CHAPTER ONE

1. Introduction
1.1. History
The science of post harvest physiology and technology in horticulture has become important just
in the 21st century. The recording of post harvest losses, begun in the United States in the second
decade of this century. Two psychopathologists investigated the cartloads of vegetables, which
were brought to the markers of New York and Chicago. They found a broad spectrum of diseases
and damages. In England a National Research Institution for investigation of damages and
diseases on imported fruits was founded in 1926. It was established at central fruit and vegetable
market in convent garden in London. The reasons to establish this institution were disagreement
between producer shopping companies and sellers concerning the responsibility for produce
wastages. Business interests required special experts, the so called market pathologists.

In the developing world, post harvest technology is a recent development of horticulture. The
main efforts were always focused on the increase of the yields and on breeding and selection of
better cultivars. The yields were maximized by high inputs in irrigation systems, in fertilizer,
pesticides, fungicides and herbicides. There is no question about the achievements. But already
in 1965 the United Nations advisory committee on the application of science and technology to
development advised strongly to pay more attention to prevention of load losses. The methods of
storage conservation should be improved. The poverty in Europe during and after the Second
World War gave in impetus to post harvest research, at the beginning, the research was focused
on the studies of grains. Then the studies about more delicate crops such as fruits and vegetables
followed.

1.2. Extent of post harvest losses

Various authorities have tried to estimate the post harvest losses of fresh fruit and vegetables. At
least 25 percent of the world produce gets lost due to mishandling at various points i.e from
harvesting to marketing and consumption. In tropical regions these losses can assume
considerable economic and social importance. The post harvest losses of selected fruit, vegetable
and ornamentals in horticultural state farms in Ethiopia were recorded in the years 1985 to 1988
(Fekadu, 1991). The percentage of post harvest losses in fruits is generally higher as compared to
that of vegetables. The trend in post harvest loss is not regular. Very high fluctuations are
observed and for this regular pattern and inconsistency, change in the weather condition plays a
significant role. In time of abundant rain losses are high.
NB: Any attempt to improve the post harvest handling of horticultural produce should be
preceded by a quantitative estimate of PH losses.

1.3. Need for post harvest technology

There is a great need to adopt post harvest technology at farmers and at other organizational
levels to improve income and to save national wastages. The minimization or elimination of
these losses should be done because of the following consideration:
 quite often food shortage can be more efficient overcome by better conservation methods
than by further improvements on yield outputs
 the supply of fruit and vegetables can be significantly increased without bringing
additional land into cultivation and without using any additional input
 the wastage of energy put into production and post harvest treatment will be minimized

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  the farmers have a quite better return of capital when they can sell their stored produce
during the off season
 as export produce horticultural crops can be a lucrative source of foreign currencies
 consumers need will be satisfied and better nutrition will be ensured with the same
amount of non renewable resources
 the problem of refuse disposal and consequent pollution will be reduced
Thousands of tons of produce are now transported daily over long distances both within
countries and internationally. Fresh fruit and vegetables are important items of commerce and
there is a huge investment of resources in transport, storage and marketing facilities designed to
maintain a continuous supply of these perishable commodities. Thus, the main role of the post
harvest technologist is to devise methods by which deterioration of produce is restricted as much
as possible during the period between harvest and consumption. This requires a thorough
understanding of the structure, composition; physiology and biochemistry horticultural
produce as post harvest technologies are mainly concerned with slowing down the rate of
metabolism without inducing abnormal events.

1.4. Actual causes of post harvest losses

Two main categories
1. Physical loss
2. loss of quality
1. Physical loss
 Arise from structural damage or microbiological wastage and
 leave produce tissue degraded to a stage where it is not acceptable for present
consumption, processing
 can also arise from the evaporation of intercellular water, which leads to direct loss in a
produce
2. Loss of quality
 is due to physiological and compositional change that alter the appearance, taste,
texture of the produce
 the change may arise from normal metabolism and abnormal events arising from the
post harvest environment

Conceptual Framework of Post harvest Operations

Temperature is the single most important to l for maintaining post harvest quality. For products
that are not field-cured or exceptionally durable, the removal of field heat as rapidly as possible
is highly desirable. Harvesting cuts a vegetable off from its source of water, but it is still alive
and will lose water, and therefore turgor, through respiration. Field heat can accelerate the rate of
respiration and with it the rate of quality loss. Proper cooling protects quality and extends both
the sensory (taste) and nutritional shelf life of produce. The capacity to cool and store produce
gives the grower greater market flexibility. Growers have a tendency to underestimate the
refrigeration capacity needed for peak cooling demand. It is often critical that fresh produce
rapidly reach the optimal pulp temperature for short-term storage or shipping if it is to maintain
its highest visual quality, flavor, texture, and nutritional content.

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Produce value chain and post harvest operations
The fresh and processed fruit and vegetables value chain is presented in Figure 1. This value
chain includes several segments: inputs, production, packing and storage, processing and
distribution and marketing. The most important inputs for production in this industry are seeds,
fertilizers, agrochemicals (herbicides, fungicides and pesticides), farm equipment, and irrigation
equipment. Logistics and transportation fulfill key supporting functions, while government
regulatory bodies are required to approve the sanitary and phytosanitary conditions of outbound
products. Due to the fragile and perishable nature of the product, a high degree of coordination
between the different actors along the chain is required. This ensures that the perishable product
reaches its destination in good condition. Cold storage units are used throughout the chain to
keep the produce fresh, and both air and sea freighting supported by the cold chain are key
elements to ensure timely delivery.

Following this, the key segment of the value chain for developing countries, production for
export, is divided between production for fresh consumption and production for processed fruit
and vegetables. In some cases, the fresh fruit and vegetables that are not accepted for sale as
fresh produce are used as inputs for the processing stage, but in other cases, such as orange juice
or preserved peaches, a specific variety and grade quality is required and production occurs
separately. Production is organized in small, medium, and large farms that supply exporter
companies and/or producer-exporter companies that own farms, but they may also supplement
their supply by buying from other farms. Industry associations often play important supporting
roles at this stage in disseminating information about new products, processes and best practices.

Figure 1. The Fruit and Vegetables Global Value Chain

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The next segment is packing and cold storage. The first stage of the packing segment is
grading. Unacceptable low-grade produce will be redirected to processing plants or the domestic
market. Washing, trimming, chopping, mixing, packing, and labeling are other processes that
may occur in this stage of the value chain. Once the produce is ready for transport, it is blast
chilled and placed in cold storage units ready for export. Packing usually requires economies of
scale due to the high costs of cold storage and other capital investments necessary at this stage;
thus, this is usually carried out by large producer-exporter and exporter companies that buy the
fresh fruit and vegetables and package, store, and export them.

Processed fruit and vegetables include dried, frozen, and preserved produce, as well as juices
and pulps. Many of these processes add value to the raw product by increasing the shelf life of
the fruit and vegetables. Processing plants purchase fruits and vegetable inputs from the
producers. These firms may export their products under their own brand, as well as under the
buyer’s brand. The last stage of the value chain before consumption is distribution and
marketing. In this final stage, the produce is distributed to different channels including
supermarkets, small-scale retailers, wholesalers, and food services.

Importance of Post Harvest Technology

 Proper handling, packaging, transportation and storage reduces the post harvest losses of
fruit and vegetables. For every one percent reduction in loss will save 5 million tons of
fruit and vegetable per year.
 Processing and preservation technology helps to save excess fruit and vegetable during
the glut season (off season).
 The technology has become a necessity to improve the food safety and strengthen
nation’s food security.
 The technology helps to boost export of agricultural commodities in the form of
preserved and value added products.
 Presently mango, pineapple, citrus, grapes, tomatoes, peas, potato and cucumber being
processed on a large scale.

Scope of Post harvest Management

Post Harvest Management (PHM) can be defined as methods and techniques applied to increase
the shelf life and retain quality of fresh or processed horticultural produce.
Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable commodities due to high moisture content and higher
metabolic activities. Spoilage to fruits and vegetables mainly occur due to microbial attack, auto
oxidation and insect pest attack. As a result, about 25 to 30 per cent of the production is lost after
harvest. The role of PHM is important for reduction of post harvest losses of fruits and
vegetables and to make them available for longer period in the market.

Increase Food Supply

 PHM of produce includes proper handling, packaging, storage, transportation and
marketing, which can increase shelf-life and reduce the overall spoilage.
 PHM possess modern technologies like refrigerated storage, controlled and modified
storage, and irradiation, which also increase the shelf-life of produce appreciably.
 PHM can save the produced food from spoilage for consumption and thereby help in
increasing the food availability.

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Nutritional Security
 Several essential nutrition are required for human health.Fruits and vegetables are the
rich source of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and fibres.
 The deficiency of vitamins may lead to many diseases such as scurvy, beriberi, night
blindness, etc.
 PHM saves several minerals and vitamins from being lost, and thus PHM is the only
solution for nutritional security of growing population of the country.
Employment Generation
 PHM activities such as harvesting, sorting, grading, and packaging can provide gainful
employment to unskilled and skilled people
 Processing of surplus and cull fruits and vegetables also generate employment.
Value Addition
 The primary and minimally processing add value to the fresh produce.
 Inedible plant parts, if utilized gainfully, can produce value added products.
 Surplus and cull fruits and vegetables can be processed into several value added products.
 PHM and processing can add value to the fresh as well processed products and the
producer or farmer can get good return of his produce.
Export Earning
 A large number of fruits and vegetables are traded in the world market. Fruits such as
mango, grapes, banana, pomegranate and vegetables like onion, potato, and green
vegetables have good export market potential.
 Our country is exporting grapes, mango and other green vegetables
 It is mainly because of good post harvest management practices, quality maintenance
throughout the marketing channel and basic infrastructure of export.
Rural Industrialisation
 Post harvest management and processing is essential for horticultural industry.
 PHM can take care of gluts and all possible wastage during distributional channel.
 Development of processing industry and packaging house units in the rural areas will
help in rural industrialization as well.
Beneficial to Producers and Consumers
 There is always abundance of produce at the production site but scarcity at the
consumption place. Grower’s sale their produce at the lowest minimum price due to fear
of spoilage.
 Middleman in the market takes heavy share, which increases the price of commodity
many times.
 Consumer purchases the same commodities at a very high price in the cities. Training to
growers in PHM activities can overcome this situation. Hence, growers will get a good
price for their produce and consumers will have to pay a reasonable low price.

Fruits and vegetables are perishable in nature. Growers do not have proper infrastructure
facilities for handling or storage of produce in growing areas. Proper training of farmers in
appropriate PHM activities will help in avoiding the glut of fruits and vegetables reduce losses
due to spoilage, add value to the fresh and processed products. Hence, it has good income to the
growers and better nutritious produce to consumer at a reasonable price.

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 CHAPTER TWO
2. Structure and composition of fruits, vegetables and ornamentals
Fleshly fruits of commerce comprise various combinations of tissues such as expanded ovary,
seed, receptacle and peduncle. Vegetable do not present any specific botanical grouping and
exhibit a wide variety of plant structure. However, of plant grouped in to three main categories:
 Seed and pod
 Bulb, root and tubers
 Flower, buds and leaves
Cut flowers are variation of inflorescences. There is a huge range of variation in flower structure.
Basic structure of the inflorescences is stem, including pedicles and peduncles, bracts and
flowers. Inflorescences can be solitary or multiple
Variation in structure of inflorescences has a major bearing on post harvest handling strategies.
Inflorescences have low CH2O. Hence, it is very important to provide cut flowers in the vase
with sugar solution. the structural origins of horticultural crops have a major bearing on the
recommendations for their pH preservation.
Above ground structures develop natural wax coating hence this reduces the transpiration water
loss, where as underground structures do not develop such coating hence they require high RH in
storage. However, tuberous vegetables are equipped with a special capability to heal wounds.

2. Chemical composition and nutritional value

2.1. Water
Represent 80-95% of fruit and vegetables
 Starchy tubers and seed such as yam, cassava and corn contain less water (50%)
 to ensure the crispy texture harvest when maxim water is possible
 water activity influence deterioration

Water Activity (aw) concept

The concept of aw has been very useful in food preservation and on that basis many processes
could be successfully adapted and new products designed. Water has been called the universal
solvent as it is a requirement for growth, metabolism, and support of many chemical reactions
occurring in food products.
Water activity (aw) is a ratio of reduced vapor pressure of the food substrate (due to water
binding effects) to pure water at the same temperature. Pure water has an aw of 1, one molal
solution of sugar - 0.98, and one molal solution of sodium chloride - 0.9669. A saturated solution
of sodium chloride has a water activity of 0.755.

Free water Vs Bond water in fruits and vegetables

Free water in fruit or vegetables is the water available for chemical reactions, to support
microbial growth, and to act as a transporting medium for compounds. In the bound state, water
is not available to participate in these reactions as it is bound by water soluble compounds such
as sugar, salt, gums, etc. (osmotic binding), and by the surface effect of the substrate (matrix
binding).

A relationship therefore exists between ERH and a w since both are based on vapour pressure. The
ERH of a food product is defined as the relative humidity of the air surrounding the food at

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which the product neither gains nor loses its natural moisture and is in equilibrium with the
environment.

aw = ERH
100

Microorganisms vs. aw value

The moisture conditions in which pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms cannot grow is of

paramount importance to food preservation. Each microorganism has a critical a w below which
growth cannot occur. For instance, pathogenic microorganisms cannot grow at a w <0.86; yeasts
and moulds are more tolerant and usually no growth occurs at a w <0.62. The so-called
intermediate moisture foods (IMF) have aw values in the range of 0.65-0.90.

Enzymatic and chemical changes related to aw values

The relationship between enzymatic and chemical changes in foods as a function of water
activity is illustrated in Figure 3.1. With a w at 0.3, the product is most stable with respect to lipid
oxidation, non-enzymatic browning, enzyme activity, and of course, the various microbial
parameters. As aw increases toward the right, the probability of the food product deteriorating
increases.

Figure 3. Relationship of food deterioration rate as a function of water activity

Relationship between water content and water activity
The relationship between water content and water activity (a w) is complex. An increase in a w is
usually accompanied by an increase in water content, but in a non-linear fashion. This
relationship between water activity and moisture content at a given temperature is called the
moisture sorption isotherm. These curves are determined experimentally and constitute the
fingerprint of a food system.

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2.2. Carbohydrate
 The most abundant constituents next to water
 Account for 2-40% of the produce tissue
 Present in simple sugar form to poly saccharide
 Main sugar present in fruits and vegetables are sucrose, glucose and fructose
 Produce with higher sugar levels are mainly tropical and subtropical fruits
 Beet root contain the highest sugar content among the vegetables
 Cellulose, pectic substances and hemi cellulose are the main carbohydrate polymers that
constituent fibers

2.3. Protein
 Accounts for 1% in fresh fruit and about 2% in fresh vegetables
 Legume contains about 5% protein. Whereas brassica vegetables contain 3-5%

2.4. Lipids
 Comprise less than 1% most fruits and vegetables
 Associated is protective cuticle layers on the surface of the produce
 Avocado and olive are exceptions having respectively 20 to 15% lipid content

2.5. Organic acid

 Apart from their biochemical importance organic acids contributes greatly to taste
 Some of the dominant acids include
1. Citric acid in orange, Mango
2. Malic acid in pine apple, banana
3. Tartaric acid in grape
4. Oxalic acid in spinach

2.6. Vitamins and minerals

 Major vitamins in fruits and vegetables include Vit.C, A and folic acid
 Maintenance of these vitamins and during handling, storage and processing should
be concern
 The major mineral in fruit and vegetable in potassium (20-60%)
 Iron and calcium is also available

2.7.Volatiles
 Products are not important quantitatively but important in producing the
characteristics of aroma
 Aroma constituents of many ornamentals have found application as perfumes. the
mainly esters, alcohols and acids, aldehydes and ketons
 Ethanol is common to all fruits and vegetables while others are specific to an
individual species eg. Esters, most ripe fruits, Sulpher-containing volatiles Brassica
vegetables

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 CHAPTER THREE
3. Physiology and Biochemistry of fruit and vegetables
 Harvested fruit and vegetables are living structures
 It continues to perform the metabolic reactions and maintain the physiological
systems which were present when it was attached to the plant
 They respire that is take up oxygen and give off carbon dioxide and heat
 They also transpire that is lose water
 While attached to the plant, the losses due to respiration and transpiration are replaced
from the flow of sap which contains water, photosynthates (principally sucrose and
amino acids) and minerals
 After harvest the produce is dependent entirely on its own food reserves and moisture
content
 Losses of respirable substrates and moisture are not made up and deterioration has
commenced
3.1. Physiological development
The life of fruits and vegetables can be conveniently divided in to three major physiological
stages following germination: Growth, Maturation and Senescence. However, clear distinction
between various stages is not easily made.
Growth
 Involves cell division and subsequent cell enlargement that accounts for final size of the
produce

Maturation
 Usually commences before growth ceases and include different activities in different
commodities
 Growth and maturation are often collectively reffered to as development phase
Senescence
 Senescence is the period when anabolic biochemical process gives away to catabolic
process leading to aging and finally death of the tissue.
Ripening
 Ripening is a term reserved for a fruit.
 Ripening is generally considered to begin during the later stage of maturation and to be
the first stage of senescence
 Development and maturation of fruit are completed only when it is attached to the plant
 Ripening and senescence may proceed on or off the plant. Fruit is generally harvested
either when mature or when ripe.
Some of the changes that may occur during the ripening of fleshy fruit include:
Seed maturation, color changes, abscission, change in respiration rate, change in the rate of
ethylene production, change in tissue and cellular compartment, softening, change in
carbohydrate composition, organic acid change, production of flavor and volatile and
development of wax on the skin.

3.2. Fruit ripening

 Ripening is a dramatic event in the life of the fruit. It marks the development of fruit and
the commencement of senescence. It is an irreversible event. The difference between
climacteric fruit and non climacteric fruit is the presence of respiratory peak.

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  A sharp increase in respiration is shown by the increase in the production of CO 2
concentration.

3.3. Physiology of respiration

 Major metabolic process in harvested produce
C6H12O6 + O2→CO2 + H2O + Energy
 Respiration rate is an excellent indicator of a product metabolic activity
 Respiration per unit lot is highest for immature fruits and vegetables and then steadily
decline age
 for climacteric fruits, a pronounced increase in respiration coincides in ripening. Such an
increase known as respiratory climacteric (RC)
 The commencement “RC” coincides with the attainment of maximum fruit size.
 The process of RC as well as ripening may proceed while the fruit is either attached to or
detached from the mother plant
 Fruits such as citrus, pineapple, and strawberry which do not exhibit respiratory
climacteric known as non-climacteric
 All vegetables can also be considered is having non-climacteric type of respiratory
pattern
 There is little the post harvest physiologist can do to alter the internal factors affecting
respiration of harvested commodities, since they are largely a function of the commodity
itself once harvested
 However, a major part of post harvest technology is devoted to reducing respiration and
metabolic reactions associated with quality retention by manipulating the external
environment
 In general, the storage life of commodities varies inversely with the rate of respiration
 This is because respiration supplies compounds that determine the rate of metabolic
product that directly related to quality parameters, for example: firmness, sugar content,
aroma, flavor etc
 Commodities and cultivars with higher rates of respiration tend to have shorter storage
life , those with low rates of respiration
Factors affecting respiration
 Affected by a wide range of environmental factors include light, chemical stress
(fumigating), radiation stress, water stress, growth regulators and pathogen attack
 The most important postharvest factors are temperature, atmospheric composition and
stress
Temperature
 The most important factor affecting post harvest life
 Some of the more important changes include enhanced respiration, ethylene production,
phenolic metabolism and wound healing
 Wound-induced respiration is often transitory, lasting a few hours or days. However, in
some tissues wounding stimulated developmental changes eg., promote ripening that
result in a prolonged increase in respiration
 Ethylene stimulates respiration and stress induced ethylene may have many physiological
effects on commodities besides stimulating respiration

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Stage of Development
 Respiration rates vary among and within commodities
 Storage organs such as nuts and tubers have low respiration rates
 Tissues with vegetative or floral meristems such as asparagus and broccoli have very high
respiration rates
 As plant organ mature, their rate of respiration typically decline. This means that
commodities harvested during active growth such as many vegetables and immature
fruits have high respiration rates. Mature fruits, dormant buds and storage organs have
relatively low rates
 After harvest, the respiration rate typically declines; slowly in non-climacteric fruits and
storage organs, rapidly in vegetative tissues and immature fruits
 The rapid decline presumably reflects depletion of respirable substrates that are typically
low in such tissues
 An important exception to the general decline in respiration following harvest is the rapid
and sometimes dramatic rise in respiration during the ripening of climacteric fruits. This
rise, which have been the subject of intense study for many years, normally consists of
four distinct phases:
 Pre-climacteric minimum, Climacteric rise, Climacteric peak and Post
climacteric decline
 A true climacteric only occurs coincides with fruit ripening. Not during stress and
developmental stages

3.4. Effect of Ethylene

 Climacteric and non-climacteric fruit may be farther differentiated by their response to
applied C2H4 production during ripening
 All fruit produce minute quantities of C2H4 than non- climacteric one
 Exogenous application of C2H4 at a concenteration as low as 0.1 µl/l for a day is
normally sufficient to hasten full ripening
 Has a profound effect on the rates of biological reactions eg. metabolism and respiration
 Over the physiological range of most crops i.e., 0 to 300C (32 to 86 0F), increased
temperature cause an exponential rise in respiration.
 The Van’t Hoff Rule states that the velocity of a biological reaction increase 2 to 3 fold
for every 100C (180F) rise in temperature.
 The temperature quotient for a 100C interval is called the Q10.
Q10= R2/R1

Atmospheric composition
 Adequate O2 levels are required to maintain aerobic respiration
 The exact level of O2 that reduces respiration while still permitting aerobic respiration
varies with commodity
 In most crops, O2 level around 1 to 3% produces a beneficial reduction in the rate of
respiration and other metabolic reactions
 At higher storage temperatures
 the demand for ATP may outstrip the supply and
 promote anaerobic respiration

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  Unintentional modification of the atmosphere, eg., packaging, film wrapping or waxing
can result production of undesirable fermentative products and development of foul odors
 Care while selecting the various post harvest handling procedures
 Increasing the CO2 level around some commodities
 reduces respiration
 delays senescence
 retards fungal growth
 In low O2 environments, however, increased CO2 levels can promote fermentative
metabolism
 Some commodities tolerate brief (for example, a few days at low temperature) storage in
a pure atmosphere or in very high concentration of CO2

Physical stress
 Even mild physical stress can perturb respiration, while physical abuse can cause a
substantial respiration. That is often associated with increased ethylene evolution.
 The signal produced by physical stress migrates from the site of injury and induces a
wide range of physiological changes in adjacent, non-wound tissue.
 Applied C2H4 merely causes a transit increase in the respiration of non-climacteric fruits;
magnitude depends on the concentration of C2H4.
 Rise in respiration in response to C2H4 may occur more than once in non-climacteric in
contrast to the single respiration increase in climacteric fruit.
 Produced from methionine via a path way that includes the intermidate s-adonosyl-
methionine (SAM) and 1-aminoclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC).
 Conversion of SAM to ACC synthase is considered to be the rate limiting step in the
biosynthesis of C2H4
 ACC further converted to C2H4 by ACC oxidase (Ethylene forming enzyme or EFE)
 ACC oxidase is a liable enzyme that is sensitive to O2
 Factors that affect the activity of ACC synthase include senescence, ripening, physical
injury, chilling injury, auxin
 Ethylene mode of action
 C2H4 is a plant hormone
 probably acts in convert with other plant hormones
 Auxins, gibberellins, kinins, abscisic acid
 To exercise control over the fruit ripening process
 C2H4 is though to bind to a specific receptor (s) to form a complex which then triggers
ripening
 C2H4 action can be affected by altering the amount of receptor (s) or by interfering with
the binding of C2H4 to its receptor
 Binding takes palce reversily at a site containing a metal possibly copper
 Affinity of the receptor for C2H4 is increased by the presence of O2 and decreased by
the presence of CO2
 The pattern of changes in C2H4 production rates and the internal concenteration of C2H4
in relation to the onset of ripening have been observed in several climacteric fruits
 In one type of fruit ethylene, concentration rises before the onset of ripening determined
as the initial respiration increase eg. Banana, Tomato and Honeydew melon

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  In the second type ethylene does not rise before the increase in respiration eg. apple,
avocado, mango
 Treatments that prevent ethylene from reaching a triggering concentration delays ripening
eg. banana remains green up to 180 days at 200C, 5% CO2, 3% CO2, 92 % N or
modified atmospheres with ethylene absorbent eg. KMnO3
 Many fruits are they develop and mature become more sensitive to ethylene
 young fruit can have high rates of ethylene production
 Earrly in the life of the fruit, the concentration of applied ethylene required to initiate
ripening is high and the length of time to ripen is prolonged but decreases as the fruit
matures
 Nothing is known about the factors that control the sensitivity of the tissue to ethylene

Reading Assignment
The two systems for C2H4 biosynthesis regulation
 Treatment of fruit, flowers and other tissues with silver ion has been shown to inhibit the
action of ethylene
 1-metylcyclopropane (1-MCP) is highly inhibitor of ethylene action. It bonds irreversibly
to the ethylene receptors in sensitive plant tissue.

Effect of ethylene on fruit and vegetables

The commencement of natural ripening in climacteric fruit is accompanied by an increase in
ethylene production. Treatment of pre-climacteric fruits with exogenous ethylene advances the
onset of ripening. This response is used widely in commercial practice to achieve controlled
ripening of fruit such as banana, which is picked and transported in a mature but unripe state and
ripened just before marketing. The action of ethylene must, however, be avoided for such fruit
during storage and transport to prevent premature ripening. In contrast, the effect of ethylene on
non-climacteric fruit and vegetables offers no apparent commercial benefit but will reduce post
harvest quality by promoting senescence, as evidenced by loss of green color, change in texture
and flavor and promotion of low temperature injuries and microbial decay. While the levels of
ethylene that trigger ripening have been well researched for most climacteric fruits, the threshold
concentration that enhance senescence in non climacteric fruit and vegetables is less well
documented. A concentration of 0.1 µL/L is often cited as the threshed level, but recent studies in
Australia indicate that the threshold level of ethylene is less than 0.005 µL/L. For practical
purposes, this means there is no safe level of ethylene and hence any reduction in ethylene
concentration will bring some extension in post harvest life. Ethylene in storage and transport
container may come from produce or from outside sources. Often during marketing, several
commode type are stored together and under these conditions, ethylene given by one commodity
ca adversely affect another. Coal gas, petroleum of and exhaust gases from internal composition
engines contain ethylene and contamination of stored produced by these gases may introduce
sufficient ethylene to initiate ripening in fruit and promote deterioration in non climacteric
produce and ornamentals. The level of deleterious action will depend on the concentration of
ethylene that accumulates and the duration of exposure. in addition to delaying ripening or
senescence through reducing ethylene concentrations around the produce, the sensitivity of
produce to ethylene may be lessened by storage at low temperature and by either raising the level
of CO2 or decreasing the level of oxygen. Under these conditions the amount of ethylene
required to induce ripening is increased. A similar effect has been demonstrated for some non-

13
climacteric produce. For example, the ethylene induced breakdown of chlorophyll is less
sensitive to at low temperatures.

Effect of ethylene on ornamentals

Many ornamental crops are sensitive to ethylene. Responses of ornamentals to ethylene can be
classed into growth, abscission, and senescence responses. An example of ethylene-induced
growth responses is epinastic curvature of poinsettias leaves and bracts. Abscission is response
that is far more wide spread across the broad range of ornamental species. Many types of organs
may abscise including stem segments, leaves, fruit, whole floresences, buds and flowers and
petals. For example, fruit, leaves and stem segments of Christmas mistletoe springs
(Phoradendron tomentosum) all separate upon exposure to ethylene. Ethylene induced
accelerated senescence is characterized by premature discoloration and wilting of flowers such as
carnation and cymbidium orchids. Individual species vary widely in their relative sensitivity to
ethylene and in general, cut flowers and flowering pot plants tend to be more ethylene sensitive-
than foliage plants. Among cut flowers, carnation and Delphinium are considered very sensitive
to ethylene, while gerbera and tulip are considered relatively in sensitive. Among flowering pot
plants, Hibiscus is classes as highly sensitive and chrysanthemum is of low sensitivity. Finally,
among foliage plants, Scefflera is highly sensitive and Nephorolopis is sensitive. However is
must be noted that ethylene sensitivity can vary markedly among genotypes (eg. species) within
a genus. Similarly, ethylene production can vary widely between genotypes. For example, some
carnations produce a marked ethylene climacteric during senescence, whereas others do not
produce significant moments of ethylene. As has been observed for genotype, factors that
influences phenotype including pre-harvest temperature, RH, light and nutrition regimes can also
affect the relative sensitivity of ornamental ethylene.

Methods for reducing Ethylene concentrations

1. Avoidance of ethylene accumulation
Reduction of ethylene level in the storage rooms can be achieved by good housekeeping; that is
storing ripe and unripe produce in separate rooms regularly removing all rotted or damaged
produce, and by ensuring that natural gas pipes and cylinders and exhaust gases from internal
combustion engines are kept well away from storage rooms.
A simple physical method to minimize ethylene accumulation is to ensure good ventilation of the
storage chamber with air from outside the storage complex. The ethylene concentration in the
atmosphere is normally less than 0.005 µL/L unless there is contamination from nearly industrial
sources or heavy automobile traffic. Ventilation with external air could be applicable where no
large temperature differential exists between the external air and the storage chamber provided it
is at an appropriate relative humidity. If there is a large temperature difference, it may be
necessary to cool the air before admitting it to the chamber.
2. Oxidation with potassium permanganate
Ethylene in the atmosphere can be oxidized to CO2 and water using a range of chemical agents.
Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is quite effective in reducing ethylene level. Since it is non
volatile, potassium permanganate can be physically separate from produce, thus eliminating the
risk of chemical injury. To ensure efficient destruction of ethylene, a large surface area of
potassium permanganate is achieved by coating an inert inorganic porous support such as
alumina or expanded mica, with a saturated solution of potassium permanganate. Potassium
permanganate used in this manner has been found to retard the ripening of many fruits. The high

14
CO2 and oxygen atmosphere generated within the sealed bags decreases the response of the
fruits to ethylene and hence retards ripening. The addition of potassium permanganate was
further retard ripening by maintaining ethylene at a low level for a long period. The technique
has also been successfully demonstrated to delay the ripening of whole bunches of banana during
growth on the plant. High humidity in storage containers has a limitation to the longevity of
potassium permanganate absorbents as it also reacts with water.

3. Other oxidants
Activated charcoal that has been brominants will effectively oxidize ethylene but carries a
potential health hazard as it generate bromine gas when in contact with excess water. Recent
laboratory studies have identified a range of chemicals such as tertrazine, that react specifically
with ethylene. There great specificity for ethylene makes them relatively more efficient in
ethylene scavenging than general oxidizing agent such as potassium permanganate. Commerical
applications are focusing on their inclusion into plastic packaging firm. A problem to be
overcome is the instability of tetrazines in the presence of moisture.

4. Other chemicals
A range of chemicals that toxic to humans can be used as ant-ethylene treatments with
ornamentals because they are not eaten. Most notably customs of ornamental can be pulsed with
silver ions supplied Silver thio sulphate (STS), or whole plants or plant parts can be dipped or
sprayed with STS. Silver ions blocks the ethylene binding site, thereby preventing its action a
relatively binding site blocker, 1-Metyl cycropropane (1-MCP), is like to replace STS as an anti-
ethylene treatment and particularily exciting as it can be applied as a gas. At this stage 1-MCP
considered safe in that it has low or no mammalian toxicity and low or no adverse environmental
impact. Its application to fruit and vegetables is a relatively early stage of evaluation.

Treatment with ethylene inhibitors is an alternative to treatment with ethylene binding site
blockers. Two such compounds are aminoethioxyvinglycine (AVG) and amino oxyacetic acid
(AOA). Both compounds are used to treat ornamentals such as carnations, against ethylene.
However, the relative drawback is that only confer protection against endogenously produced
and not exogenous ethylene. Another approach to reducing or eliminating the effect of ethylene
on ornamentals is by genetic engineering. Carnation genotypes that formerly produced ethylene
during senescence (i.e. climacteric characteristics have been engineered using antisense gene
technology not to produce ethylene. The genetically engineered carnations, shows non-
clomacteric senescence characteristics, have markedly extended vase life. Similarly, carnation
genotypes with blocked ethylene binding and single transduction and translation will be
engineered. These genetic modifications emulate the effects of the chemical ethylene synthesis
(e.g. AVG) and binding (e.g. 1-MCP) inhibitors, respectively.

CHAPTER FOUR

4. Physiological disorders
Physiological disorder refers to the breakdown of tissue that is not caused by either invasion by
pathogen or by mechanical damage. They may develop in response to an adverse pre-harvest
and/or post harvest environment, especially temperature or to nutritional deficiency during
growth and development.

15
4.1. Temperature induce disorders
Some reactions are sensitive to low temperature and case completely below a critical
temperature. Decreasing temperature does not reduce the activity of other systems to the same
extent as it does respiration. For this system, this differential response leads to an accumulation
of reaction products and possibly a shortage of reactants, while the converse occurs with cold-
labile systems. The overall effect is that an imbalance in metabolism is created. If the imbalance
becomes serious enough so that an essential substrate is not provided or toxic products
accumulate, the cells will cease to function properly and will eventually lose their integrity and
structure. These collapsed cells manifest themselves as areas of brown tissue in the produce.
Metabolic disturbances occurring at sub ambient temperature are generally divided into two
groups:

Chilling injury and physiological disorders

Chilling injury
Chilling injury is a disorder that has long been observed in plant tissues especially those of
tropical or subtropical origin. It results from the exposure of sucsceptible tissues to temperature
below about 15oC, although the critical temperature at which chilling injury symptoms are
produced varies for different commodities. Chilling injury is a separate phenomenon from
freezing injury which results from the freezing of the tissue and the formation of ice crystals at
temperature below the freezing point. Susceptibility to chilling injury and its manifestations vary
widely among different commodities. A common chilling injury symptom is pitting of the skin,
usually due to the collapse of the cells beneath the surface, and the pits are often discolored.
High rate of water loss from damaged areas may occur, which accentuates the extent of pitting.
Browning of flesh tissues is also a common future. Browning often first appears around the
vascular (transport) strands in fruits probably as a result of the action of the enzyme Polyphenol
oxidase on phenolic compounds released from the vacuoles after chilling, although this has not
been proved in all cases. Fruit that has been picked immature will fail to ripen or will ripen
unevenly or slowly after-soaking of leafy vegetables and some fruits such as papaya is also often
observed. The symptoms of chilling injury normally occur while the produce is removed from
the chilling temperature to a higher temperature. Deterioration may then be quite rapid, often
with in a few hours. Chilling injury causes the release of metabolites, such as amino acids and
sugars and mineral salt from the cell that together with the degradation of cell structure provide
an excellent substrate for the growth of pathogenic organisms, especially fungi. These pathogens
are often present as latent infections or may contaminate the produce either during harvest or
postharvest during transport and marking. For this reason, increased rotting is a common
occurance in tropical produce after low temperature storage. Another consequence of chilling is
the development of off-flavours or odors. The complex array of symptoms suggests that several
factors are responsible for the development of chilling injury. Injury will generally appear more
quickly and will be more several the further the temperature is below the crtitical chilling
temperature where there is only a slight susceptibility to chilling injury.
The most obvious method for the control of chilling injury is to determine the critical
temperature for its development in particular fruit and the not expose the commodity to
temperature below that critical temperature. But expose for only a short period to chilling
temperature with subsequent storage at higher temperature may prevent the development of
injury. This conditioning treatment has been found to be effective for preventing black heart in

16
pineapple, wooliness in peach and flesh browning in plum, but it is not known whether other
produce will respond similarly.

Mechanism of chilling injury

The events leading to chilling injury can be separated into primary events, by which the plant
cells sense the lowered tempertature and the long-term responses or secondary events the
ultimately lead to the death of the cells. The primary events are more or less instantaneous and
are reversible at least for a period of tie. The secondary events are eventually irreversible and are
manifest as the various necrotic and other symptoms of chilling injury. Highly chilling-sensitive
plants, such as banana and pine apples, have a relatively high critical temperature of around 12 0C
or higher. Chilling-insensitive plants such as apples and pears have much lower critical
temperature of around 00C or below. Of course, storage below about -1 0C is not possible for fresh
produce because of freezing damage.

The two most likely causes of chilling sensitively are:

 A low temperature-induced changes in the physical properties of cell membranes due to
changes in the physical state of membrane lipids (the so called lipid hypothesis of chilling)
and
 Low temperature-induced dissociation of enzymes and other proteins into their structural
subunits resulting in changes in the kinetics of enzymes activity and changes in structural
proteins such as tubulin. A physical change in the membrane lipids with lowering of the
temperature would cause changes in the properties of the membranes. For example, ion and
metabolites movement would be affected as activities of membrane bound enzymes. These
changes could, in turn, cause imbalance in metabolism, with eventual disruption of the
various membranes leading to the breakdown of cellular compartmentalization, death of the
cells and the appearance of symptoms of chilling injury. The toxin hypothesis of chilling
injury in which there is an accumulation of toxic products of metabolism. Structural proteins
of the cell cytoskeleton, such as tubulin, are cold liable and undergo dissociation at low
temperature. This could account for the effect of low temperature on protoplasmic
streaming, which is especially sensitive in chilling-sensitive plants.

4.2. Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CAS) and Modified Atmosphere Package (MAP)
induced disorders
Controlled atmosphere storage can completely prevent Jonathan spot when as little as 2% CO2
is present. The incidence of core flush and various forms of flesh breakdown in apples is also
often reduced in controlled atmosphere storage. However, in some instances the level of
breakdown has reportedly increased in controlled atmosphere storage. This increase has been
attributed to factors associated with controlled atmosphere storage other than the composition of
the atmosphere storage results in high humidity, restricted ventilation rates and the accumulation
of fruits volatiles in the atmosphere. These conditions are conductive to the development of
apples breakdown. Superficial scaled is another disorder that is enhanced in controlled
atmosphere storage by these conditions. Controlled atmosphere storage can also create new
disorders if the produces brown heart in apples and pears various among different varieties and
may be as low as 1%. In addition to browning of the tissue, low oxygen injury is characterized
by the development of alcoholic off flavours produced by anaerobic metabolism. The ultimate

17
method for the prevention of a disorder is to understand the metabolic sequence that leads to the
development of the disorder and then to prevent that metabolism from occurring. Chemical
control is an obvious measure to prevent the development of disorders, but it is not necessarily
the sole method possible. Storage disorders may also be minimized by physical and cultural
treatments and by breeding less susceptible cultivars. If satisfactory control methods are not
available, the ultimate method of avoiding and physiological disorder is to hold susceptible fruits
at a temperature high enough to prevent the disorder from being a problem. This temperature is
usually 3-50C, but it is sometimes greater than 50C. This partially negates the idea of using low
temperature to minimize respiration, but it is better to market over mature produce that to have a
disfiguring disorder present.

4.3. Mineral deficiency disorders

Plants require a balanced mineral intake for proper development so a deficiency in any essential
mineral will lead to poor development of the plant as a whole. It can be said that the condition is
a physiologist disorder if the fruiting organ or actual vegetable portion is affected rather than the
whole plant.

Calcium: Calcium has been associated with more deficiency disorders than otherminerals. Some
of these disorders, such as mossom-end rot of tomatoes, can be readily eliminated by the
application of calcium salts as a pre-harvest spray while for others such as bitter pit of apples,
only partial control is obtained. However, this variability in the degree of control is probably
related to the amount of calcium taken up by the fruit. For example, the use of postharvest
dipping at sub atmospheric pressures, which markedly increase the up taken of calcium, usually
results in the total elimination of bitter pit. A substantial amount of the added calcium binds with
pectic substances in the middle lamella and with membranes generally and may prevent
disorders by strengthening structural components of the cell without alleviating the original
causes of the disorder. The strengthening of cell components may prevent or delay the loss of cell
compartmentalization and the enzymes reactions that cause browning symptoms.

Other Minerals: Boron deficiency in apples leads to a condition knowns as internal cork. This
condition is markedly by pitting of the flesh and is often indistinguishable from bitter pit. The
difference between the two disorders is that internal cork is prevented by the application of
boron sprays and develops only on the tree, while bitter pit responds to calcium treatment and
can develop post harvest. The major mineral in plants is potassium and both high and low levels
of potassium have been associated with abnormal metabolism. High levels of potassium have
been associated with the development of bitter pit in apple so that both high potassium and low
calcium levels are correlated with pit development. Low potassium is associated with changes in
the ripening tomato and delays the development of a full red color by inhibiting lycopene
biosynthesis.

Chapter Five

5. Postharvest pathology
Wastage of horticultural commodities by microorganisms between harvest and consumption can
be rapid and Sevier, particularly in tropics area where high temperature and high humidity favors
rapid microbial growth.

18
5.1. Microorganisms causing postharvest wastage
Major postharvest loss of fruit and vegetables are caused by the species of fungi Alernaria,
Botrytis, Colletotrichum, Diplodia, Monilinia, Penicillium, Phomopsis, and Sclorotina and of
bacteria Erwina and Psedomonas. Most of these pathogens are weak pathogens in that they can
only invade damaged produce. Afew such as Colletotrichum are able to penetrate the skin of the
healthy produce. The initial attack is rapidly followed by a broad spectrum of weak pathogens
that magnify the damage caused by the primary pathogen.

5.2. The infection process

Infection of horticultural produces can take place while the produce is immature and attached to
the plant or during the harvesting and subsequent handling and marketing operations. The
infection process, particularly postharvest is generally aided by mechanical injuries.
Furthermore, physiological condition of the produce the temperature and the formation of
periderm significantly affects the infection process and the development of infections.

5.2.1. Pre-harvest infection

Such kind of infection takes place through several avenues, such as direct penetration of the skin,
infection through natural openings and infection through damage. Several types of pathogenic
fungi are able to initiate an infection on the surface of the floral part and on sound and
developing fruit. The infection is then arrested and remains quiescent until after harvest when the
resistance of the host decrease and condition become favorable for growth such as when the fruit
begin to ripen or the tissue senescence. Such kind of infection is known as latent infection and it
is responsible for postharvest wastage of many tropical and sub tropical fruits. The best examples
are anthracnose in mango and papaya, crown rot of banana and stem end rot of citrus. Botrytis
infection also can be included. Week parasitic fungi and bacteria may also gain access to
immature fruit and vegetable through natural openings such as stomata and lentices and growth
cracks. But the infection to remain latent until the fruit become susceptible.

5.2.2. Postharvest infection

Many fungi that cause considerable wastage of the produce are unable to penetrate the intact of
the produce, but readily invade through any break in the tissue. Microscopic scratch and cut of
the stem are frequent point of entry for microorganisms. Stem end rots are important for
postharvest wastage of many fruits and vegetables.

5.2.3. Factors affecting the development of infection

The most important factors affecting the development of postharvest wastage of produce is the
surrounding environment. High temperature and high relative humidity favor the development of
postharvest decay and chilling injury generally predispose tropical and subtropical fruits for
postharvest decay. In contrast low temperature, low level of oxygen, high level of and correct
level of RH can restrict the rate of postharvest decay.

The host tissue particularly the PH of the tissue acts as a selective medium. Fruits generally have
a PH below 4.5 and it is largely attacked and rotted by fungi. Many vegetables have a PH above
4.5 and consequently bacterial attack is much more common. Treatments that retard the process
of ripening retard the growth of spoilage microorganisms. Curing of tropical root and tuber crops
and some fruits has shown to reduce the postharvest wastage.

19
5.3. Control of Postharvest Wastage

Pre-harvest
In most instances, control of postharvest wastage should commence before harvest in the field of
orchard. Whenever possible, source of infections should be eliminated and spray for the control
of eradication of the casual organisms applied. Pre-harvest sprays are generally not as effective
postharvest application of the chemical directly to the commodity, although some of the
systematic fungicides have shown good control of latent infections. For instance, the rapid
development of resistance by Penicillium species to the benzimidazole group fungicides strongly
suggests to pre-harvest spray of these fungicides would of resistant strains, particularly if the
same fungicide is being relied upon for postharvest control of penicillium.
Careful handling during harvesting can minimize mechanical damage and reduce subsequent
wastage due to microbial attack. Similarly, it is also unwise to harvest some fruits such as citrus
rain or heavy dew as the peel is turgid and easily damaged.

Postharvest
The time of infection and the extent of development of the infection are critical in respect to
which it can be controlled. For example, Penicillium and Rhizopus invade wounds during
harvest subsequent handling operations and are much more easily controlled by fungicide
application surface of the commodity than the grey mould of strawberry, which infects the fruit
in the field some weeks before harvest or even at the time of flowering. It is recommended that
fungicides be applied within 24 hours of harvest so that infections can be controlled before they
become established.

5.3.1. Physical method of control

Low and high temperature, modified atmospheres, correct humidity, inonizing radiation, good
sanitation and development of wound barriers may control postharvest wastage of produce. Low
temperature handling and storage is the modt important physical method of postharvest wastage
control, and the remaining methods can be considered as supplants to low temperature. Heat
treatments in the form of either moist hot air or hot water dips have had some commercial
application for the control of postharvest wastage in papaya, mango and stone fruits. The
advantage of hot water dipping is that, it can control surface infections as well as infections that
have penetrated the skin and it leaves no chemical residues on the produce. Hot water dips must
precisely administer as the range of temperature necessary to control wastage (50-550C)
approaches temperatures that damage produce.

5.3.2. Chemical method of control

The level of control of wastage depends on the marketing strategy for the commodity and the
type of infection. For citrus, which have a relatively long postharvest life, the aim of the
treatment prevents primary infection and also sporulation so that nearby fruits are not
contaminated. Strawberry has a short postharvest life, and the treatment is aimed at preventing
the spread mould that infected the strawberries in the field. There is no point in treating a short-
life coming with a fungicide that has a long residual activity. The success of a chemical treatment
for control depends on several factors: such as the initial spore load, the depth of the infection
within the host tissues, the growth rate of infections, the temperature and humidity and the depth
to which the chemical can penetrate the tissues.

20
Most chemicals are generally fungistatic in action rather than fungicidal, that is, they inhibit
germination or reduce the rate of germination and growth after germination rather the organism,
and must come into direct contact with the organism to be effective chemicals, such as chlorine
and sulphur dioxide (SO2), are true fungicides. Chlorine is commonly added to wash-water to
kill bacteria and fungi and sulphur dioxide is lethal botrytis in grapes. Chemicals may be
impregnated into wraps or box liners or applied as fumigants, soultions and suspensions or in
wax.

5.3.3. Biological control methods

The ability of natural antibiotic substances to control mould growth is becoming better known.
B.subtilis has been found as an active antagonist against citrus green mould, sour rot and
alternariacentre rot. The controlling agents are assumed to be antifungal substances produced by
the bacterium that prevent mould development. Another method of biological control is where
organisms that feed on the pathogen can control disease. This mechanism has been reported as a
method of controlling the root-rotting fungus Sclerotinia by parasitism of the resting stage, the
sclerotia by the fungus Coniothyrium. Competition between organisms preventing the growth of
a phathogenic organism. The yeast Debaryomyces (now called Pichia) appears to reduce green
moulddevelopment by competing for space and nutrients in an injury site on the fruit rind of
citrus and thus inhibiting mould development.

CHAPTER SIX

6. Quality Evaluation
The term quality defines complete and the objective definition. For each consumer of
horticultural produce, quality is a highly subjective judgment related to learned criteria. With
respect to vegetables and ornamentals, quality criteria will, of course, vary between
commodities. Furthermore, for any particular commodity, the definition and associated criteria
will also depends on perspective of the recipient in the handling chain 9e.g grower versus
marketer versus consumers example: what is a good quality pear? Quality may therefore be
defineinterms of end use “fitness for purpose”. In this context, produce quality requirements
commonly refer make storage, transport, eating and or processing quality. The marketing of fresh
fruit and vegetables of ornamentals aimed eventually at appealing to the consumer for whom
tradition (i.e. learned criteria) plays a major role in determining acceptability.

6.1. Quality Criteria

The criteria for quality can be divided into external and internal factors. Interms of selling
produce external criteria might be considered of paramount importance. Accordingly, measures
are oftentaken to try to improve external quality. Examples of such measures include waxing of
apples, degreening of oranges, reddish lighting to ehance the coloration of red apples and orange
coloured mesh bags to reinforce the colouration of oranges. However, if the consumer is
disappointed by poor internal quality, eventually a reduction in the number of repeat purchases
can be expected. Important quality criteria for consumers are:Apperance including size, colr, and
shape; condition and absence of defects; mouth feel or texture; flavor and nutritional value.

Appearance: A rapid visual assessment can be made on the basis of size, shape, color, condition
such as freshness and or the presence of defects or blemishes. Size is an important criterion of

21
quality that can be easily measured by circumstance, diameter, length, width, weight or volume.
Many fruits are graded according to size, often by diameter measurement; with similar size of
fruit being packed together to give a uniform pack that assists marketingand retail sales. An
example of a commodity graded by length and diameter is the carrot. Weight is the standard
determinant for many other commodities. Shape is a criterion that often distinguishes particular
cultivars of fruits. Characterstic of shapea are usually demanded by the consumer, who will often
reject a commodity that lacks the characterstic shape. For example, attempts to market a straight
banana were unsuccessful, apparently because this shape was considered abnormal. Although a
superior eating or storing product may be obtained by breeding a new cultivar, if its shape is
unusual it will be less readily accepted in the market and will require extensive reduction of the
consumer through advertising programs. Colour changes in ripening fruit have been associated
by the consumer with the conversion of starch to sugar 9i.e sweetening) and the development of
other desirable attributes so that the correct skin colour is often all that is required for a decision
to purchase the commodity. Such subjective assessments may be misleading. For example, if
fruit such as the banana are ripened at higher than optimum temperatures, full loss of green
colour does not occur and consumers, particularly those from temperate climates, would show
considerable buyer resistance even though the flesh in adequately ripeness.

Condition and defects: The condition of a commodity is a quality attribute referring usually to
freshness, stage of senescence or ripeness, the extent of mechanical damage and pest or disease
incidence. Wilted leafy vegetables obviously lack condition and are generally unacceptable to the
consumer. Similarly, fruit that are shriveled due to excessive loss of moisture, also lack
condition. The loss of condition is most marked towards the end of the shelf life of a commodity
in the retailoutlet. Prevention of such loss of condition can be achieved by improved storage
conditions, which usually equate with cool storage but may be as simple as shading the produce,
especially leafy vegetables from direct sun light.
Skin blemishes such as bruishes, scratch marks and cuts, detract from appearance and in most
markets detract from price, even when the blemishes reduce neither keeping quality nor eating
quality. Thus, appearance is a major determinant of quality especially because it is often the only
criterion available to the buyer of the commodity. On-the spottaste testing is rarely practiced or
encouraged at the retail level, although it is more general at the commercial markets from which
the retailers purchase their commodities.

Mouth feel: Mouth feel, including texture, is the overall assessment of the feeling the food gives
in the mouth. It is a combination of sensations derived from the lips, tongue, walls, of the mouth
teeth and even the ears. The cumulative effect of these responses creates an overall impression of
the mouth feel of the produce.

Flavour: Flavour is comprised of taste and aroma. Taste is due to sensation felt on the tongue.
The four main taste sensations are sweet, salt, acid (sour) and bitter. Each sensation is largely
perceived at a specific area of the tongue. The taste of fruit and vegetables is usually a blend or
balance of sweet and sour often with overtones of bitterness due to tannins. Aroma is due to
stimulation of the olfactory senses by volatile organic compounds.

Nutritional value: Nutrition is probably the least important consideration in determining

whether a consumer purchases a commodity, since most essential nutrients can neither be seen

22
nor tasted. Fruit and vegetables are the sole source of vitamin C in the diet of many people.
However nowadays, few people would decide to buy a particular piece of fruit because it had
more vitamin C than another type of fruit. Even so, the nutritional properties of crops such as
avocado have been successfully promoted as containing no cholesterol, while orange juice is
widely perceived as being high in vitamin C.

6.2. Postharvest factors influencing quality

By no means do all changes in harvested produce equate to loss of quality. Many of the
physicochemical changes that occur after harvest are essential for the desired degree of eating
quality to be attained. In general, climacteric fruit such as bananas, mangoes and tomatoes are
picked at the mature-green stage of the development and then allowed to ripen off the plant to
optimum eating quality. Harvest at the mature green stage is almost mandatory for avocado fruit,
which will not ripen while attached to the tree. It is not until very late in the season that avocado
fruit will detach naturally, with virtually concomitant ripening. Nonetheless, the principal
concern with many other harvested horticultural produce such as non-climacteric fruit, immature
and leafy vegetables and cut flowers and foliage is preventing loss of the existing quality. This
deterioration in quality can be caused by a variety of stresses that may be grouped into four
general but often inter-related categories: metabolic stress, transpiration, mechanical injury stress
and microbial damage. Metabolic stress involves either normal or abnormal metabolism that lead
to senescence or the development of physiological disorders respectively. Respiration-induced
carbohydrate shortage in cut flowers and heat treatment-induced carbohydrate shortage in cut
flowers and heat treatment-induced impairment of starch breakdown in mangoes are, in turn,
examples of normal or abnormal metabolism. While, the loss from physiological disorders is
often spectacular (e.g extensive skin browning in bananas as a result of severe chilling injury),
such as disorders are generally far less common problems that normal senescence per se.
Furthermore, certain aspects of general senescence can be both as rapid and dramatic as mani

Chapter 7

7. Postharvest handling to maintain quality

The most important goals of post-harvest handling are keeping the product cool, to avoid
moisture loss and slow down undesirable chemical changes, and avoiding physical damage such
as bruising, to delay spoilage. Sanitation is also an important factor, to reduce the possibility of
pathogens that could be carried by fresh produce, for example, as residue from contaminated
washing water. After the field, post-harvest processing is usually continued in a packing house.
This can be a simple shed, providing shade and running water, or a large-scale, sophisticated,
mechanized facility, with conveyor belts, automated sorting and packing stations, walk-in coolers
and the like. In mechanized harvesting, processing may also begin as part of the actual harvest
process, with initial cleaning and sorting performed by the harvesting machinery.
Initial post-harvest storage conditions are critical to maintaining quality. Each crop has an
optimum range for storage temperature and humidity. Also, certain crops cannot be effectively
stored together, as unwanted chemical interactions can result. Various methods of high-speed
cooling, and sophisticated refrigerated and atmosphere-controlled environments, are employed to
prolong freshness, particularly in large-scale operations.

23
7.1. Harvesting and Field Operations: Harvest is the beginning of a series of critical operations
in the production cycle. All the investment of time, money and energy necessary to grow a crop
can be quickly lost from this point on. To avoid significant losses, growers must pick the crop at
proper maturity and handle properly. Initial preparations include establish the market(s) and
know the quality expectations of the buyers, maintain the cleanliness of picking containers, set
up product transport to and from the field(s) and secure adequate labor for the harvest season.
The main factors for maintaining quality from the point of harvest forward are:
 Harvest at proper maturity for the intended market.
 Minimize mechanical injuries.
 Maintain sanitation procedures.
Once harvested, the crop should be shaded to minimize accumulation of field heat and quickly
transported to the packinghouse or shed. It is important to remember that each time the harvested
crop is handled, the opportunity exists for mechanical injury to occur; therefore, workers must
use care during container filling, handling, stacking and unstacking.
The method of harvesting (hand vs mechanical) can significantly impact upon the composition
and post-harvest quality of fruits and vegetables. Mechanical injuries (such as bruising, surface
abrasions and cuts) can accelerate loss of water and vitamin C resulting in increased
susceptibility to decay-causing pathogens. Most fresh fruits and vegetables and all flowers are
harvested by hand. Root crops (such as carrot, onion, potato, and sweet potato) and some
commodities destined for processing (such as processing tomatoes, European plums, and tree nut
crops) are mechanically harvested.
Management of harvesting and field handling operations, whether manual or mechanical, can
have a major impact on the quality of harvested fruits and vegetables. Proper management
procedures include selection of optimum time to harvest in relation to product maturity and
climatic conditions, training and supervision of workers, and proper implementation of effective
quality control. Expedited and careful handling, immediate cooling after harvest, maintenance of
optimum temperatures during transit and storage, and effective decay-control procedures are
important factors in the successful post-harvest handling of fruits and vegetables.

7.2. Temperature management: Temperature is the most important environmental factor that
influences the deterioration of harvested commodities. Most perishable horticultural
commodities have an optimal shelf-life at temperatures of approximately 0 °C. The rate of
deterioration of perishables however increases two to three-fold with every 10 °C increase in
temperature. Temperature has a significant effect on how other internal and external factors
influence the commodity, and dramatically affects spore germination and the growth of
pathogens.

7.3. Relative humidity management: RH can influence water loss, decay development, the
incidence of some physiological disorders, and uniformity of fruit ripening. Condensation of
moisture on the commodity (sweating) over long periods of time is probably more important in
enhancing decay than is the RH of ambient air. An appropriate RH range for storage of fruits is
85 to 95 percent while that for most vegetables varies between 90 and 98 percent. The optimal
RH range for dry onions and pumpkins is 70 to 75 percent. Some root vegetables, such as carrot,
parsnip, and radish, can best be held at 95 to 100 percent RH.
RH can be controlled by one or more of the following procedures: (1) adding moisture (water
mist or spray, steam) to air with the use of humidifiers; (2) regulating air movement and

24
ventilation in relation to the produce load in the cold storage room; (3) maintaining the
temperature of the refrigeration coils in the storage room or transit vehicle to within about 1 °C
of the air temperature;(4) providing moisture barriers that insulate walls of storage rooms and
transit vehicles; (5) adding polyethylene liners in packing containers and using perforated
polymeric films for packaging; (6) wetting floors in storage rooms; (7) adding crushed ice in
shipping containers or in retail displays for commodities that are not injured by the practice; (8)
sprinkling produce with sanitized, clean water during retail marketing of commodities that
benefit from misting, such as leafy vegetables, cool-season root vegetables, and immature fruit
vegetables (such as snap beans, peas, sweet corn, and summer squash).

7.4. Common packinghouse managements

7.4.1. Pre-sorting: All harvested produce are not fit and suitable for storage. Even if they are fit,
they are of different sizes and weight. Hence, before storage it is essential to sort the produce.
Blemished, injured and cull fruits should be discarded.
7.4.2. Waxing: A wax, which may contain polyethylene/paraffin or carnauba/ paraffin-based
could also be applied to the fruit with the fungicide. Waxing could reduce internal browning, a
symptom of chilling injury. Waxing also reduces postharvest water loss and improves fruit
appearance.
7.4.3. Sizing/grading: Fruits are graded based upon certain characteristics: degree of skin
colouration, size (weight), absence of defects and diseases, and in keeping with other market
requirements.
7.4.4. Packing: Preparation of produce for market may be done either in the field or at the
packing house. This involves cleaning, sanitizing, and sorting according to quality and size,
waxing and, where appropriate, treatment with an approved fungicide prior to packing into
shipping containers. Packaging protects the produce from mechanical injury, and contamination
during marketing. Corrugated fiberboard containers are commonly used for the packaging of
produce, although reusable plastic containers can be used for that purpose. Packaging accessories
such as trays, cups, wraps, liners, and pads may be used to help immobilize the produce within
the packaging container while serving the purpose of facilitating moisture retention, chemical
treatment and ethylene absorption. Either hand-packing or mechanical packing systems may be
used. Packing and packaging methods can greatly influence air flow rates around the commodity,
thereby affecting temperature and relative humidity management of produce while in storage or
in transit.

7.4.5. Ethylene exclusion and removal: Many green vegetables and most horticultural produce
are quite sensitive to ethylene damage. Their exposure to ethylene must therefore be minimised.
Ethylene contamination in ripening rooms can be minimized by 1) using ethylene levels of 100
ppm instead of the higher levels often used in commercial ripening operations, 2) venting
ripening rooms to the outside on completion of exposure to ethylene, 3) at least once per day
ventilating the area around the ripening rooms or installing an ethylene scrubber, 4) use of
battery-powered forklifts instead of engine-driven units in ripening areas.
Ethylene-producing commodities should not be mixed with ethylene-sensitive commodities
during storage and transport. Potassium permanganate, an effective oxidizer of ethylene, is
commercially used as an ethylene scrubber. Scrubbing units based on the catalytic oxidation of
ethylene are used to a limited extent in some commercial storage facilities.

25
7.4.6. Transport: Temperature management during transportation of fresh fruits and vegetables
over long distances is critical. Loads must be stacked so as to enable proper air circulation, in
order to facilitate removal of heat from the produce as well as to dissipate incoming heat from
the atmosphere and off the road. Stacking of loads must also incorporate consideration for
minimizing mechanical damage. Transit vehicles must be cooled prior to loading the fresh
produce. Delays between cooling after harvest and loading into transit vehicles should also be
avoided. Proper temperature maintenance should be ensured throughout the handling system.
As far as possible, environmental conditions (temperature; relative humidity; concentrations of
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene) should be optimized in transport vehicles. Treatment with
ethylene to initiate ripening during transportation is feasible, and is commercially used to a
limited extent on mature green bananas and tomatoes. Produce should be cooled prior to loading
and should be loaded with an air space between the palletized product and the walls of the
transport vehicles in order to facilitate temperature control. Vibration during transportation
should be minimized, so as to avoid damage due to bruising. Controlled-atmosphere and
precision temperature management should, where possible, be observed so as to allow non-
chemical insect control for markets which possess quarantine restrictions against pests endemic
to exporting countries and for markets that do not want their produce exposed to chemical
fumigants.
Mixing several produce items in one load is common and often compromises have to be made in
selecting an optimal temperature and atmospheric composition when transporting chilling-
sensitive with non-chilling sensitive commodities or ethylene-producing with ethylene-sensitive
commodities. In the latter case, ethylene scrubbers can be used to remove ethylene from the
circulating air within the vehicle. Several types of insulating pallet covers are available for
protecting chilling-sensitive commodities when transported with non-chilling-sensitive
commodities at temperatures below their threshold chilling temperatures.

7.5. Packaging materials

Whichever type of package is used, certain precautions must be followed:
 the package should be dry, odourless and sufficiently rigid to permit stacking;
 cartons must be adapted to the size of the fruit to avoid crushing (bulging cases) or
crushing the crown;
 dimensions of the cartons must be compatible with the modern techniques of palletisation
and the use of the containers, which contributes to the quality of the fruit; and
 their should be no transfer of toxic matter from the package to fruit.
Transportation of fruits packed in a horizontal position is more liable to lateral shocks. Absorbent
pads are placed at the bottom of the carton and between layers if fruit are alternated horizontally
within the carton.

Chapter Nine

Storage: When storing different types of produce in the same area, it is crucial to consider the
optimum storage conditions of each commodity. Mixed produce that is stored together must be
compatible in terms of temperature, relative humidity, and production and sensitivity to ethylene.
Use this compatibility guide to determine which fruits and vegetables may be stored together.

26
9.1. Compatibility of fruits and vegetables for storage
The four principal concerns regarding product compatibility: Temperature, Moisture, Ethylene
and Odor.

Compatibility Groups

Group 1: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F), 90-95% relative humidity.
Many products in this group produce ethylene.
Apples, Grapes (without sulfur dioxide), Parsnips, Apricots, Horseradish, Peaches, Asian pears,
Kohlrabi, Pears, Barbados cherry, Leeks, Persimmons, Beets, topped, Longan, Plums, Berries
(except cranberries), Loquat, Pomegranates, Cashew apple, Lychee, Prunes, Cherries,
Mushrooms, Quinces, Coconuts, Nectarines, Radishes, Figs (not with apples), Oranges* (Florida
& Texas), Rutabagas and Turnips.
*Citrus treated with biphenyl may give odors to other products.

Group 2: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F), 95-100% relative humidity.
Many products in this group are sensitive to ethylene.
Amaranth*, Cherries, Parsley*, Anise, Daikon*, Parsnips*, Artichokes*, Endive*, Peas*,
Asparagus, Escarole*, Pomegranate, Bean Sprouts Grapes (Without Sulfur Dioxide) Raddichio
Beets* Horseradish Radishes* Belgian Endive Jerusalem Artichoke Rhubarb Berries (Except
Cranberries) Kiwifruit Rutabagas* Bok Choy Kohlrabi* Salsify Broccoli* Leafy Greens
Scorzonera Brussels Sprouts* Leeks' (Not With Figs Or Grapes) Snow Peas Cabbage* Lettuce
Spinach* Carrots* Lo Bok Sweet Corn* Cauliflower Mushrooms Turnips* Celeriac* Onions,
Green* (Not With Figs, Grapes, Mushrooms, Rhubarb, Or Corn) Water Chestnut Celery* and
Watercress.
*these products can be top-iced.

Group 3: Fruits and vegetables, 0 to 2°C (32 to 36°F), 65-75% relative humidity.
Moisture will damage these products.
Garlic Onion, dry

Group 4: Fruits and vegetables, 4.5°C (40°F), 90-95% relative humidity

Cactus Leaves, Lemons*, Tamarillo, Cactus Pears, Lychees, Tangelos*, Caimito, Kumquat,
Tangerines*, Cantaloupes** Mandarin* Ugli Fruit*, Clementine Oranges (Calif. And Arizona)
Yucca Root, Cranberries and Pepino. *citrus treated with biphenyl may give odors to other
products
**can be top-iced

Group 5: Fruits and vegetables, 10°C (50°F), 85-90% relative humidity. Many of these
products are sensitive to ethylene. These products are also sensitive to chilling injury.
Kiwano, Pummelo, Calamondin, Malanga, Squash, Summer (Soft Shell), Chayote, Okra,
Tamarind, Cucumber, Olive, Taro Root, Eggplant, Peppers, Haricot Vert (Fine Beans) and
Potatoes, Storage.

Group 6: Fruits and vegetables, 13 to 15°C (55 to 60°F), 85-90% relative humidity.

27
Many of these products produce ethylene. These products also are sensitive to chilling
injury.
Atemoya, Granadilla, Papayas, Avocados, Grapefruit, Passionfruit, Babaco, Guava, Pineapple,
Bananas, Jaboticaba Plantain, Bitter Melon, Jackfruit, Potatoes, New Black Sapote, Langsat,
Pumpkin, Boniato Lemons* Rambutan Breadfruit Limes* Santol Canister Mamey Soursop
Carambola Mangoes Sugar Apple Cherimoya Mangosteen Squash, Winter (Hard Shell) Coconuts
Melons (Except Cantaloupes) Tomatillos Feijoa Tomatoes, Ripe Ginger Root.

*citrus treated with biphenyl may give odors to other products.

Group 7: Fruits and vegetables, 18 to 21°C (65 to 70°F), 85-90% relative humidity.
Jicama Sweetpotatoes* Watermelon* Yams* Pears (For Ripening) Tomatoes, Mature Green
White Sapote.
*separate from pears and tomatoes due to ethylene sensitivity.

6.2. Pre storage treatments of fruits and vegetables

What are pre-storage treatments?

These are the treatments given to a commodity (fruits and vegetables in present context)
generally after harvesting to reduce postharvest losses, enhance storage life and retain quality.
Some examples of pre-storage treatments includes cleaning, washing, sorting, grading, waxing,
packing, pre cooling, curing, desapping, chemical treatments, irradiation and vapour heat
treatment.

1. Cleaning
This is a treatment given to remove adhering dust, dirt, extraneous matter, pathogenic load etc.
from the surface of a commodity. Cleaning basically sanitizes the produce and avoid entry of
undesirable contents to enter the packaging and storage line. Cleaning is a broader term and
includes, dusting, washing etc.

Methods of cleaning

i. Dry method (Dusting etc.)

This method is mainly used to remove the adhering soil, etc from commodity i.e. potato, root
vegetables, carrot, radish etc. Dusting helps to shed undesirable load (weight) of the commodity
and thus reduce transportation cost. It also removes pathogenic microorganisms present in the
soil from the surface of the vegetables.

ii. Wet method (Washing): This method is used in most fruits and vegetables. Washing is done
at the pack house through automated washing system fitted with overhead sprayers and smooth
rotating brushes to clean and wash the fruits. Washing with clean water mixed with a neutral
detergent such as Teapol, Sandovit or Indtron at 0.1% (1 ml / litre of water) is effective. The
process of cleaning and washing will take 3-5 minutes. The temperature of water should be at
room temperature (270C).

28
2. Sorting and Grading: This may be done manually or by using a machine. Fruits are graded
on the basis of their colour, size and weight and sorted for freeness from damage/ diseases. At the
sorting and grading table, trained workers wearing gloves sort out the oversized and undersized
fruits, immature/scarred/blemished fruits, diseased/insect damaged fruits and as well as fruits
with sap injury (in mango) under the supervision of quality supervisor. The segregated fruits in
the grader machine kept in plastic crates are removed at the end each working shift from the
process area and are distinctly labeled for disposal.

Difference between sorting and Grading

Sorting Grading

1. Undesirable type of fruits i.e. diseased, 1. Fruits and vegetables are categorized
damaged, deformed are removed according to difference in their weight, size,
colour, maturity etc.
2. Done primarily to reduce spread of 2. Done to fetch better price in the market.
infection to other fruits

3. Waxing / Coating: It is the process of applying wax on the surface of commodity by spraying,
dip or immersion, brushing, fogging or foaming. Some fruits develop natural fruit wax on their
surface at the time of maturity. i.e. plum, apple, citrus, grapes etc. This has its role in reducing
water loss fro the commodity and thus reducing shriveling and weight loss. While handling care
is taken to touch the fruits as minimum as possible to retain as much of the natural wax (also
called bloom) on the fruit.

Advantage of Waxing
✔ Improve appearance of fruit
✔ Reduce moisture loss by 30-50% and retards wilting/ shriveling Heals minor injuries
✔ Protects fruits from minor infections
✔ Provides modified atmosphere and increase shelf life
✔ Acts a carrier for various chemicals etc

Types of waxes
Paraffin wax, carnauba wax, bee wax etc
Examples of some commercial formulations: Tal-Prolong, Semper Fresh for apple, Frutox,
Waxol, Nipro fruit wax for apple, and citrus, Ban seel for banana, Nu-coat flo for citrus,
Brilloshine L for apples, avocado, melons

4. Pre-cooling
It is the prompt cooling of the commodity immediately after harvest (generally within 24 hrs of
harvest), to its safe storage temperature, which aims at removal of field heat. There are different
methods of pre cooling adopting different medium of cooling such as cold air, water, ice, liquid
nitrogen or solid carbon dioxide or vacuum etc. Selection of appropriate pre cooling method for
the removal of heat depends on the following main factors.
 The temperature of the produce at harvest

29
  The nature of the produce (highly respiring, slowly respiring, surface/volume ratio)
 The desired post harvest life of the produce
 The economic value of the produce

The followings are different pre cooling methods

1. Room cooling: This is the most common pre-cooling method in which the produce in boxes,
bulk containers or other types of packages is exposed to cold air in normal cold stores. This
cooling method is best suited to less perishable commodities such as potatoes, onions, apples,
sweet potatoes and citrus fruits. In addition room cooling may be well suited to chilling sensitive
crops that are cooled from relatively cool early morning harvest temperatures to storage
temperature of 10–13ºC (50–55 ºF). It is important to leave adequate space between stacks of
boxes inside the refrigerated room in order for produce to cool more quickly. The rate at which
heat can be transferred from the produce to the air stream depends on temperature difference
between the produce and the cold air and on the speed at which the air passes over the produce
The rate of cooling and the cooling times are affected by:-
 The size and shape of the containers
 Method of stacking within the room
Merits: The produce may be cooled and stored in the same place there by minimizing re-
handling to separate storage rooms.
Demerits: Slow process and comparatively more space is required

2. Forced air cooling: This is a modification of room cooling which allows cooling in relatively
shorter period of time (10 – 25% shorter) than the time required for room cooling). Cold air is
circulated around boxes and through boxes and each item within boxes or packages contacts the
cold air. Many types of forced-air coolers can be designed to move cold air pass the
commodities. Examples a fan is housed inside the wall of a cold room or a portable fan unit that
can be moved around inside the cold room as needed.
After cooling, the produce should be transferred to separate storage room or the velocity of air
should be reduced. The speed of cooling can be controlled by controlling the speed of cold air
flow. Weight loss from the produce is important consideration in forced air cooling. If
commodities like lettuce (high surface/volume) are to be cooled by this method, it would be
essential to maintain high relative humidity within the room to minimize the risk of weight loss
and desiccation.

3. Hydro-cooling: In hydro-cooling, water is the heat transfer medium which has greater
capacity than air. The process is comparatively rapid provided water contacts most of the surface
of the produce. The equipment required is basically a refrigeration plant that produces ice and
water bath to contain iced water in which the produce (loose or in boxes) can be dunked.
Merits: The risk of weight loss is minimum and the produce is washed.
Demerit: Due to wet state of the produce, the immediate packing and handling become difficult.

4. Cryogenic cooling: This uses the latent heat of evaporation of gas, usually liquid nitrogen or
solid carbon dioxide (dry ice). These gases are extremely cold in these forms. The boiling
temperature of liquid nitrogen is – 196 0C and that of CO2 -78.50C at 1 atmosphere pressure. The
produce is cooled by conveying it through a tunnel in to which the gas evaporates. Normally at
the above temperatures, the produce will freeze and thus be ruined, as a fresh market produce.

30
This freezing problem is prevented by careful control of the evaporation rate and conveyer
speed.
The system is relatively cheap to install but expensive to run. Common applications of cryogenic
cooling are in the preservation of highly perishable commodities which are not damaged by
freezing like meat, fish etc. and refrigerated transport.

5. Contact icing: Before the advent of modern pre-cooling techniques, contact icing was used
for pre-cooling produce and maintaining low temperature during transit. When ice melts to water
it absorbs heat 325 kj/kg. This is called latent heat of fusion. This method is now used as a
supplement to other forms of pre-cooling.

6. Ice-bank coolers: This is high humidity forced air (pressure) cooling system designed to
minimize weight loss from commodities with high surface/volume ratio (leafy vegetables and cut
flowers). In this system the air is cooled by direct contact with water chilled to 0.5 0C in a vertical
cooling tower. The air flow is either across the tower or up the tower (counter flow), the latter
being more effective. The air leaves the tower at temperate close to water and almost fully
saturated. This is cooling and humidification process.

7. Evaporative cooling: This is a low energy system utilizing the evaporation to water to cool
ambient air. That of the latent heat of vaporization is utilized which is equivalent to 2260 kj/kg.
The efficiency of the system depends on the capacity of ambient air to carry water i.e. saturation
percent and difference between dry bulb and wet bulb (wet bulb depression). The lower the R.H
is the higher the efficiency. The produce which does not require very low temperature like citrus
can be cooled by evaporative cooling.
8. Cooling with ambient air: For most vegetables, the use of refrigerated storage facilities is
may not be economical and justified. An improvement in storage life and holding period can be
obtained by selective ventilation using out side air. The principle of operation is that only air that
is colder than the stack of produce is used for ventilation.
A differential thermostat, which has two sensors one inside and other out side, is used to activate
fans whenever the difference between the inside and outside temperatures reaches a certain set
value. The same thermostat will switch off the fan when the difference in temperature becomes
zero.

9. Vacuum cooling: It is an alternative method for rapid removal of field heat from produce. It is
achieved by the evaporation of moisture from the produce. The evaporation is encouraged and
made more efficient by reducing the pressure to the point where boiling of water takes place at a
low temperature.
The basic principles of the vacuum cooling process are described as follows:
1. At atmospheric pressure (1013 mbar); the boiling temperature of water is 100ºC. This
boiling point changes as a function of saturation pressure therefore at 23.37 mbar the
water boiling temperature will be 20 ºC and at 6.09 mbar, it will be 0ºC.
2. To change from the liquid to vapor state, the latent heat of vaporization must be provided
by the surrounding medium, so that the sensible heat of the product is reduced.
3. The water vapour given off by the product must be removed.
When the produce is subjected to a suitable vacuum (pressure below atmospheric), some of the
water is evaporated taking its heat of vaporization from the produce and thereby cooling it. To

31
cool the produce by 100C requires on average the evaporation of water equivalent to 1.8% of the
weight of the produce. However, the amount of water lost in producing the cooling effect is not
enough to impair the quality or the storage life of the produce.
The cooling equipment has the following components:
 Vacuum pump- to reduce the pressure
 A condenser to remove the water vapour by converting it back to water and
 A chamber capable of withstanding the heavy vacuum. Produce with high surface/volume
ratio is best suited for vacuum cooling than those with low surface/volume ratio and with
waxy cuticle.
It is a safe assumption that the quantity of heat removed from the product is directly related to
the amount of water evaporated of the products surface. The efficiency of vacuum cooling of the
horticultural products was proportional to the amount of moisture evaporated from the product. A
product with a specific heat capacity of 1092 kJ/kg °C would theoretically lose 1% moisture for
each 6°C reduction in temperature.
The disadvantage of vacuum cooling is that it causes weight loss in the produce being cooled due
to the removal of moisture. Temperature reductions average 5 to 5.5°C for each 1% of weight
loss, regardless of the product cooled. For approximately every 10°C reduction in temperature a
weight loss of 1.7% was recorded. This small loss in weight is usually acceptable in the products
that are cooled by this technique.

5. Chemical treatment
Various chemicals are applied to fruits and vegetables in order to control postharvest diseases
and pest infestations.
i) Dipping: The commodity is immersed in water containing appropriate concentration of
chemical which is toxic to the pathogen. However, the concentration of chemical should not be
toxic to the fruit/ vegetable and should not endanger public health. For improving the efficacy of
the dip treatment and better surface coating some wetting agents may also be added. The
effectiveness of the fungicidal solution may also be enhanced by hearting the water in which the
fruit is being dipped. 500 ppm of benomyl in water at 50-55 min, for 2 to 15 min is effective for
controlling anthracnose in mango without damaging the fruit.
ii) Cascade application: Commodity is passed below a shower of shower of diluted chemical.
iii) Electrostatic sprays: Applying the chemical as a spray but producing very fine particles and
then charging them in an electrostatic sprayer so that they readily stick to the commodity
underneath them. The fine droplets of chemical solution have same charge and thus they repel
each other and are attracted towards earth during field sprays.
iv) Dusting: Active chemical is diluted with an inert powder i.e. talc for uniform application and
reduced wastage.
v) Fumigation: Sulphur dioxide fumes are sued for controlling postharvest diseases in grapes.
vi) Chemical pads: Paper pads impregnated chemical are used for wrapping the fruits and
vegetables and control postharvest diseases.

6. Curing: It is technique where the commodity is left in the field itself in a heap under shade for
few days. It is an effective operation to reduce water loss during storage from hardy vegetables
viz., onion, garlic, sweet potato etc. In case of onion curing is a drying process intended to dry
off the necks and 2-3 outer scales of the bulbs to prevent the loss of moisture and the attack by
decay during storage. The outermost layer, which may be contaminated with soil, usually falls

32
away easily on curing. The dry under-layer should have an attractive appearance. Onions are
cured generally when they have lost 3 to 5% of their weight. Generally, are dried in the field by
stacking in a warm, covered area with good ventilation. However, in cool and moist climates,
onions are cured with artificial heat blown through a duct at 30oC. Onions can also be cured by
tying the tops of the bulbs in bunches and hanging them on a horizontal support of pole, wire etc.
pole in a well-ventilated and shaded place. Curing in shade improves bulb colour. The essential
conditions during curing are heat (~ 30oC), good ventilation and low humidity.

7. Irradiation: Irradiation is a treatment given to various fruits and vegetables to control

different postharvest diseases and disorders. But in most of the above cases, the technology of
irradiation finds a limited commercial application as either some cheaper and more effective
alternatives are available or the treatment leaves undesirable effect on the produce and cause
abnormal ripening.

8. Vapour heat treatment: This was developed to control infections of fruit flies in fruits. The
treatment consists of stacking the fruits in boxes in a room which is heated and humidified by
injection of steam. The temperature and exposure time may be adjusted depending upon the stage
at which the fly is to be killed i.e. egg, larvae, pupa or adult. The most difficult stage to control
by VHT is larval stage as the insect goes further into the fruit and away from the surface thus
requiring high temperatures for short time. Generally the treatment of citrus, papaya, mango or
pineapples may be given at 43o C in saturated air for 8 hrs followed by maintaining the
temperature for further 6 hrs.

9. Desapping: Desapping of mango fruits is carried out in processing area by trained workers
under the supervision of processing supervisor. Desapping is done by holding the mango fruits
upside down while cutting the stalk of fruits. The stalks of mango fruits are cut very carefully to
0.5 to 1.0 cm by trained workers by using a scissor with sharp long nose to avoid causing skin
injury. For exports, the pedicel of the fruits is cut approximately at a length of 1 cm from the fruit
with the help of sharp scissors and fruits are kept up side down in special knitted pallets, for two
hours so that the latex flows out from the fruit completely. Care should be taken that the latex
drop does not fall on the fruit.

6.3. Traditional and modern storage structures

6.3.1. Traditional storage structure
In situ: This method of storing fruits and vegetables involves delaying the harvest until the crop
is required. It can be used in some cases with root crops, such as cassava.
Demerits: Land is occupied for longer period, new crop is delayed & Quality may be affected
and storage is for limited period.
Sand or coir: This storage technique is used in countries like India to store potatoes for longer
periods of time, which involves covering the commodity underground with sand.

Pits and trenches: Pits or trenches are dug at the edges of the field where the crop has been
grown. Usually pits are placed at the highest point in the field, especially in regions of high
rainfall. The pit or trench is lined with straw or other organic material and filled with the crop to
be stored especially hard vegetables like potato, turnip, being stored, and then covered with a

33
layer of organic material followed by a layer of soil. Holes are created with straw at the top to
allow for air ventilation, as lack of ventilation may cause problems with rotting of the crop.

Clamps: This has been a traditional method for storing potatoes in some parts of the world, such
as Great Britain. A common design uses an area of land at the side of the field. The width of the
clamp is about 1 to 2.5 m. The dimensions are marked out and the potatoes piled on the ground
in an elongated conical heap. Sometimes straw is laid on the soil before the potatoes. The central
height of the heap depends on its angle of repose, which is about one third the width of the
clump. At the top, straw is bent over the ridge so that rain will tend to run off the structure. Straw
thickness should be from 15-25 cm when compressed. After two weeks, the clamp is covered
with soil to a depth of 15-20 cm, but this may vary depending on the climate.

Cellars: These underground or partly underground rooms are often beneath a house. This
location has good insulation, providing cooling in warm ambient conditions and protection from
excessively low temperatures in cold climates. Cellars have traditionally been used at domestic
scale in Britain to store apples, cabbages, onions, and potatoes during winter.

Barns: A barn is a farm building for sheltering, processing, and storing agricultural products,
animals, and implements. Although there is no precise scale or measure for the type or size of the
building, the term barn is usually reserved for the largest or most important structure on any
particular farm. Smaller or minor agricultural buildings are often labeled sheds or outbuildings
and are normally used to house smaller implements or activities.

Evaporative cooling: When water evaporates from the liquid phase into the vapour phase
energy is required. This principle can be used to cool stores by first passing the air introduced
into the storage room through a pad of water. The degree of cooling depends on the original
humidity of the air and the efficiency of the evaporating surface. If the ambient air has low
humidity and is humidified to around 100% RH, then a large reduction in temperature will be
achieved. This can provide cool moist conditions during storage.

Air cooled stores: Air cooled stores are simply insulated structure above ground or partly
ground. This technique is cooled by circulation of colder outside air. Air is circulated through
the store by conventional or mechanical means through bottom in let vent and top outlets fitted
with dampers. When the temperature of the produce is above the desired level, and if the
temperature of outside air is lower, Fans may be installed with differential thermostat. Air may
be humidified, a process that can also be automated. Air cooled stores are cheap to construct and
to operate. It is also widely used for the storage of potato and sweet potato, both of which need
relatively high storage temperature to avoid accumulation of sugar and chilling injury
respectively.
Night ventilation: In hot climates, the variation between day and night temperatures can be used
to keep stores cool. The storage room should be well insulated when the crop is placed inside. A
fan is built into the store room, which is switched on when the outside temperature at night
becomes lower than the temperature within. The fan switches off when the temperatures
equalize. The fan is controlled by a differential thermostat, which constantly compares the
outside air temperature with the internal storage temperature. This method is used to store bulk
onions.

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Ice-refrigeration: An advancement on air cooled storage by using natural ice as refrigerant. The
lower temperature obtained enables longer storage of meat and other perishable foods including
horticultural produce. Generally in North America, and North and Central Europe ice was
harvested in the winter from frozen lakes and ponds and stored in insulated “ice-houses.”
Zero energy cool chambers: Based on the principles of direct evaporative cooling, low cost
cooling technology. It does not require any electricity or power to operate and all the materials
required to make the cool chamber are available easily and cheaply. It can be installed at any site
by even an unskilled person and does not require any specialized skill. Most of the raw materials
are re-usable.

Raw materials required for the construction of cool chamber are bricks, riverbed sand,
bamboo, materials which have water holding capacity such as any plant dry materials, gunny
cloth or jute cloth etc and water.
Design and construction: The floor of the storage space is made with a single layer of bricks.
The side walls are made with a double layer of bricks leaving approximately 3” space between
the bricks. The cavity between the bricks is filled with riverbed sand. The top of the storage
space is covered with any plant dry material having water holding capacity in a bamboo frame
structure.
Site selection
 should be constructed under a shed with a lot of aeration
 elevated place so that it is not affected by water logging or flood
 should be close to the source of water
Operations: The chamber is made completely wet by sprinkling water till they are saturated.
Sprinkling of water daily, once in the morning & once in the evening enough to maintain the
required temperature & humidity. Water should be sprinkled carefully in order to prevent flowing
out of sand from the cavity of the walls and also to avoid direct contact of water with stored
fruits & vegetables. Fruits & vegetables are placed in suitable baskets to avoid crushing & direct
contact with wet bricks.
Precautions: Use clean, unbroken bricks with good porosity. The sand should be clean and free
from organic matters, clay etc. Chamber should be saturated with water twice a day without fail
and the chamber should not receive any direct sun rays and must be exposed to a lot of aeration.
The inside portion of the cool chamber should be kept clean and free from any rotten plant
materials. Use plastic crates for storage rather than bamboo baskets, wooden boxes etc. In
addition to these, prevent water drops coming in contact with stored material. Cool chamber
provides ideal condition for insects, pests and other small animals to live and breed. So keep the
chamber clean and it is advisable to disinfect the cool chamber periodically either spraying or
sprinkling suitable disinfectants such as chlorine water, bleaching powder or sulfur fumigation.

Modern Storage structure

Mechanical Refrigeration
Refrigeration may be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below
that of the surroundings, the aim being to cool some product or space to the required
temperature. One of the most important applications of refrigeration has been the preservation of
perishable food products by storing them at low temperatures.

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History: Previously chief source of cooling was achieved by natural means such as the use of ice
or evaporative cooling. In earlier times, ice was either transported from colder regions or
harvested in winter and stored in ice houses for summer use.
The father of modern refrigeration is an Australian James Harrison. By 1851 he had designed and
built the first ice making machine in the world. The general principles of Harrison's design
remain virtually unchanged in modern refrigeration plants. The system developed rapidly,
mechanically refrigerated cold stores, insulated with natural materials such as saw dust or cork.
First successful long distance shipment of perishable food by sea is a shipment of frozen beef
from Australia to England in 1879. The first mechanically refrigerated cool stores for apples and
pears were in operation.

Basic principle of refrigeration

"Heat pump" principle: A heat pump is a device that diverts heat from one location at a lower
temperature to another location at a higher temperature using a high-temperature heat source. A
gas, known as refrigerant or coolant, is compressed to liquid and then expanded back to gas
within a closed system. The heat of the commodity is taken out and utilized in this system and
lower temperature is maintained. This works in cyclic order which is called refrigeration cycle.
Refrigerants: Chemical used in a cooling mechanism, such as an air conditioner or refrigerator,
as the heat carrier which changes from gas to liquid and the back to gas in the refrigeration cycle.
They have various compounds of refrigerants are fluorine, hydrogen and carbon, so called
halogenated hydrocarbons. A halogenated hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon that contains one or
more halogen atoms (halocarbon). Each refrigerant is designated by a refrigerant number.
Common categories are the following
1. CFC: CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) are an organic compound that contains carbon, chlorine
and fluorine and are highly stable compounds. CFC have been used as refrigerants in air
conditioners and refrigerators, in aerosol spray cans, in manufacturing foams as industrial
solvents, and as cleaning agents in the manufacture of electronics. Scientists initially believed
that CFCs would be harmless in the earth's atmosphere because of their chemical inertness. This
inertness and their lack of solubility in water, gives CFCs a long life span in the atmosphere (tens
to hundreds of years, depending on the CFC). In the late 1970s, scientists began to realize that
CFCs do break down in the upper atmospheric region known as the stratosphere, where the sun's
UV waves are more intense. CFCs are now recognized as harmful chemicals because of their
ozone-depleting properties by break down of ozone layer that protect the earth from the sun’s UV
radiation. e.g. CFE R - 12 (Freon 12).
2. HCFC: Hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are man made compounds that contains
hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine and carbon and are less stable in lower atmosphere that enabling
them to break down before reaching the ozone layer. HCFC are enabling the phase out of CFCs.
They are energy-efficient, low-in-toxicity, cost effective and can be used safely. They have ozone
depletion potential less than 0.2 and used for packaged air conditioner and heat pumps, cold
storage warehouse and transport refrigeration. Governments and industry support their global use
in applications which meet important environmental and societal needs.

3. HFC: HFCs (Hydro fluorocarbons) are a compound consisting of hydrogen, fluorine and
carbon and are non ozone depleting refrigerant and the refrigerant of choice in a wide range of
new refrigeration and air conditioning equipment. These refrigerants are non-flammable, safe,

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 easy to use and energy efficient in the correct application. It can be used as direct replacements
for HCFCs and CFCs in exisiting equipment. e.g. HFC - R 134 a
Some characteristics of refrigerants
1. Because of the effect of chlorides on the environment new generation of refrigerants were
developed, these are the HFC groups e.g. R134 a.
2. All refrigerants have global warming potential.
3. They are non-toxic and do not have bad smell
4. They are not inflammable
5. They do not corrode metal parts
6. They have generally low boiling point.
7. Each refrigerant has its own temp/pressure relationship and heat carrying capacity

Choice among refrigerants

1. Cost of refrigeration: freons are more expensive than ammonia.
2. Compatibility: ammonia cannot be used with metal that contain copper.
3.Toxicity: ammonia even at low concentration can cause injury to fruits and vegetables.

Components of Refrigeration Cycle

The basic components of the refrigeration system are compressor, condenser and receiver,
refrigerant expansion device and the evaporator
Discharge
Suction line Function of Basic components
line 1. Compressor: The energy input the refrigeration cycle is provided by the compressor. The
amount of energy required is determined by the volume of refrigerant being circulated, its
properties and the increase in pressure from the evaporator to the condenser. It pumps and
compresses the refrigerant through the closed system Compressor is the heart of the system and
raises the pressure of the refrigerant vapor and delivers it to the condenser.
2. Condenser: Compressing the refrigerant vapour drawn from the evaporator causes its
pressure and temperature to increase. The hot, high-pressure vapour is then transferred to the
condenser, where its latent heat is removed by cooling, causing the vapour to return to a liquid
but remain at high pressure.
3. Expansion valve: Expansion valve performs two functions first, it reduces the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant received from the condenser as per the requirements of the
refrigeration system, and second regulates the flow of the refrigerant as per the load on the
evaporator.
4. Evaporator: After passing through the expansion device, the refrigerant is now at a low
pressure and is fed through the evaporator. The liquid refrigerant evaporates at a lower
temperature under the reduced pressure also called a cooler or freezer. The vapor is then returned
from the evaporator to the compressor to be reused continuously

Additional Components
In addition to the basic circuit, other devices or techniques are fitted to improve performance
such as liquid receiver, cut off valve, defrosting and air circulation fans.

Functions of the additional components

1. Liquid receiver: The liquid receiver is a storage tank for liquid refrigerant. Refrigerant is
pumped out of various parts and stored in the liquid receiver during servicing.

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2. Cut-off valve: Cut-off valve is needed to stop the flow of the refrigerant within the system. It
is connected with a thermostat and thermometer positioned at appropriate locations within the
cold room.
3. Defrosting: Defrosting is the removal of ice crystals from the cooler. Ice crystal forms when
store temperature below 20C and during the initial cooling period, the water vapor condensing on
the cooler freezes to form layer of ice crystals and reduce the cooler's capacity to remove heat,
increase its resistance to air flow. For efficient operation, it is essential to ensure only a limited
amount of ice is allowed to form.
The principal methods of defrosting
Electric defrosting: involves the incorporation of electric heating elements in the cooling coil.
It’s suitable for all cooling systems. Defrosting is usually controlled by means of time switch that
means initiates the defrosting and interval timer that determines its length (usually 15-20
minutes).
Reverse cycle defrosting: is the direction of circulation of the refrigerant is changed by means
of a reversing valve. The functions of the condenser and the evaporator are reversed, heat being
drawn from the outside atmosphere and transferred into the store cooler.
Air defrosting or off cycle defrosting: is the simplest and cheapest method of defrosting. The
store air is allowed to circulate over the cooler during the period the compressor is off. It is
applicable when the store temperature is above 20C.
4. Air circulation fans: To transfer the heat from the produce in the store to the cooling coil,
during the initial cooling phase, relatively high air circulation rate is required to ensure rapid
transfer of heat from the produce to the cooling coil. However, once the produce is cooled, the
air flow rate should be reduced to minimize weight loss from the stored produce.

Systems of cooling
Direct expansion system: Direct expansion system is the removal of heat from the circulating
air in a cool room by the evaporator coils. Air movement is the main agent for the transfer of heat
from the interior of the store to the cooling coil. The surface temperature of the evaporator coil
must be lower than that of the produce to ensure that the heat from all sources in a cool room is
removed and the produce remains at a constant temperature. This temperature gradient is
accompanied by a "vapor pressure deficit (vpd) between the produce and the evaporator coil that
enhances water loss from the produce.
Indirect expansion system: The room air is cooled and humidified by passing it through a
shower of cold water that has been cooled by mechanical refrigeration. The system can provide
air at 1-2oC and RH > 98%. They provide better storage condition for produce with high
respiration rates such as leafy vegetables and cut flowers.

Design and Construction of Cool Stores

A cool store is a thermally insulated box, with doors and interior cooling arrangement. Cool
stores for fruits and vegetables have special requirements in comparison with other stores. They
have a high cooling capacity, close control of temperature and relative humidity of 90 to 95oC.
A high cooling capacity: A common minimum design criteria that provide capacity to cool is a
daily intake of 10 percent of the store at an initial rate of not less than 0.5 oC per hour. For 1 tone
(3.5 kilowatts) of refrigeration capacity per 18 tone of produce for small store up to 150 tones

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capacity and 1 tone per 25 tones for large stores. The capacity for large stores can be varied by
having two or more compressors or technique of cylinder unloading in one compressor.
A Close Control of Temperature: Temperature variation should not be more than + 1oC and a
variation in any one position of no more than + 0.5oC. Temperature difference of 1oC has
significant effect on most produce, especially those stored at less than 5oC.
Insulation: The optimum thickness for walls and ceiling is equivalent to 4cm of cork or 6 cm
polyurethane foam or 40 cm of sawdust per 10oC difference in temperature between inside and
outside. The overall heat transfer is about 0.3 kilojoules per square meter per hour. The most
economical ratio of cost of refrigeration capacity is to cost of insulation and also maintenance of
high humidity. The best insulation is the cheapest that gives the required performance. A floor
generally requires half the thickness of insulation that is used in the walls.
A Close Control of Humidity: A vapor barrier of thick Polyethylene or laminated foil material
or the equivalent, having a low water vapor transmission rate placed on the warm side of
insulation to prevent moisture from migrating to and condensing within the insulation.
Features of Modern Cool Stores
Modern cool rooms are either sandwich panel construction with polystyrene foam slabs as the
insulation in the prefabricated panel or polyurethane is applied to the inner faces of the structure.
The skins on the outside of the insulation are of metal, commonly Aluminum or Zinc coated steel
or waterproof-p1 wood. Floors are constructed or reinforced concrete capable of carrying point
loads from fork lifts as well as stacking loads.

Design of a Modern Cool Store

Cooled air is generally supplied by forced coolers consisting of framed, closely spaced tinned
evaporator coils fitted with fans circulate the air over the soils. Some means of defrosting the coil
is also required when storage temperature is low and the coil surface operates at temperature
below 0oC.

Controlled and modified atmosphere storage

Controlled and modified atmosphere storage (CA and MA respectively) are terms used to
describe the addition or removal of gases from storage rooms, transport containers or retail food
packages. The levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapor and ethylene are manipulated to
achieve an atmosphere different from normal around the food. The nitrogen concentration may
also be changed, particularly when an inert replacement for oxygen is required.
Controlled atmosphere usually indicates monitoring and control of gaseous composition. This
is the case with bulk stores for fruit and sometimes with transport containers. It is not practical
with small packages in the distribution system.
The term modified atmosphere is used when the composition of the storage atmosphere is not
closely controlled. This is usually the case with wholesale or retail packs. The initial atmosphere
is intentionally adjusted to give a gas mix as close as possible to that which will optimize the
shelf life. Subsequent movement of gases and moisture into and out of the package is controlled
only by the ability of the packaging film to act as a barrier.
Requirements of controlled atmosphere system
 a storage structure capable of containing the gas;
 a source of suitable gas or a means of producing the required atmosphere;
 a method of maintaining the atmosphere for the required period of time;
 a method of aerating to remove the altered atmosphere after the treatment

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Low oxygen atmospheres: Oxygen deficient atmospheres are produced by flushing storage with
nitrogen to displace the normal nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere. Liquid nitrogen from tanks may be
used as a gas source. Exothermic inert atmosphere generators are that consume the oxygen to
leave principally nitrogen. These generators are burn propane or other hydrocarbon fuel to give
an atmosphere of less than 1 percent oxygen with about 10 percent carbon dioxide and 89
percent nitrogen.
Carbon Dioxide Atmospheres: The carbon dioxide gas is applied to storages from a vessel of
liquid carbon dioxide with appropriate vaporizers and pressure regulators to control flow rate.
Carbon dioxide in the form of dry ice is used for the treatment of grain in freight containers.
Vacuum Storage
1. Gas Flush Packaging: - In this method of packaging, the air in a package is replaced by a
new gaseous component, e.g. CO2 and N2. In this packaging the air is moved physically and
may or may not totally alter the internal atmosphere. In industries, gas flush packaging is used to
remove head space oxygen from packages of shredded lettuce readymade salad, minimal
processed fruits and vegetable juices in an attempt to increase their refrigerated shelf life.
2. Vacuum packaging:- This process involves the removal of all the air within the package.
Vacuum packaging has been used over 60 years for canned and frozen products. In recent years
vacuum packaging of semi processed and minimally processed fresh produce (both fruits and
vegetables) has become modified atmosphere packaging using rigid or flexible high density
polyethylene (HDPE). This is being processed by wholesalers and retailers and supplied to
restaurants as well as home makers. Advantages of vacuum packaging such as browning is
reduced for reasonable time, freshness and crispness of fruits and vegetables are maintained, they
have higher nutritional value, ease in handling and ready-to-eat convenience in home as well as
at fast food stands.
Sub atmospheric storage (Low Pressure or Hypo baric): The storage life of several fruits and
vegetables can be increased by reduced pressure under refrigeration which decreases respiration
and evacuation of ethylene given out by the produce. The sub atmospheric pressure storage (low
pressure storage, hypo baric storage, or vacuum storage), is a form of controlled atmosphere with
reduced atmospheric pressure at a given temperature and can extend the storage life of fruits and
vegetables.
Principles and Methods
Produce is maintained at a given temperature in a sealed container at a constant sub atmospheric
pressure, ventilated with air saturated by water vapor which continuously evacuates the container
with a sealed vacuum pump. They have two major consequences. First oxygen supply to the
produce is reduced, thus, reducing the respiratory rate, second ethylene and other gases given out
by the produce are evacuated, resulting in inhibition of ripening and aging processes of the
produce.

Effects of sub atmospheric storage treatment on produce

Delays the softening of tissues, extends the storage life, delays formation of carotenoids, ripening
of fruits is delayed, no change in anthocyanin pigments, delays chlorophyll degradation, delays
losses of sugar, decreases the development of total acidity, synthesis of lycopene and B-carotene
of tomato fruits can be inhibited, inhibits starch degradation and sugar formation in tomato fruits,
flavor formation is retarded, no difference in solanine level in potato is observed.

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Different Effects of Control Atmosphere Storage
A. Metabolic Effects
1. Retarded Respiration
Respiration is one of the metabolic processes influenced by CA storage. The CA storage can
influence respiration at three levels: aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration and a combination
of these two.
Aerobic respiration occurs when the O2 supply is normal and results in the liberation of CO2
and water.
Anaerobic respiration, taking place in atmospheres completely devoid of O2, produces CO2and
ethyl alcohol by fermentation. Aerobic respiration and sugar utilization increase as O2 increases.
A point may be reached where a minimum quality of CO2 is liberated for minimum respiration,
and thus minimum sugar utilization takes place.
2. Acid Accumulation
The CO2 atmospheres seemed to check the normal decrease in acidity. The possible reasons for
acid accumulation during CA, Storage might be lowered respiratory activity, increased CO2
fixation due to higher concentration of CO2, its fixation is also increased and presence of a less
active enzyme that converts maleic acid to pyruvate or oxaloacetate.
3. Acetaldehyde formation
Acetaldehyde is formed in large quantities by cells of higher plants in certain mixtures of CO 2
and O2, often high concentration of it are accompanied by browning of the cells.
4. Increase in sugars
By using 2% O2 and 3% CO2, disappearance of starch from Bartlett pear has been observed in
the first month of storage after ripening. Conventional storage produces relatively no changes or
increases in sugars.
5. Slower rate of decrease in Alcohol soluble and protein nitrogen
There is a slower rate of decrease of alcohol soluble nitrogen and protein nitrogen in CA
resulting higher concentration at the end of storage.
6. Pectin changes
The rate of pectin degradation is affected by both time and condition of storage. CA stored
apricots and peaches retain a higher concentration of total pectin than where fruits are stored in
conventional refrigeration.

7. Prevention of chlorophyll degradation

Chlorophyll degradation rate is inhibited in CA storage in almost all fruits and vegetables.
Chlorophyll retention is increased in broccoli by a progressive increase in CO2 and decrease in
O2. De-greening of fruits is slowed down in higher concentration of CO2.
B. Adverse and Toxic effects of CA
Fruits can be damaged when a large amount of CO2 is present in storage room. Injury to fruit
tissue can occur from decay due to abnormality of metabolism induced by high CO 2 & low O2
concentration.
Some of the disorders are in the form of browning of fleshy mesocarp, tissue break down,
accumulation of certain organic acids, and even in very less concentration the succinc acid is
toxic to fruit. If complete lack of O2 for several days the fruit will suffocate and become
alcoholic and badly off flavored, tissue browning and discoloration due to biochemical changes
in tannins.

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C. Produce consideration in CA
No single combination of CO2 and O2 is best for mixed storage of fruits and vegetables.
Controlled atmosphere requirements vary within species or even with commodities that may be
held at the same temperature and relative humidity. Varying atmosphere requirements are needed
for each of the citrus cultivars and other type of fruits.

D. Physiological and Practical Considerations of CA

The physiological effects and practical implications of regulating O 2 and CO2 levels may be
considered on the basis of following facts.
1. Devaux Effect
When plant organs are brought from one gas mixture to another, physical factors come in to play.
For example, an apple is transferred from air to pure CO 2 at the same temperature and pressure,
CO2 will enter the tissues and air will be given off from the fruits at different rate. Changes in the
pressure of gases inside and outside the materials will take place.
Devaux effect is influenced by
 The characteristics of the tissue
 Permeability of the cuticle
 Lenticels or stomata numbers
 Volume of intercellular spaces and Other anatomical features that change during
ripening
2. Physiological effects of O2 concentrations
Low O2 concentrations may have the following effects.
 Respiratory rate and substrate oxidations are reduced.
 Ripening is delayed and hence the life of the commodity is prolonged.
 Chlorophyll break down is delayed.
 C2H4 production is low
 The proportion of unsaturated fatty acids is changed.
 The rate of ascorbic acid formation is reduced
 The degradation rate of insoluble pectic compounds is not as rapid as that in air
Factors which have influenced the adoption of controlled or modified atmospheres for
different commodities
Inherent storage life in air: if the commodity is stored satisfactorily in normal air there is no
need for controlled atmosphere storage.
Existence and magnitude of favorable response to CA or MA: There should be beneficial
effect of the storage. All produce do not respond favorably.
Seasonal availability: when harvesting season is short it can be advantageous
Value of commodity in relation to additional cost of CA or MA: High value vs. low value
commodities
Availability of substitute commodities: while produce may be stored satisfactorily in CA, it
may be more economical to import produce from another regions or country that have different
harvest period

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