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- Propositional Logic
Dr. Jenila Livingston
Knowledge Storing
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Knowledge Representation
● Knowledge representation (KR) is an
important issue in both cognitive science and
artificial intelligence.
− In cognitive science, it is concerned with
the way people store and process
information and
− In artificial intelligence (AI), main focus is to
store knowledge so that programs can
process it and achieve human intelligence.
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Knowledge Representation
● There are different ways of representing knowledge
e.g.
− Logical Representation
− Propositional logic / Sentential Logic
− Predicate logic
− Production rule
− Network Representation
− Semantic networks
− Extended semantic net,
− Structured Representation- Frames
− Conceptual dependency etc.
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What is a Logic?
• A language with concrete rules
– No ambiguity in representation (may be other errors!)
– Allows unambiguous communication and processing
– Very unlike natural languages e.g. English
Formal logic is a language with its own syntax, which defines how to
make sentences, and corresponding semantics, which describe the
meaning of the sentences.
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Syntax and Semantics
• Syntax
– Rules for constructing legal sentences in the logic
– Which symbols we can use (English: letters, punctuation)
– How we are allowed to combine symbols
• Semantics
– How we interpret (read) sentences in the logic
– Assigns a meaning to each sentence
• Example: “All lecturers are seven foot tall”
– A valid sentence (syntax)
– And we can understand the meaning (semantics)
– This sentence happens to be false (there is a counterexample)
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Propositional logic (PL)
• Logical constants: T (True), F (False)
• Propositional symbols: P, Q, S, ...(atomic sentences)
• Wrapping parentheses: ( … )
• Sentences are combined by connectives:
... and [conjunction]
... or [disjunction]
...implies [implication / conditional]
…iff equivalent [biconditional or Double Implication]
…not [negation]
• Literal: atomic sentence or negated atomic sentence
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A BNF grammar of sentences in
propositional logic
S := <Sentence> ;
<Sentence> := <AtomicSentence> | <ComplexSentence> ;
<AtomicSentence> := "TRUE" | "FALSE" |
"P" | "Q" | "S" ;
<ComplexSentence> := "(" <Sentence> ")" |
<Sentence> <Connective> <Sentence> |
"NOT" <Sentence> ;
<Connective> := "AND" | "OR" | "IMPLIES" |
"EQUIVALENT" ;
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Examples of PL sentences
• Use Letters to represent the statements
• P: “It is Hot” Q : “It is humid.” R: “It is raining”
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Examples of PL sentences
• P: “It is Hot” Q : “It is humid.” R: “It is raining”
• (P Q) R
“If it is hot and humid, then it is raining”
• QP
“If it is humid, then it is hot”
• A better way:
Ho = “It is hot”
Hu = “It is humid”
R = “It is raining”
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Propositional Logic
• Semantics (Classical / Boolean)
– Define how connectives affect truth
• “P and Q” is true if and only if P is true and Q is true
– Use truth tables to work out the truth of
statements
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Truth tables
/ (P Q)
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Truth tables II
The five logical connectives:
A complex sentence:
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Models of complex sentences
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More terms
1. A valid sentence or tautology is a sentence
that is True under all interpretations.
2. An inconsistent sentence or contradiction is a
sentence that is False under all interpretations.
3. Entailment: P entails Q, written P |= Q, means
that whenever P is True, so is Q.
4. Consistent
5. Logical Equivalence / Identical
6. Validity – tautology is valid
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1. Tautology
• Show that
i)
ii)
is a tautology.
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Tautology
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Tautology
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2. Contradiction
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Contradiction
• Prove
is a contradiction
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Contradiction
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Contingency
• A proposition that is neither a tautology nor a
contradiction is called a contingency.
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Exercise
• Let p be a proposition. Indicate whether the
propositions are:
(A) tautologies
(B) contradictions or
(C) contingencies.
• p∧¬p
• p∨¬p
• p∨p
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Exercise - Answer
• p ∧ ¬ p …..Contradiction
• p ∨ ¬ p …..Tautology
• p∨p …..Contingency
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3. Logical Entailment
• the sentence p logically entails the sentence (p
∨ q). Since a disjunction is true whenever one
of its disjuncts is true, then (p ∨ q) must be
true whenever p is true.
• On the other hand, the sentence p does not
logically entail (p ∧ q). A conjunction is true if
and only if both of its conjuncts are true, and
q may be false.
• P |= P ∨ Q
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{p, q} logically entails (p ∧ q).
• {p, q} |= (p ∧ q).
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{(m ⇒ p ∨ q), (p ⇒ q)} |= (m ⇒ q)
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{(m ⇒ p ∨ q), (p ⇒ q)} |= (m ⇒ q)
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Logical Entailment
Use the Truth Table Method to answer the
following questions about logical entailment.
• {p ⇒ q ∨ r} |= (p ⇒ r)
• {p ⇒ r} |= (p ⇒ q ∨ r)
• {p ⇒ q ∨ r, p ⇒ r} |= (q ⇒ r)
• {p ⇒ q ∨ r, q ⇒ r} |= (p ⇒ r)
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4. Consistent
• A set of sentences are said to be consistent if
it’s logically possible for all of them to be TRUE
at the same time
• set of statements is logically consistent when
it involves no logical contradiction
• Else it is said to be inconsistent
• Eg: Ken will be a little late for the party. He
died yesterday.
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Consistent
• All humans are mortal (T)
• Simon is immortal (T)
• Simon is a human (F)
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Consistent
• All humans are mortal (T)
• Some humans are not mortal (F)
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Consistency : Truth table
• To test for consistency, do a joint truth table
for the two statements. If there is a row (one
or more) on which both statements are T,
then they are consistent.
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5. Logical Equivalence
• Two statements are equivalent if they have
the same truth value in every possible
situation
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Show that
logically equivalent
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show that ¬(p ∨ q) is logically
equivalent to (¬p ∧ ¬q).
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show that ¬(p ∨ q) is logically
equivalent to (¬p ∧ ¬q).
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Name Logical Equivalences
p∧T≡p
Identity p∨F≡p
p∨T≡T
Domination p∧F≡F
p∧p≡p
Idempotent p∨p≡p
Double Negation ¬(¬p)≡p
p∨q≡q∨p
Commutative p∧q≡q∧p
(p∨q)∨r≡p∨(q∨r)
Associative (p∧q)∧r≡p∧(q∧r)
p∨(q∧r)≡(p∨q)∧(p∨r)
Distributive p∧(q∨r)≡(p∧q)∨(p∧r)
¬(p∧q)≡¬p∨¬q
De Morgan's Law ¬(p∨q)≡¬p∧¬q
p∨(p∧q)≡p
Absorption p∧(p∨q)≡p
p∨¬p≡T
Negation p∧¬p≡F
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• Conditional / Implication Equivalence
pq ≡ p q
pq ≡ q p
• Bi-conditional Equivalence
pq ≡(pq) (qp)
pq ≡ ¬ p q
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Prove that q∧¬(p→q) is a
contradiction without truth tables
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Prove that q∧¬(p→q) is a
contradiction:
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• Prove:
(p∧¬q) ∨ q ≡ p∨q
p → p ∨ q is a tautology
p ↔ q ≡ ¬ p ↔ ¬q
(p∧q) → p is a tautology
¬(p∨(¬p∧q)) and (¬p ∧ ¬q) equivalent?
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Prove: (p∧¬q) ∨ q ≡ p∨q
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Prove: p → p ∨ q is a tautology
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Prove:¬p ↔ q ≡ p ↔ ¬q
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(p∧q) → p is a tautology
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Are ¬(p∨(¬p∧q)) and (¬p ∧ ¬q)
equivalent?
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6. Validity
To test the validity of an argument, we use the
following three-step process
1. Symbolize each premise and the conclusion.
2. Make a truth table that has a column for each
premise and a column for the conclusion.
3. If the truth table has a row where the
conclusion column is FALSE while every
premise column is TRUE, then the argument is
INVALID. Otherwise, the argument is VALID.
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Arguments, Validity and Tautology
• In other words, an argument form with
premises p1; p2; : : : ; pn and
conclusion q
is valid if and only if
(p1 ^ p2 ^ ^ pn) q
is a tautology.
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Validity
• Argument validity An argument is deductively
valid iff the premises jointly imply the
conclusion.
This pizza is either pepperoni or cheese.
It is not cheese.
Conclusion: Therefore, it is pepperoni.
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Truth table
F T
F T
T T
F T
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Validity
• If ducks sink, then ducks are made of small
rocks.
• Ducks do sink.
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Validity
• If ducks sink, then ducks are made of small
rocks.
• Ducks do sink.
• Conclusion: Therefore, ducks are made of
small rocks.
D: ducks sink
R: ducks are made of small rocks
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Truth Table
T T
F T
F T
F T 62
Arguments
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Express the Argument
• We can express the premises (above the line)
and the conclusion (below the line) in
predicate logic as an argument:
Premises:
• “If it is snowing, then I will study AI.” p q
• “It is snowing.” p
Conclusion: q
• Therefore , “I will study AI.” 64
Valid Arguments
• We will show how to construct valid
arguments in two stages
1. Propositional Logic
– Inference Rules
2. Predicate Logic
– Inference rules for propositional logic plus
additional inference rules to handle variables and
quantifiers.
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Invalid Arguments
• Trees are green
• Banu is a girl
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Inference rules
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Rules of Inference
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Modus Ponens: Example
Example:
• “If it is snowing, then I will study AI.” p q
• “It is snowing.” p
• Conclusion: q
• Therefore , “I will study AI.”
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Modus Tollens: Example
Example:
• “If it is snowing, then I will study AI.” p q
• “I will not study AI.” ¬q
• Conclusion: ¬p
• Therefore , “It is not snowing.”
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Hypothetical Syllogism / Transitivity
Example:
• “If it snows, then I will study AI.” p q
• “If I study AI, I will get S grade.” q r
• Conclusion: p r
• Therefore , “If it snows, I will get S grade.”
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Disjunctive Syllogism / Elimination
Example:
• “I will study OOP or I will study AI.” p V q
• “I will not study OOP.” ¬p
• Conclusion: p r
• Therefore , “I will study AI.”
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Addition
Example:
• “I will study AI.” p
• Conclusion: p V q
• Therefore , “I will study AI or I will visit Phoenix
mall”
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Simplification
Example:
• “I will study AI and I will study OOP.” p q
• Conclusion: q
• Therefore , “I will study OOP”
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Conjunction
Example:
• “I will study AI”. p
• “I will study OOP.” q
• Conclusion: p q
• Therefore , “I will study AI and I will study OOP”
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Resolution
Example:
• “I will study not AI or I will study DBMS”. ¬p V r
• “I will study AI or I will study OOP”. p V q
• Conclusion: q V r
• Therefore , “I will study OOP and I will study DBMS”
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Contradiction
• Sita falsely stated
“It was not a mountain” ¬p
Conclusion :
“ It was a mountain” p
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Valid Arguments – Exercise1
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Valid Arguments – Exercise2
With these hypotheses:
• “It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.”
• “If we go swimming then it is sunny”
• “If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip.”
• “If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset.”
Using the inference rules, construct a valid
argument for the conclusion:
“We will be home by sunset.”
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Proof
• p : “It is sunny this afternoon.”
• q : “It is colder than yesterday.”
• r : “We will go swimming.”
• s : “We will take a canoe trip.”
• t : “We will be home by sunset.”
Translation into propositional logic:
Hypotheses:
¬ p q, r p, ¬ r s, s t
Conclusion: t 81
1. It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.
2. If we go swimming then it is sunny.
3. If we do not go swimming then we will take a canoe trip.
4. If we take a canoe trip then we will be home by sunset.
5. We will be home by sunset
propositions hypotheses
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Using the rules of inference to build arguments
1. p q
p It is sunny this afternoon
q It is colder than yesterday
2. r p
r We go swimming 3. r s
s We will take a canoe trip 4. s t
t We will be home by sunset (the conclusion)
5. t
Step
Step Reason
Reason
Reason
1.
pp
qq Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
2. p Simplifica
Simplification
tionusing
using(1)
(1)
3. rp Hypothesis
Hypothesis
4. r Modus
Modustollens
tollensusing
using(2)
(2)and
and(3)
(3)
5. r s Hypothesis
6. s Modus ponens using (4) and (5)
7. st Hypothesis
8. t Modus ponens using (6) and (7)
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Show that the hypotheses
“If you send me an email message, then I will finish
writing the program,”
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