyclones, and the All American Red Heads Team, which competed
against men's teams, using men's rules. By 1938, the women's national
championship changed from a three-court game to two-court game with six
players per team.

The NBA-backed Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA) began in

1997. Though it had shaky attendance figures, several marquee players (Lisa
Leslie, Diana Taurasi, and Candace Parker among others) have helped the
league's popularity and level of competition. Other professional women's
basketball leagues in the United States, such as the American Basketball League
(1996–98), have folded in part because of the popularity of the WNBA. The
WNBA has been looked at by many as a niche league. However, the league has
recently taken steps forward. In June 2007, the WNBA signed a contract
extension with ESPN. The new television deal ran from 2009 to 2016. Along with
this deal, came the first ever rights fees to be paid to a women's professional

111
sports league. Over the eight years of the contract, "millions and millions of
dollars" were "dispersed to the league's teams." In a March 12, 2009
article, NBA commissioner David Stern said that in the bad economy, "the NBA is
far less profitable than the WNBA. We're losing a lot of money among a large
number of teams. We're budgeting the WNBA to break even this year."

Rules and Regulations

Playing regulations
Games are played in four quarters of 10 (FIBA) or 12 minutes (NBA). College
men's games use two 20-minute halves, college women's games use 10-minute
quarters,[38] and most United States high school varsity games use 8-minute
quarters; however, this varies from state to state. 15 minutes are allowed for a
half-time break under FIBA, NBA, and NCAA rules and 10 minutes in United
States high schools. Overtime periods are five minutes in length except for high
school, which is four minutes in length.[39] Teams exchange baskets for the
second half. The time allowed is actual playing time; the clock is stopped while
the play is not active. Therefore, games generally take much longer to complete
than the allotted game time, typically about two hours.

Five players from each team may be on the court at one time. Substitutions are
unlimited but can only be done when play is stopped. Teams also have a coach,
who oversees the development and strategies of the team, and other team
personnel such as assistant coaches, managers, statisticians, doctors and
trainers.

For both men's and women's teams, a standard uniform consists of a pair of
shorts and a jersey with a clearly visible number, unique within the team, printed
on both the front and back. Players wear high-top sneakers that provide extra
ankle support. Typically, team names, players' names and, outside of North
America, sponsors are printed on the uniforms.

112
A limited number of time-outs, clock stoppages requested by a coach (or
sometimes mandated in the NBA) for a short meeting with the players, are
allowed. They generally last no longer than one minute (100 seconds in the NBA)
unless, for televised games, a commercial break is needed.

The game is controlled by the officials consisting of the referee (referred to as

crew chief in the NBA), one or two umpires (referred to as referees in the NBA)
and the table officials. For college, the NBA, and many high schools, there are a
total of three referees on the court. The table officials are responsible for keeping
track of each teams scoring, timekeeping, individual and team fouls, player
substitutions, team possession arrow, and the shot clock.

Equipment
The only essential equipment in a basketball game is the ball and the court: a
flat, rectangular surface with baskets at opposite ends. Competitive levels require
the use of more equipment such as clocks, score sheets, scoreboard(s),
alternating possession arrows, and whistle-operated stop-clock systems.

A regulation basketball court in international games is 91.9 feet (28.0 meters)

long and 49.2 feet (15 meters) wide. In the NBA and NCAA the court is 94 by 50
feet (29 by 15 meters). Most courts have wood flooring, usually constructed
from mapleplanks running in the same direction as the longer court
dimension. The name and logo of the home team is usually painted on or around
the center circle.

The basket is a steel rim 18 inches (46 cm) diameter with an attached net affixed
to a backboard that measures 6 by 3.5 feet (1.8 by 1.1 meters) and one basket is
at each end of the court. The white outlined box on the backboard is 18 inches
(46 cm) high and 2 feet (61 cm) wide. At almost all levels of competition, the top
of the rim is exactly 10 feet (3.05 meters) above the court and 4 feet (1.22

113
meters) inside the baseline. While variation is possible in the dimensions of the
court and backboard, it is considered important for the basket to be of the correct
height – a rim that is off by just a few inches can have an adverse effect on
shooting.

The size of the basketball is also regulated. For men, the official ball is 29.5
inches (75 cm) in circumference (size 7, or a "295 ball") and weighs 22 oz
(623.69 grams). If women are playing, the official basketball size is 28.5 inches
(72 cm) in circumference (size 6, or a "285 ball") with a weight of 20 oz (567
grams). In 3x3, a formalized version of the halfcourt 3-on-3 game, a dedicated
ball with the circumference of a size 6 ball but the weight of a size 7 ball is used
in all competitions (men's, women's, and mixed teams).

Violations
The ball may be advanced toward the basket by being shot, passed between
players, thrown, tapped, rolled or dribbled (bouncing the ball while running).

The ball must stay within the court; the last team to touch the ball before it travels
out of bounds forfeits possession. The ball is out of bounds if it touches a
boundary line, or touches any player or object that is out of bounds.

There are limits placed on the steps a player may take without dribbling, which
commonly results in an infraction known as traveling. Nor may a player stop his
dribble and then resume dribbling. A dribble that touches both hands is
considered stopping the dribble, giving this infraction the name double dribble.
Within a dribble, the player cannot carry the ball by placing his hand on the
bottom of the ball; doing so is known as carrying the ball. A team, once having
established ball control in the front half of their court, may not return the ball to
the backcourt and be the first to touch it. A violation of these rules results in loss
of possession.

114
The ball may not be kicked, nor be struck with the fist. For the offense, a violation
of these rules results in loss of possession; for the defense, most leagues reset
the shot clock and the offensive team is given possession of the ball out of
bounds.

There are limits imposed on the time taken before progressing the ball past
halfway (8 seconds in FIBA and the NBA; 10 seconds in NCAA and high school
for both sexes), before attempting a shot (24 seconds in FIBA, the NBA, and U
Sports (Canadian universities) play for both sexes, and 30 seconds in NCAA play
for both sexes), holding the ball while closely guarded (5 seconds), and
remaining in the restricted area known as the free-throw lane, (or the "key") (3
seconds). These rules are designed to promote more offense.

Basket interference, or goaltending is a violation charged when a player illegally

interferes with a shot. This violation is incurred when a player touches the ball on
its downward trajectory to the basket, unless it is obvious that the ball has no
chance of entering the basket, if a player touches the ball while it is in the rim, or
in the area extended upwards from the basket, or if a player reaches through the
basket to interfere with the shot. When a defensive player is charged with
goaltending, the basket is awarded. If an offensive player commits the infraction,
the basket is cancelled. In either case possession of the ball is turned over to the
defensive team.

Fouls
An attempt to unfairly disadvantage an opponent through certain types of
physical contact is illegal and is called a personal foul. These are most commonly
committed by defensive players; however, they can be committed by offensive
players as well. Players who are fouled either receive the ball to pass inbounds
again, or receive one or more free throws if they are fouled in the act of shooting,
depending on whether the shot was successful. One point is awarded for making
a free throw, which is attempted from a line 15 feet (4.6 m) from the basket.

115
The referee is responsible for judging whether contact is illegal, sometimes
resulting in controversy. The calling of fouls can vary between games, leagues
and referees.

There is a second category of fouls called technical fouls, which may be charged
for various rules violations including failure to properly record a player in the
scorebook, or for unsportsmanlike conduct. These infractions result in one or two
free throws, which may be taken by any of the five players on the court at the
time. Repeated incidents can result in disqualification. A blatant foul involving
physical contact that is either excessive or unnecessary is called an intentional
foul (flagrant foul in the NBA). In FIBA and NCAA women's basketball, a foul
resulting in ejection is called a disqualifying foul, while in leagues other than the
NBA, such a foul is referred to as flagrant.

If a team exceeds a certain limit of team fouls in a given period (quarter or half) –
four for NBA, NCAA women's, and international games – the opposing team is
awarded one or two free throws on all subsequent non-shooting fouls for that
period, the number depending on the league. In the US college men's game and
high school games for both sexes, if a team reaches 7 fouls in a half, the
opposing team is awarded one free throw, along with a second shot if the first is
made. This is called shooting "one-and-one". If a team exceeds 10 fouls in the
half, the opposing team is awarded two free throws on all subsequent fouls for
the half.
When a team shoots foul shots, the opponents may not interfere with the
shooter, nor may they try to regain possession until the last or potentially last free
throw is in the air.
After a team has committed a specified number of fouls, the other team is said to
be "in the bonus". On scoreboards, this is usually signified with an indicator light
reading "Bonus" or "Penalty" with an illuminated directional arrow or dot

116
indicating that team is to receive free throws when fouled by the opposing team.
(Some scoreboards also indicate the number of fouls committed.)

If a team misses the first shot of a two-shot situation, the opposing team must
wait for the completion of the second shot before attempting to reclaim
possession of the ball and continuing play.

If a player is fouled while attempting a shot and the shot is unsuccessful, the
player is awarded a number of free throws equal to the value of the attempted
shot. A player fouled while attempting a regular two-point shot thus receives two
shots, and a player fouled while attempting a three-point shot receives three
shots.

If a player is fouled while attempting a shot and the shot is successful, typically
the player will be awarded one additional free throw for one point. In combination
with a regular shot, this is called a "three-point play" or "four-point play" (or more
colloquially, an "and one") because of the basket made at the time of the foul (2
or 3 points) and the additional free throw (1 point).

b. Handball
Handball (also known as team handball, European handball or Olympic
handball)[2] is a team sport in which two teams of seven players each (six
outcourt players and a goalkeeper) pass a ball using their hands with the aim of
throwing it into the goal of the other team. A standard match consists of two
periods of 30 minutes, and the team that scores more goals wins.

Modern handball is played on a court of 40 by 20 metres (131 by 66 ft), with a

goal in the middle of each end. The goals are surrounded by a 6-meter (20 ft)
zone where only the defending goalkeeper is allowed; goals must be scored by
throwing the ball from outside the zone or while "diving" into it. The sport is
usually played indoors, but outdoor variants exist in the forms of field

117
handball and Czech handball (which were more common in the past) and beach
handball. The game is fast and high-scoring: professional teams now typically
score between 20 and 35 goals each, though lower scores were not uncommon
until a few decades ago. Body contact is permitted, the defenders trying to stop
the attackers from approaching the goal. No protective equipment is mandated,
but players may wear soft protective bands, pads and mouth guards.
The game was codified at the end of the 19th century in Denmark. The modern
set of rules was published in 1917 in Germany, and had several revisions since.
The first international games were played under these rules for men in 1925 and
for women in 1930. Men's handball was first played at the 1936 Summer
Olympics in Berlin as outdoors, and the next time at the 1972 Summer
Olympics in Munich as indoors, and has been an Olympic sport since. Women's
team handball was added at the 1976 Summer Olympics.

The International Handball Federation was formed in 1946 and, as of 2016, has
197 member federations. The sport is most popular in the countries of continental
Europe, which have won all medals but one in the men's world
championships since 1938. In the women's world championships, only two non-
European countries have won the title: South Korea and Brazil. The game also
enjoys popularity in East Asia, North Africa and parts of South America.

History
There is evidence of ancient Roman women playing a version of handball
called expulsim ludere. There are records of handball-like games in
medieval France, and among the Inuit in Greenland, in the Middle Ages. By the
19th century, there existed similar games of håndbold from Denmark, házená in
the Czech Republic, handbol in Ukraine, and torball in Germany.

The team handball game of today was codified at the end of the 19th century in
northern Europe: primarily in Denmark, Germany, Norway and Sweden. The first
written set of team handball rules was published in 1906 by the Danish gym

118
teacher, lieutenant and Olympic medalist Holger Nielsen from Ordrup grammar
school, north of Copenhagen. The modern set of rules was published on 29
October 1917 by Max Heiser, Karl Schelenz, and Erich Konigh from Germany.
After 1919 these rules were improved by Karl Schelenz. The first international
games were played under these rules, between Germany and Belgiumby men in
1925 and between Germany and Austria by women in 1930.

In 1926, the Congress of the International Amateur Athletics

Federation nominated a committee to draw up international rules for field
handball. The International Amateur Handball Federation was formed in 1928
and later the International Handball Federation was formed in 1946.

Men's field handball was played at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin. During
the next several decades, indoor handball flourished and evolved in the
Scandinavian countries. The sport re-emerged onto the world stage as team
handball for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. Women's team handball was
added at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal. Due to its popularity in the
region, the Eastern European countries that refined the event became the
dominant force in the sport when it was reintroduced.

The International Handball Federation organised the men's world championship

in 1938 and every four (sometimes three) years from World War II to 1995. Since
the 1995 world championship in Iceland, the competition has been held every
two years. The women's world championship has been held since 1957. The IHF
also organizes women's and men's junior world championships. By July 2009,
the IHF listed 166 member federations - approximately 795,000 teams and 19
million players.

Rules
Playing court

119
Handball is played on a court 40 by 20 metres (131 ft × 66 ft), with a goal in the
centre of each end. The goals are surrounded by a near-semicircular area, called
the zone or the crease, defined by a line six meters from the goal. A dashed
near-semicircular line nine metres from the goal marks the free-throw line. Each
line on the court is part of the area it encompasses. This implies that the middle l
ine belongs to both halves at the same time.

Goals
The goals are two meters high and three meters wide. They must be securely
bolted either to the floor or the wall behind.

The goal posts and the crossbar must be made out of the same material
(e.g., wood or aluminium) and feature a quadratic cross section with sides of
8 cm (3 in). The three sides of the beams visible from the playing field must be
painted alternatingly in two contrasting colors which both have to contrast against
the background. The colors on both goals must be the same.
Each goal must feature a net. This must be fastened in such a way that a ball
thrown into the goal does not leave or pass the goal under normal
circumstances. If necessary, a second net may be clasped to the back of the net
on the inside.

D-Zone
The goals are surrounded by the crease. This area is delineated by two quarter
circles with a radius of six metres around the far corners of each goal post and a
connecting line parallel to the goal line. Only the defending goalkeeper is allowed
inside this zone. However, the court players may catch and touch the ball in the
air within it as long as the player starts his jump outside the zone and releases
the ball before he lands (landing inside the perimeter is allowed in this case as
long as the ball has been released).

120
If a player without the ball contacts the ground inside the goal perimeter, or the
line surrounding the perimeter, he must take the most direct path out of it.
However, should a player cross the zone in an attempt to gain an advantage
(e.g., better position) their team cedes the ball. Similarly, violation of the zone by
a defending player is penalized only if they do so in order to gain an advantage in
defending.

Substitution area
Outside of one long edge of the playing field to both sides of the middle line are
the substitution areas for each team. The areas usually contain the benches as
seating opportunities. Team officials, substitutes, and suspended players must
wait within this area. The area always lies to the same side as the team's own
goal. During half-time, substitution areas are swapped. Any player entering or
leaving the play must cross the substitution line which is part of the side line and
extends 4.5 metres (15 ft) from the middle line to the team's side.

Duration
A standard match has two 30-minute halves with a 10- to 15-minute halftime
break. At half-time, teams switch sides of the court as well as benches. For
youths, the length of the halves is reduced—25 minutes at ages 12 to 15, and 20
minutes at ages 8 to 11; though national federations of some countries may differ
in their implementation from the official guidelines.

If a decision must be reached in a particular match (e.g., in a tournament) and it

ends in a draw after regular time, there are at maximum two overtimes, each
consisting of two straight 5-minute periods with a one-minute break in between.
Should these not decide the game either, the winning team is determined in a
penalty shootout (best-of-five rounds; if still tied, extra rounds are added until one
team wins).

121
The referees may call timeout according to their sole discretion; typical reasons
are injuries, suspensions, or court cleaning. Penalty throws should trigger a
timeout only for lengthy delays, such as a change of the goalkeeper.

Since 2012, teams can call 3 team timeouts per game (up to two per half), which
last one minute each. This right may only be invoked by the team in possession
of the ball. Team representatives must show a green card marked with a
black T on the timekeeper's desk. The timekeeper then immediately interrupts
the game by sounding an acoustic signal and stops the time. Before 2012, teams
were allowed only one timeout per half. For the purpose of calling timeouts,
overtime and shootouts are extensions of the second half.

Game play
Offense
 Left and right wingman.These typically are fast players who excel at ball
control and wide jumps from the outside of the goal perimeter in order to
get into a better shooting angle at the goal. Teams usually try to occupy
the left position with a right-handed player and vice versa.
 Left and right backcourt. Goal attempts by these players are typically
made by jumping high and shooting over the defenders. Thus, it is usually
advantageous to have tall players with a powerful shot for these positions.
 Centre backcourt. A player with experience is preferred on this position
who acts as playmaker and the handball equivalent of a basketball point
guard.
 Pivot (left and right, if applicable). This player tends to intermingle with the
defence, setting picks and attempting to disrupt the defence's formation.
This positions requires the least jumping skills; but ball control and
physical strength are an advantage.

Defense

122
There are many variations in defensive formations. Usually, they are described
as n:m formations, where n is the number of players defending at the goal line
and m the number of players defending more offensive. Exceptions are the 3:2:1
defense and n+m formation (e.g. 5+1), where m players defend some offensive
player in man coverage (instead of the usual zone coverage).
 Far left and far right. The opponents of the wingmen.
 Half left and half right. The opponents of the left and right backcourts.
 Back center (left and right). Opponent of the pivot.
 Front center. Opponent of the center backcourt, may also be set against
another specific backcourt player

Offensive play
Attacks are played with all field players on the side of the defenders. Depending
on the speed of the attack, one distinguishes between three attack waves with a
decreasing chance of success:

First wave
First wave attacks are characterised by the absence of defending players around
their goal perimeter. The chance of success is very high, as the throwing player
is unhindered in his scoring attempt. Such attacks typically occur after an
intercepted pass or a steal, and if the defending team can switch fast to offence.
The far left or far right will usually try to run the attack, as they are not as tightly
bound in the defence. On a turnover, they immediately sprint forward and receive
the ball halfway to the other goal. Thus, these positions are commonly held by
quick players.

Second wave
If the first wave is not successful and some defending players have gained their
positions around the zone, the second wave comes into play: the remaining
players advance with quick passes to locally outnumber the retreating defenders.
If one player manages to step up to the perimeter or catches the ball at this spot,

123
he becomes unstoppable by legal defensive means. From this position, the
chance of success is naturally very high. Second wave attacks became much
more important with the "fast throw-off" rule.

Third wave
The time during which the second wave may be successful is very short, as then
the defenders closed the gaps around the zone. In the third wave, the attackers
use standardised attack patterns usually involving crossing and passing between
the back court players who either try to pass the ball through a gap to their pivot,
take a jumping shot from the backcourt at the goal, or lure the defence away from
a wingman.

The third wave evolves into the normal offensive play when all defenders not only
reach the zone, but gain their accustomed positions. Some teams then substitute
specialised offence players. However, this implies that these players must play in
the defence should the opposing team be able to switch quickly to offence. The
latter is another benefit for fast playing teams.

If the attacking team does not make sufficient progress (eventually releasing a
shot on goal), the referees can call passive play (since about 1995, the referee
gives a passive warning some time before the actual call by holding one hand up
in the air, signalling that the attacking team should release a shot soon), turning
control over to the other team. A shot on goal or an infringement leading to a
yellow card or two-minute penalty will mark the start of a new attack, causing the
hand to be taken down; but a shot blocked by the defense or a normal free throw
will not. If it were not for this rule, it would be easy for an attacking team to stall
the game indefinitely, as it is difficult to intercept a pass without at the same time
conceding dangerous openings towards the goal.

Defensive play

124
The usual formations of the defense are 6–0, when all the defense players line
up between the 6-metre (20 ft) and 9-metre (30 ft) lines to form a wall; the 5–1,
when one of the players cruises outside the 9-metre (30 ft) perimeter, usually
targeting the center forwards while the other 5 line up on the 6-metre (20 ft) line;
and the less common 4–2 when there are two such defenders out front. Very fast
teams will also try a 3–3 formation which is close to a switching man-to-man
style. The formations vary greatly from country to country, and reflect each
country's style of play. 6–0 is sometimes known as "flat defense", and all other
formations are usually called "offensive defense".

c. Volleyball
Volleyball is a popular team sport in which two teams of six players are
separated by a net. Each team tries to score points by grounding a ball on the
other team's court under organized rules. It has been a part of the official
program of the Summer Olympic Games since Tokyo 1964.

The complete rules are extensive, but simply, play proceeds as follows: a player
on one of the teams begins a 'rally' by serving the ball (tossing or releasing it and
then hitting it with a hand or arm), from behind the back boundary line of the
court, over the net, and into the receiving team's court. The receiving team must
not let the ball be grounded within their court. The team may touch the ball up to
3 times, but individual players may not touch the ball twice consecutively.
Typically, the first two touches are used to set up for an attack, an attempt to
direct the ball back over the net in such a way that the serving team is unable to
prevent it from being grounded in their court.

The rally continues, with each team allowed as many as three consecutive
touches, until either (1): a team makes a kill, grounding the ball on the opponent's
court and winning the rally; or (2): a team commits a fault and loses the rally. The
team that wins the rally is awarded a point and serves the ball to start the next
rally. A few of the most common faults include:

125
  causing the ball to touch the ground or floor outside the opponents' court
or without first passing over the net;
 catching and throwing the ball;
 double hit: two consecutive contacts with the ball made by the same
player;
 four consecutive contacts with the ball made by the same team;
 net foul: touching the net during play;
 foot fault: the foot crosses over the boundary line when serving.

The ball is usually played with the hands or arms, but players can legally strike or
push (short contact) the ball with any part of the body.

A number of consistent techniques have evolved in volleyball,

including spiking and blocking (because these plays are made above the top of
the net, the vertical jump is an athletic skill emphasized in the sport) as well
as passing, setting, and specialized player positions and offensive and defensive
structures.

History
In the winter of 1895, in Holyoke, Massachusetts (United States), William G.
Morgan, a YMCA physical education director, created a new game
called Mintonette, a name derived from the game of badminton, as a pastime to
be played (preferably) indoors and by any number of players. The game took
some of its characteristics from other sports such
as tennis and handball. Another indoor sport, basketball, was catching on in the
area, having been invented just ten miles (sixteen kilometers) away in the city
of Springfield, Massachusetts, only four years before. Mintonette was designed
to be an indoor sport, less rough than basketball, for older members of the
YMCA, while still requiring a bit of athletic effort.

126
The first rules, written down by William G Morgan, called for a net 6 ft 6 in
(1.98 m) high, a 25 ft × 50 ft (7.6 m × 15.2 m) court, and any number of players.
A match was composed of nine innings with three serves for each team in each
inning, and no limit to the number of ball contacts for each team before sending
the ball to the opponents' court. In case of a serving error, a second try was
allowed. Hitting the ball into the net was considered a foul (with loss of the point
or a side-out)—except in the case of the first-try serve.

After an observer, Alfred Halstead, noticed the volleying nature of the game at its
first exhibition match in 1896, played at the International YMCA Training School
(now called Springfield College), the game quickly became known as volleyball (it
was originally spelled as two words: "volley ball"). Volleyball rules were slightly
modified by the International YMCA Training School and the game spread
around the country to various YMCAs.

he first official ball used in volleyball is disputed; some sources

say Spalding created the first official ball in 1896, while others claim it was
created in 1900. The rules evolved over time: in 1916, in the Philippines, the skill
and power of the set and spike had been introduced, and four years later a "three
hits" rule and a rule against hitting from the back row were established. In 1917,
the game was changed from requiring 21 points to win to a smaller 15 points to
win. In 1919, about 16,000 volleyballs were distributed by the American
Expeditionary Forces to their troops and allies, which sparked the growth of
volleyball in new countries.

The first country outside the United States to adopt volleyball was Canada in
1900.[9]An international federation, the Fédération Internationale de
Volleyball (FIVB), was founded in 1947, and the first World Championships were
held in 1949 for men and 1952 for women. The sport is now popular in Brazil, in
Europe (where especially Italy, the Netherlands, and countries from Eastern

127
Europe have been major forces since the late 1980s), in Russia, and in other
countries including China and the rest of Asia, as well as in the United States.

Beach volleyball, a variation of the game played on sand and with only two
players per team, became a FIVB-endorsed variation in 1987 and was added to
the Olympic program at the 1996 Summer Olympics. Volleyball is also a sport at
the Paralympics managed by the World Organization Volleyball for Disabled.

Nudists were early adopters of the game with regular organized play in clubs as
early as the late 1920s. By the 1960s, a volleyball court had become standard in
almost all nudist/naturist clubs.

Rules of the game

The court dimensions

A volleyball court is 9 m × 18 m (29.5 ft × 59.1 ft), divided into equal square
halves by a net with a width of one meter (39.4 in). The top of the net is 2.43 m
(7 ft 11 11⁄16 in) above the center of the court for men's competition, and 2.24 m
(7 ft 4 3⁄16 in) for women's competition, varied for veterans and junior
competitions.

The minimum height clearance for indoor volleyball courts is 7 m (23.0 ft),
although a clearance of 8 m (26.2 ft) is recommended.
A line 3 m (9.8 ft) from and parallel to the net is considered the "attack line". This
"3 meter" (or "10-foot") line divides the court into "back row" and "front row" areas
(also back court and front court). These are in turn divided into 3 areas each:
these are numbered as follows, starting from area "1", which is the position of the
serving player:
After a team gains the serve (also known as siding out), its members must rotate
in a clockwise direction, with the player previously in area "2" moving to area "1"
and so on, with the player from area "1" moving to area "6". Each player rotates

128
only one time after the team gains possession of the serve; the next time each
player rotates will be after the other team wins possession of the ball and loses
the point.
The team courts are surrounded by an area called the free zone which is a
minimum of 3 meters wide and which the players may enter and play within after
the service of the ball. All lines denoting the boundaries of the team court and the
attack zone are drawn or painted within the dimensions of the area and are
therefore a part of the court or zone. If a ball comes in contact with the line, the
ball is considered to be "in". An antenna is placed on each side of the net
perpendicular to the sideline and is a vertical extension of the side boundary of
the court. A ball passing over the net must pass completely between the
antennae (or their theoretical extensions to the ceiling) without contacting them.

The ball
FIVB regulations state that the ball must be spherical, made of leather or
synthetic leather, have a circumference of 65–67 cm, a weight of 260–280 g and
an inside pressure of 0.30–0.325 kg/cm2.[18] Other governing bodies have
similar regulations.

Game play
Each team consists of six players. To get play started, a team is chosen to serve
by coin toss. A player from the serving team throws the ball into the air and
attempts to hit the ball so it passes over the net on a course such that it will land
in the opposing team's court (the serve). The opposing team must use a
combination of no more than three contacts with the volleyball to return the ball to
the opponent's side of the net. These contacts usually consist first of
the bump or pass so that the ball's trajectory is aimed towards the player
designated as the setter; second of the set (usually an over-hand pass using
wrists to push finger-tips at the ball) by the setter so that the ball's trajectory is
aimed towards a spot where one of the players designated as an attacker can hit
it, and third by the attacker who spikes (jumping, raising one arm above the head

129
and hitting the ball so it will move quickly down to the ground on the opponent's
court) to return the ball over the net. The team with possession of the ball that is
trying to attack the ball as described is said to be on offense.

The team on defense attempts to prevent the attacker from directing the ball into
their court: players at the net jump and reach above the top (and if possible,
across the plane) of the net to block the attacked ball. If the ball is hit around,
above, or through the block, the defensive players arranged in the rest of the
court attempt to control the ball with a dig (usually a fore-arm pass of a hard-
driven ball). After a successful dig, the team transitions to offense.
The game continues in this manner, rallying back and forth, until the ball touches
the court within the boundaries or until an error is made. The most frequent
errors that are made are either to fail to return the ball over the net within the
allowed three touches, or to cause the ball to land outside the court. A ball is "in"
if any part of it touches a sideline or end-line, and a strong spike may compress
the ball enough when it lands that a ball which at first appears to be going out
may actually be in. Players may travel well outside the court to play a ball that
has gone over a sideline or end-line in the air.

Other common errors include a player touching the ball twice in succession, a
player "catching" the ball, a player touching the net while attempting to play the
ball, or a player penetrating under the net into the opponent's court. There are a
large number of other errors specified in the rules, although most of them are
infrequent occurrences. These errors include back-row or libero players spiking
the ball or blocking (back-row players may spike the ball if they jump from behind
the attack line), players not being in the correct position when the ball is served,
attacking the serve in the front court and above the height of the net, using
another player as a source of support to reach the ball, stepping over the back
boundary line when serving, taking more than 8 seconds to serve, or playing the
ball when it is above the opponent's court.

130
Scoring
A point is scored when the ball contacts the floor within the court boundaries or
when an error is made: when the ball strikes one team's side of the court, the
other team gains a point; and when an error is made, the team that did not make
the error is awarded a point, in either case paying no regard to whether they
served the ball or not. If any part of the ball hits the line, the ball is counted as in
the court. The team that won the point serves for the next point. If the team that
won the point served in the previous point, the same player serves again. If the
team that won the point did not serve the previous point, the players of the
serving team rotate their position on the court in a clockwise manner. The game
continues, with the first team to score 25 points by a two-point margin awarded
the set. Matches are best-of-five sets and the fifth set, if necessary, is usually
played to 15 points. (Scoring differs between leagues, tournaments, and levels;
high schools sometimes play best-of-three to 25; in the NCAA matches are
played best-of-five to 25 as of the 2008 season.)

Before 1999, points could be scored only when a team had the serve (side-out
scoring) and all sets went up to only 15 points. The FIVB changed the rules in
1999 (with the changes being compulsory in 2000) to use the current scoring
system (formerly known as rally point system), primarily to make the length of the
match more predictable and to make the game more spectator- and television-
friendly.

The final year of side-out scoring at the NCAA Division I Women's Volleyball
Championship was 2000. Rally point scoring debuted in 2001, and games were
played to 30 points through 2007. For the 2008 season, games were renamed
"sets" and reduced to 25 points to win. Most high schools in the U.S. changed to
rally scoring in 2003, and several states implemented it the previous year on an
experimental basis.
Libero

131
The libero player was introduced internationally in 1998, and made its debut for
NCAA competition in 2002. The libero is a player specialized in defensive skills:
the libero must wear a contrasting jersey color from his or her teammates and
cannot block or attack the ball when it is entirely above net height. When the ball
is not in play, the libero can replace any back-row player, without prior notice to
the officials. This replacement does not count against the substitution limit each
team is allowed per set, although the libero may be replaced only by the player
whom he or she replaced. Most U.S. high schools added the libero position from
2003 to 2005.

The modern day libero often takes on the role of a second setter. When the
setter digs the ball, the libero is typically responsible for the second ball and sets
to the front row attacker. The libero may function as a setter only under certain
restrictions. To make an overhand set, the libero must be standing behind (and
not stepping on) the 3-meter line; otherwise, the ball cannot be attacked above
the net in front of the 3-meter line. An underhand pass is allowed from any part of
the court.

The libero is, generally, the most skilled defensive player on the team. There is
also a libero tracking sheet, where the referees or officiating team must keep
track of whom the libero subs in and out for. Under FIVB rules, two liberos are
designated at the beginning of play, only one of whom can be on the court at any
time.

Furthermore, a libero is not allowed to serve, according to international rules,

with the exception of the NCAA women's volleyball games, where a 2004 rule
change allows the libero to serve, but only in a specific rotation. That is, the libero
can only serve for one person, not for all of the people for whom she goes in.
That rule change was also applied to high school and junior high play soon after.

Recent rule changes

132
Other rule changes enacted in 2000 include allowing serves in which the ball
touches the net, as long as it goes over the net into the opponents' court. Also,
the service area was expanded to allow players to serve from anywhere behind
the end line but still within the theoretical extension of the sidelines. Other
changes were made to lighten up calls on faults for carries and double-touches,
such as allowing multiple contacts by a single player ("double-hits") on a team's
first contact provided that they are a part of a single play on the ball.

In 2008, the NCAA changed the minimum number of points needed to win any of
the first four sets from 30 to 25 for women's volleyball (men's volleyball remained
at 30 for another 3 years, switching to 25 in 2011.) If a fifth (deciding) set is
reached, the minimum required score remains at 15. In addition, the word "game"
is now referred to as "set".

Skills
Serve
A player stands behind the inline and serves the ball, in an attempt to drive it into
the opponent's court. The main objective is to make it land inside the court; it is
also desirable to set the ball's direction, speed and acceleration so that it
becomes difficult for the receiver to handle it properly. A serve is called an "ace"
when the ball lands directly onto the court or travels outside the court after being
touched by an opponent; when only the only player on the server's team to touch
the ball is the server.

In contemporary volleyball, many types of serves are employed:

 Underhand: a serve in which the player strikes the ball below the waist
instead of tossing it up and striking it with an overhand throwing motion.
Underhand serves are considered very easy to receive and are rarely
employed in high-level competitions.

133
  Sky ball serve: a specific type of underhand serve occasionally used
in beach volleyball, where the ball is hit so high it comes down almost in a
straight line. This serve was invented and employed almost exclusively by
the Brazilian team in the early 1980s and is now considered outdated.
During the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, however, the sky ball
serve was extensively played by Italian beach volleyball player Adrian
Carambula. In Brazil, this serve is called Jornada nas Estrelas (Star Trek)
 Topspin: an overhand serve where the player tosses the ball high and hits
it with a wrist snap, giving it topspin which causes it to drop faster than it
would otherwise and helps maintain a straight flight path. Topspin serves
are generally hit hard and aimed at a specific returner or part of the court.
Standing topspin serves are rarely used above the high school level of
play.
 Float: an overhand serve where the ball is hit with no spin so that its path
becomes unpredictable, akin to a knuckleball in baseball.
 Jump serve: an overhand serve where the ball is first tossed high in the
air, then the player makes a timed approach and jumps to make contact
with the ball, hitting it with much pace and topspin. This is the most
popular serve among college and professional teams.
 Jump float: an overhand serve where the ball is tossed high enough that
the player may jump before hitting it similarly to a standing float serve. The
ball is tossed lower than a topspin jump serve, but contact is still made
while in the air. This serve is becoming more popular among college and
professional players because it has a certain unpredictability in its flight
pattern. It is the only serve where the server's feet can go over the inline.

Pass
Also called reception, the pass is the attempt by a team to properly handle the
opponent's serve, or any form of attack. Proper handling includes not only
preventing the ball from touching the court, but also making it reach the position
where the setter is standing quickly and precisely.

134
The skill of passing involves fundamentally two specific techniques: underarm
pass, or bump, where the ball touches the inside part of the joined forearms or
platform, at waist line; and overhand pass, where it is handled with the fingertips,
like a set, above the head. Either are acceptable in professional and beach
volleyball; however, there are much tighter regulations on the overhand pass in
beach volleyball.

Set
The set is usually the second contact that a team makes with the ball. The main
goal of setting is to put the ball in the air in such a way that it can be driven by an
attack into the opponent's court. The setter coordinates the offensive movements
of a team, and is the player who ultimately decides which player will actually
attack the ball.

As with passing, one may distinguish between an overhand and a bump set.
Since the former allows for more control over the speed and direction of the ball,
the bump is used only when the ball is so low it cannot be properly handled with
fingertips, or in beach volleyball where rules regulating overhand setting are
more stringent. In the case of a set, one also speaks of a front or back set,
meaning whether the ball is passed in the direction the setter is facing or behind
the setter. There is also a jump set that is used when the ball is too close to the
net. In this case the setter usually jumps off his or her right foot straight up to
avoid going into the net. The setter usually stands about ⅔ of the way from the
left to the right of the net and faces the left (the larger portion of net that he or
she can see).

Sometimes a setter refrains from raising the ball for a teammate to perform an
attack and tries to play it directly onto the opponent's court. This movement is
called a "dump". This can only be performed when the setter is in the front row,
otherwise it constitutes an illegal back court attack. The most common dumps

135
are to 'throw' the ball behind the setter or in front of the setter to zones 2 and 4.
More experienced setters toss the ball into the deep corners or spike the ball on
the second hit.

As with a set or an overhand pass, the setter/passer must be careful to touch the
ball with both hands at the same time. If one hand is noticeably late to touch the
ball this could result in a less effective set, as well as the referee calling a 'double
hit' and giving the point to the opposing team.

Attack
The attack, also known as the spike, is usually the third contact a team makes
with the ball. The object of attacking is to handle the ball so that it lands on the
opponent's court and cannot be defended. A player makes a series of steps (the
"approach"), jumps, and swings at the ball.

Ideally the contact with the ball is made at the apex of the hitter's jump. At the
moment of contact, the hitter's arm is fully extended above his or her head and
slightly forward, making the highest possible contact while maintaining the ability
to deliver a powerful hit. The hitter uses arm swing, wrist snap, and a rapid
forward contraction of the entire body to drive the ball. A 'bounce' is a slang term
for a very hard/loud spike that follows an almost straight trajectory steeply
downward into the opponent's court and bounces very high into the air. A "kill" is
the slang term for an attack that is not returned by the other team thus resulting
in a point.

Contemporary volleyball comprises a number of attacking techniques:

 Backcourt (or backrow)/pipe attack: an attack performed by a back row

player. The player must jump from behind the 3-meter line before making
contact with the ball, but may land in front of the 3-meter line.

136
  Line and Cross-court Shot: refers to whether the ball flies in a straight
trajectory parallel to the side lines, or crosses through the court in an
angle. A cross-court shot with a very pronounced angle, resulting in the
ball landing near the 3-meter line, is called a cut shot.
 Dip/Dink/Tip/Cheat/Dump: the player does not try to make a hit, but
touches the ball lightly, so that it lands on an area of the opponent's court
that is not being covered by the defense.
 Tool/Wipe/Block-abuse: the player does not try to make a hard spike, but
hits the ball so that it touches the opponent's block and then bounces off-
court.
 Off-speed hit: the player does not hit the ball hard, reducing its speed and
thus confusing the opponent's defense.
 Quick hit/"One": an attack (usually by the middle blocker) where the
approach and jump begin before the setter contacts the ball. The set
(called a "quick set") is placed only slightly above the net and the ball is
struck by the hitter almost immediately after leaving the setter's hands.
Quick attacks are often effective because they isolate the middle blocker
to be the only blocker on the hit.
 Slide: a variation of the quick hit that uses a low back set. The middle
hitter steps around the setter and hits from behind him or her.
 Double quick hit/"Stack"/"Tandem": a variation of quick hit where two
hitters, one in front and one behind the setter or both in front of the setter,
jump to perform a quick hit at the same time. It can be used to deceive
opposite blockers and free a fourth hitter attacking from back-court, maybe
without block at all.
Block
Blocking refers to the actions taken by players standing at the net to stop or alter
an opponent's attack.

A block that is aimed at completely stopping an attack, thus making the ball
remain in the opponent's court, is called offensive. A well-executed offensive

137
block is performed by jumping and reaching to penetrate with one's arms and
hands over the net and into the opponent's area. It requires anticipating the
direction the ball will go once the attack takes place. It may also require
calculating the best foot work to executing the "perfect" block.

The jump should be timed so as to intercept the ball's trajectory prior to it

crossing over the net. Palms are held deflected downward roughly 45–60
degrees toward the interior of the opponents court. A "roof" is a spectacular
offensive block that redirects the power and speed of the attack straight down to
the attacker's floor, as if the attacker hit the ball into the underside of a peaked
house roof.

By contrast, it is called a defensive, or "soft" block if the goal is to control and

deflect the hard-driven ball up so that it slows down and becomes easier to
defend. A well-executed soft-block is performed by jumping and placing one's
hands above the net with no penetration into the opponent's court and with the
palms up and fingers pointing backward.

Blocking is also classified according to the number of players involved. Thus, one
may speak of single (or solo), double, or triple block.
Successful blocking does not always result in a "roof" and many times does not
even touch the ball. While it's obvious that a block was a success when the
attacker is roofed, a block that consistently forces the attacker away from his or
her 'power' or preferred attack into a more easily controlled shot by the defense
is also a highly successful block.

At the same time, the block position influences the positions where other
defenders place themselves while opponent hitters are spiking.

138
Dig
Digging is the ability to prevent the ball from touching one's court after a spike or
attack, particularly a ball that is nearly touching the ground. In many aspects, this
skill is similar to passing, or bumping: overhand dig and bump are also used to
distinguish between defensive actions taken with fingertips or with joined arms. It
varies from passing however in that is it a much more reflex based skill,
especially at the higher levels. It is especially important while digging for players
to stay on their toes; several players choose to employ a split step to make sure
they're ready to move in any direction.

Some specific techniques are more common in digging than in passing. A player
may sometimes perform a "dive", i.e., throw his or her body in the air with a
forward movement in an attempt to save the ball, and land on his or her chest.
When the player also slides his or her hand under a ball that is almost touching
the court, this is called a "pancake". The pancake is frequently used in indoor
volleyball, but rarely if ever in beach volleyball because the uneven and yielding
nature of the sand court limits the chances that the ball will make a good, clean
contact with the hand. When used correctly, it is one of the more spectacular
defensive volleyball plays.

Sometimes a player may also be forced to drop his or her body quickly to the
floor to save the ball. In this situation, the player makes use of a specific rolling
technique to minimize the chances of injuries.

139