Chapter 42

Introduction to
differentiation
42.1 Introduction to calculus f (3) = 4(3)2 − 3(3) + 2
= 36 − 9 + 2 = 29
Calculus is a branch of mathematics involving or lead-
ing to calculations dealing with continuously varying f ( − 1) = 4(−1)2 − 3(−1) + 2
functions. =4+3+2=9
Calculus is a subject that falls into two parts:
f (3) − f ( − 1) = 29 − 9 = 20
(i) differential calculus (or differentiation) and
(ii) integral calculus (or integration). Problem 2. Given that f (x) = 5x 2 + x − 7
determine:
Differentiation is used in calculations involving velocity
and acceleration, rates of change and maximum and (i) f (2) ÷ f (1) (iii) f (3 + a) − f (3)
minimum values of curves. f (3 + a) − f (3)
(ii) f (3 + a) (iv)
a
42.2 Functional notation
f (x) = 5x 2 + x − 7

In an equation such as y = 3x 2 + 2x − 5, y is said to be (i) f (2) = 5(2)2 + 2 − 7 = 15

a function of x and may be written as y = f (x). f (1) = 5(1)2 + 1 − 7 = −1
An equation written in the form f (x) = 3x 2 + 2x − 5
is termed functional notation. The value of f (x) 15
f (2) ÷ f (1) = = −15
when x = 0 is denoted by f (0), and the value of f (x) −1
when x = 2 is denoted by f (2) and so on. Thus when (ii) f (3 + a) = 5(3 + a)2 + (3 + a) − 7
f (x) = 3x 2 + 2x − 5, then
= 5(9 + 6a + a2 ) + (3 + a) − 7
f (0) = 3(0)2 + 2(0) − 5 = −5 = 45 + 30a + 5a2 + 3 + a − 7
and f (2) = 3(2)2 + 2(2) − 5 = 11 and so on. = 41 + 31a + 5a2
(iii) f (3) = 5(3)2 + 3 − 7 = 41
Problem 1. If f (x) = 4x 2 − 3x + 2 find:
f (3 + a) − f (3) = (41 + 31a + 5a2 ) − (41)
f (0), f (3), f (−1) and f (3) − f (−1)
= 31a + 5a2

2 f (3 + a) − f (3) 31a + 5a2

f (x) = 4x − 3x + 2 (iv) = = 31 + 5a
a a
f (0) = 4(0)2 − 3(0) + 2 = 2
 384 Engineering Mathematics

Now try the following exercise f ( x)

B

Exercise 148 Further problems on

functional notation
A f ( x2 )
C
1. If f (x) = 6x 2 − 2x + 1 find f (0), f (1), f (2),
f (x 1)
f (−1) and f (−3).
E D
[1, 5, 21, 9, 61]
0 x1 x2 x
2. If f (x) = 2x 2 + 5x − 7 find f (1), f (2), f (−1),
f (2) − f (−1). Figure 42.2
[0, 11, −10, 21] f ( x)
10
3. Given f (x) = 3x 3 + 2x 2 − 3x + 2 prove that B f (x ) x2
f (1) = 17 f (2)
8
4. If f (x) = −x 2 + 3x + 6 find f (2), f (2 + a),
f (2 + a) − f (2) 6
f (2 + a) − f (2) and
a
[8, −a − a + 8, −a2 − a, − a − 1]
2 4 C

2 D
A
42.3 The gradient of a curve
0 1 1.5 2 3 x
(a) If a tangent is drawn at a point P on a curve, then
Figure 42.3
the gradient of this tangent is said to be the gra-
dient of the curve at P. In Fig. 42.1, the gradient (c) For the curve f (x) = x 2 shown in Fig. 42.3:
of the curve at P is equal to the gradient of the
tangent PQ. (i) the gradient of chord AB

f (x) f (3) − f (1) 9−1

= = =4
Q 3−1 2

(ii) the gradient of chord AC

Section 8

P f (2) − f (1) 4−1

= = =3
2−1 1
0 x
(iii) the gradient of chord AD
Figure 42.1
f (1.5) − f (1) 2.25 − 1
= = = 2.5
(b) For the curve shown in Fig. 42.2, let the points 1.5 − 1 0.5
A and B have co-ordinates (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ),
respectively. In functional notation, y1 = f (x1 ) and (iv) if E is the point on the curve (1.1, f (1.1))
y2 = f (x2 ) as shown. then the gradient of chord AE

The gradient of the chord AB f (1.1) − f (1)

=
1.1 − 1
BC BD − CD 1.21 − 1
= = = = 2.1
AC ED 0.1
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) (v) if F is the point on the curve (1.01, f (1.01))
=
(x2 − x1 ) then the gradient of chord AF
 Introduction to differentiation 385

f (1.01) − f (1) δy f (x +δx) − f (x)

= Hence =
1.01 − 1 δx δx
1.0201 − 1 δy
= = 2.01 As δx approaches zero, approaches a limiting
0.01 δx
value and the gradient of the chord approaches
Thus as point B moves closer and closer to point A the the gradient of the tangent at A.
gradient of the chord approaches nearer and nearer to the (ii) When determining the gradient of a tangent to
value 2. This is called the limiting value of the gradient a curve there are two notations used. The gradi-
of the chord AB and when B coincides with A the chord ent of the curve at A in Fig. 42.4 can either be
becomes the tangent to the curve. written as:
½ ¾
δy f (x + δx) − f (x)
limit or limit
δx→0 δx δx→0 δx
Now try the following exercise

dy δy
Exercise 149 A further problem on the In Leibniz notation, = limit
dx δx→0 δx
gradient of a curve
In functional notation,
1. Plot the curve f (x) = 4x 2 − 1 for values of x
½ ¾
′ f (x + δx)−f (x)
f (x) = limit
from x = −1 to x = +4. Label the co-ordinates δx→0 δx
(3, f (3)) and (1, f (1)) as J and K, respec-
tively. Join points J and K to form the chord dy
JK. Determine the gradient of chord JK. By (iii) is the same as f ′ (x) and is called the differ-
dx
moving J nearer and nearer to K determine ential coefficient or the derivative. The process
the gradient of the tangent of the curve at K. of finding the differential coefficient is called
[16, 8] differentiation.
Summarising, the differential coefficient,
dy δy
42.4 Differentiation from first = f ′ (x) = limit
dx δx→0 δx
principles ½ ¾
f (x+δx)−f (x)
= limit
(i) In Fig. 42.4, A and B are two points very close δx→0 δx
together on a curve, δx (delta x) and δy (delta y)
Problem 3. Differentiate from first principles

Section 8
representing small increments in the x and y
directions, respectively. f (x) = x 2 and determine the value of the gradient of
the curve at x = 2
y

To ‘differentiate from first principles’ means ‘to find

B (x !d x, y !d y ) f ′ (x)’ by using the expression
½ ¾
′ f (x + δx) − f (x)
dy f (x) = limit
A(x,y)
δx→0 δx
f (x !d x)
f (x) = x 2
f(x) dx
Substituting (x + δx) for x gives
0 x f (x + δx) = (x + δx)2 = x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 , hence
½ 2
(x + 2xδx + δx 2 ) − (x 2 )
¾
Figure 42.4 ′
f (x) = limit
δx→0 δx
δy
Gradient of chord AB = ½
2xδx + δx 2 ¾
δx = limit = limit{2x + δx}
However, δy = f (x + δx) − f (x) δx→0 δx δx→0
 386 Engineering Mathematics

As δx → 0, [2x + δx] → [2x + 0]. Thus f ′ (x) = 2x, i.e. result could have been determined by inspection. ‘Find-
the differential coefficient of x 2 is 2x. At x = 2, the ing the derivative’ means ‘finding the gradient’, hence,
gradient of the curve, f ′ (x) = 2(2) = 4 in general, for any horizontal line if y = k (where k is a
dy
constant) then = 0.
Problem 4. Find the differential coefficient of dx
y = 5x
Problem 6. Differentiate from first principles
dy f (x) = 2x 3
By definition, = f ′ (x)
dx
½ ¾
f (x + δx) − f (x) Substituting (x + δx) for x gives
= limit
δx→0 δx
f (x + δx) = 2(x + δx)3
The function being differentiated is y = f (x) = 5x. Sub- = 2(x + δx)(x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 )
stituting (x + δx) for x gives:
f (x + δx) = 5(x + δx) = 5x + 5δx. Hence = 2(x 3 + 3x 2 δx + 3xδx 2 + δx 3 )
½ ¾ = 2x 3 + 6x 2 δx + 6xδx 2 + 2δx 3
dy ′ (5x + 5δx) − (5x)
= f (x) = limit
dx δx→0 δx ½ ¾
dy ′ f (x + δx) − f (x)
½
5δx
¾ = f (x) = limit
= lim it = limit{5} dx δx→0 δx
δx→0 δx δx→0 ½ 3
(2x + 6x 2 δx + 6xδx 2 + 2δx 3 ) − (2x 3 )
¾
= limit
Since the term δx does not appear in [5] the limiting δx→0 δx
dy ½ 2
6x δx + 6xδx + 2δx 3
2 ¾
value as δx → 0 of [5] is 5. Thus = 5, i.e. the differen- = limit
dx δx→0 δx
tial coefficient of 5x is 5. The equation y = 5x represents
a straight line of gradient 5 (see Chapter 28). The ‘differ- = limit {6x 2 + 6xδx + 2δx 2 }
dy δx→0
ential coefficient’ (i.e. or f ′ (x)) means ‘the gradient
dx Hence f ′ (x) = 6x2 , i.e. the differential coefficient of 2x 3
of the curve’, and since the slope of the line y = 5x is 5
this result can be obtained by inspection. Hence, in gen- is 6x 2 .
eral, if y = kx (where k is a constant), then the gradient
dy
of the line is k and or f ′ (x) = k. Problem 7. Find the differential coefficient of
dx
Section 8

y = 4x 2 + 5x − 3 and determine the gradient of the

curve at x = −3
Problem 5. Find the derivative of y = 8

y = f (x) = 8. Since there are no x-values in the orig- y = f (x) = 4x 2 + 5x − 3

inal equation, substituting (x + δx) for x still gives
f (x + δx) = 8. Hence f (x + δx) = 4(x + δx)2 + 5(x + δx) − 3

½ ¾ = 4(x 2 + 2xδx + δx 2 ) + 5x + 5δx − 3

dy f (x + δx) − f (x)
= f ′ (x) = limit = 4x 2 + 8xδx + 4δx 2 + 5x + 5δx − 3
dx δx→0 δx
½ ¾
8−8 ½ ¾
= limit =0 dy ′ f (x + δx) − f (x)
δx→0 δx = f (x) = limit
dx δx→0 δx
(4x + 8xδx + 4δx 2 + 5x + 5δx − 3) 
2
 
dy
Thus, when y = 8, =0

− (4x 2 + 5x − 3)

 

dx = limit
The equation y = 8 represents a straight horizontal line δx→0  δx 

 
and the gradient of a horizontal line is zero, hence the
 Introduction to differentiation 387

½
8xδx + 4δx 2 + 5δx
¾
42.5 Differentiation of y = ax n by the
= limit
δx→0 δx general rule
= limit {8x + 4δx + 5}
δx→0 From differentiation by first principles, a general rule
for differentiating ax n emerges where a and n are any
dy constants. This rule is:
i.e. = f ′ (x) = 8x + 5
dx dy
if y = axn then = anxn–1
At x = −3, the gradient of the curve dx
dy
= = f ′ (x) = 8(−3) + 5 = −19 or, if f (x) = axn then f ′ (x) = anxn–1
dx
(Each of the results obtained in worked problems 3 to 7
may be deduced by using this general rule).
Now try the following exercise When differentiating, results can be expressed in a
number of ways.
Exercise 150 Further problems on For example:
differentiation from first
principles dy
(i) if y = 3x 2 then = 6x,
dx
In Problems 1 to 12, differentiate from first (ii) if f (x) = 3x 2 then f ′ (x) = 6x,
principles. (iii) the differential coefficient of 3x 2 is 6x,
(iv) the derivative of 3x 2 is 6x, and
1. y = x [1] d
(v) (3x 2 ) = 6x
dx
2. y = 7x [7]

3. y = 4x 2 [8x] Problem 8. Using the general rule, differentiate

the following with respect to x:
4. y = 5x 3 [15x 2 ] √ 4
(a) y = 5x 7 (b) y = 3 x (c) y = 2
x
5. y = −2x 2 + 3x − 12 [−4x + 3]

6. y = 23 [0]
(a) Comparing y = 5x 7 with y = ax n shows that a = 5
7. f (x) = 9x [9] and n = 7. Using the general rule,

Section 8
dy
· ¸ = anx n−1 = (5)(7)x 7−1 = 35x6
2x 2 dx
8. f (x) = √ 1 1
3 3 (b) y = 3 x = 3x 2 . Hence a = 3 and n =
2
9. f (x) = 9x 2 [18x]
dy 1 1
= anx n−1 = (3) x 2 −1
10. f (x) = −7x 3 [−21x 2 ] dx 2

11. f (x) = x 2 + 15x − 4 [2x + 15] 3 −1 3 3

= x 2 = 1
= √
2 2 x
2x 2
12. f (x) = 4 [0]
4
d (c) y = = 4x −2 . Hence a = 4 and n = −2
13. Determine (4x 3 ) from first principles x2
dx
[12x 2 ] dy
= anx n−1 = (4)( − 2)x −2−1
dx
d
14. Find (3x 2 + 5) from first principles 8
dx = −8x −3 = − 3
[6x] x
 388 Engineering Mathematics

Now try the following exercise

Problem 9. Find the differential coefficient of
2 4 √
y = x3 − 3 + 4 x5 + 7
5 x Exercise 151 Further problems on
differentiation of y = ax n
2 3 4 p by the general rule
y= x − 3 + 4 x5 + 7
5 x In Problems 1 to 8, determine the differential
2 coefficients with respect to the variable.
i.e. y = x 3 − 4x −3 + 4x 5/2 + 7
5
µ ¶ 1. y = 7x 4 [28x 3 ]
dy 2
= (3)x 3−1 − (4)( − 3)x −3−1
· ¸
√ 1
dx 5 2. y = x √
µ ¶ 2 x
5 (5/2)−1
√ 3√
· ¸
+ (4) x +0
2 3. y = t3 t
2
6 2
x + 12x −4 + 10x 3/2
· ¸
= 1 3
5 4. y = 6 + − 4
x3 x
dy 6 12 p
i.e. = x2 + 4 + 10 x3 1 1
·
1 1
¸
dx 5 x 5. y = 3x − √ + 3+ √ − 2
x x 2 x3 x
· ¸
5 1 10 7
1 6. y = − √ +2 − 3+ √
Problem 10. If f (t) = 5t + √ find f ′ (t) x 2
x7 x 2 x9
t3
7. y = 3(t − 2)2 [6t − 12]
8. y = (x + 1)3 [3x 2 + 6x + 3]
1 1 3
f (t) = 5t + √ = 5t + 3 = 5t 1 + t − 2 9. Using the general rule for ax n check the
t3 t2 results of Problems 1 to 12 of Exercise 150,
page 387.
µ ¶
′ 1−1 3 − 3 −1
Hence f (t) = (5)(1)t + − t 2
2 10. Differentiate f (x) = 6x 2 − 3x + 5 and find the
3 5 gradient of the curve at (a) x = −1, and
= 5t 0 − t − 2 (b) x = 2. [12x − 3 (a) −15 (b) 21]
2
3 3 11. Find the differential coefficient of
f ′ (t) = 5 − 5 = 5 − √
Section 8

i.e. y = 2x 3 + 3x 2 − 4x − 1 and determine

2t 2 2 t5
the gradient of the curve at x = 2.
[6x 2 + 6x − 4, 32]
(x + 2)2 12. Determine the derivative of
Problem 11. Differentiate y = with
x y = −2x 3 + 4x + 7 and determine the gradi-
respect to x
ent of the curve at x = −1.5
[−6x 2 + 4, −9.5]
(x + 2)2 x 2 + 4x + 4
y= =
x x
x 2 4x 4
= + +
x x x
i.e. y = x + 4 + 4x – 1 42.6 Differentiation of sine and
cosine functions
dy
Hence = 1 + 0 + (4)( − 1)x −1−1
dx Figure 42.5(a) shows a graph of y = sin θ. The gradient
4 is continually changing as the curve moves from O to
= 1 − 4x −2 = 1 − 2
x dy
A to B to C to D. The gradient, given by , may be
dθ
 Introduction to differentiation 389

y y

A
y sin u
! y cos q
!

B D (a)
(a) 0
0 π π 3π 2π q radians
π π 3π 2π u radians 2 2
2 2
" "

C
09 D9
d
(sin u) cos u
dy du dy
! !
dx dq
A9 C9
(b) (b)
0 π π 3π 2π u radians 0 π π 3π 2π q radians
2 2 " 2 2
"
d
(cos q ) "sin q
dq
B9

Figure 42.6
Figure 42.5
3π
plotted in a corresponding position below y = sin θ, as + , and so on) then the graph shown in Fig. 42.6(b)
2
shown in Fig. 42.5(b). would result. This latter graph therefore represents the
curve of –sin θ.
(i) At 0, the gradient is positive and is at its steepest. dy
Hence 0′ is the maximum positive value. Thus, if y = cos θ, = −sin θ
dθ
(ii) Between 0 and A the gradient is positive but is
decreasing in value until at A the gradient is zero, It may also be shown that:
dy
shown as A′ . if y = cos a θ, = −a sin aθ
(iii) Between A and B the gradient is negative but is dθ
(where a is a constant)
increasing in value until at B the gradient is at its
dy
steepest. Hence B′ is a maximum negative value. and if y = cos(aθ + α), = −a sin(aθ + α)
(iv) If the gradient of y = sin θ is further investigated dθ
between B and C and C and D then the resulting (where a and α are constants).
dy
graph of is seen to be a cosine wave.

Section 8
dθ Problem 12. Differentiate the following with
respect to the variable: (a) y = 2 sin 5θ
Hence the rate of change of sin θ is cos θ, i.e.
(b) f (t) = 3 cos 2t
dy
if y = sin θ then = cos θ
dθ (a) y = 2 sin 5θ
It may also be shown that:
dy
dy = (2)(5) cos 5θ = 10 cos 5θ
if y = sin a θ, = a cos aθ dθ
dθ
(where a is a constant) (b) f (t) = 3 cos 2t
f ′ (t) = (3)(−2) sin 2t = −6 sin 2t
dy
and if y = sin(aθ + α), = a cos(aθ + α)
dθ Problem 13. Find the differential coefficient of
(where a and α are constants). y = 7 sin 2x − 3 cos 4x
If a similar exercise is followed for y = cos θ then the
dy y = 7 sin 2x − 3 cos 4x
graphs of Fig. 42.6 result, showing to be a graph of
dθ dy
sin θ, but displaced by π radians. If each point on the = (7)(2) cos 2x − (3)( − 4) sin 4x
curve y = sin θ (as shown in Fig. 42.5(a)) were to be dx
π π 3π = 14 cos 2x + 12 sin 4x
made negative, (i.e. + is made − , − is made
2 2 2
 390 Engineering Mathematics

Problem 14. Differentiate the following with 2. Given f (θ) = 2 sin 3θ − 5 cos 2θ, find f ′ (θ)
respect to the variable: [6 cos 3θ + 10 sin 2θ]
(a) f (θ) = 5 sin(100πθ − 0.40) 3. An alternating current is given by i = 5 sin 100t
(b) f (t) = 2 cos(5t + 0.20) amperes, where t is the time in seconds.
Determine the rate of change of current when
t = 0.01 seconds.
(a) If f (θ) = 5 sin(100πθ − 0.40)
[270.2 A/s]
f ′ (θ) = 5[100π cos(100πθ − 0.40)]
4. v = 50 sin 40t volts represents an alternating
= 500π cos(100πθ − 0.40) voltage where t is the time in seconds. At a time
(b) If f (t) = 2 cos (5t + 0.20) of 20 × 10−3 seconds, find the rate of change
of voltage. [1393.4 V/s]
f ′ (t) = 2[−5 sin(5t + 0.20)]
5. If f (t) = 3 sin(4t + 0.12) − 2 cos(3t − 0.72)
= −10 sin(5t + 0.20) determine f ′ (t)
[12 cos(4t + 0.12) + 6 sin (3t − 0.72)]
Problem 15. An alternating voltage is given by:
v = 100 sin 200t volts, where t is the time in
seconds. Calculate the rate of change of voltage
when (a) t = 0.005 s and (b) t = 0.01 s
42.7 Differentiation of eax and ln ax
v = 100 sin 200t volts. The rate of change of v is given
dv A graph of y = ex is shown in Fig. 42.7(a). The gradient
by . dy
dt of the curve at any point is given by and is continually
dx
dv changing. By drawing tangents to the curve at many
= (100)(200) cos 200t = 20 000 cos 200t
dt points on the curve and measuring the gradient of the
dy
(a) When t = 0.005 s, tangents, values of for corresponding values of x
dx
dv may be obtained. These values are shown graphically
= 20 000 cos(200)(0.005) = 20 000 cos 1
dt
cos 1 means ‘the cosine of 1 radian’ (make sure
your calculator is on radians — not degrees). y
dv 20
Hence = 10 806 volts per second
dt
Section 8

15
(b) When t = 0.01 s, y ex
dv 10
= 20 000 cos(200)(0.01) = 20 000 cos 2.
dt
dv 5
Hence = −8323 volts per second
dt
(a) "3 "2 "1 0 1 2 3 x

dy
Now try the following exercise dx 20

15
Exercise 152 Further problems on the dy
ex
differentiation of sine and 10 dx
cosine functions
5
1. Differentiate with respect to x: (a) y = 4 sin 3x
(b) y = 2 cos 6x (b) "3 "2 "1 0 1 2 3 x
[(a) 12 cos 3x (b) −12 sin 6x]
Figure 42.7
 Introduction to differentiation 391

dy (Note that in the latter expression ‘a’ does not appear in

in Fig. 42.7(b). The graph of against x is identical to
dx dy
x
the original graph of y = e . It follows that: the term).
dx
dy 1
dy Thus if y = ln 4x, then =
if y = ex , then = ex dx x
dx
It may also be shown that Problem 16. Differentiate the following with
4
dy respect to the variable: (a) y = 3e2x (b) f (t) =
ax
if y = e , then = aeax 3e5t
dx
dy dy
Therefore if y = 2e6x , then = (2)(6e6x ) = 12e6x (a) If y = 3e2x then = (3)(2e2x ) = 6e2x
dx dx
A graph of y = ln x is shown in Fig. 42.8(a). The 4 4
dy (b) If f (t) = 5t = e−5t , then
gradient of the curve at any point is given by and is 3e 3
dx
continually changing. By drawing tangents to the curve 4 20 20
at many points on the curve and measuring the gradient f ′ (t) = (−5e−5t ) = − e−5t = − 5t
3 3 3e
dy
of the tangents, values of for corresponding values of
dx
x may be obtained. These values are shown graphically Problem 17. Differentiate y = 5 ln 3x
dy
in Fig. 42.8(b). The graph of against x is the graph µ ¶
dx dy 1 5
dy 1 If y = 5 ln 3x, then = (5) =
of = . dx x x
dx x
dy 1
It follows that: if y = ln x, then =
dx x Now try the following exercise

y
Exercise 153 Further problems on the
2
differentiation of eax and ln ax
1 y ln x

0 1. Differentiate with respect to x:

1 2 3 4 5 6 x 2
"1 (a) y = 5e3x (b) y =
· 7e2x ¸
4
15e3x

Section 8
"2 (a) (b) − 2x
(a) 7e
dy 2. Given f (θ) = 5 ln 2θ − 4 ln 3θ, determine f ′ (θ)
dx ·
5 4 1
¸
2 − =
dy
θ θ θ
1.5 1
dx x
1.0
3. If f (t) = 4 ln t + 2, evaluate f ′ (t) when t = 0.25
[16]
0.5
dy
4. Evaluate when x = 1, given
(b) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x dx
5
Figure 42.8 y = 3e4x − 3x + 8 ln 5x. Give the answer
2e
correct to 3 significant figures. [664]
It may also be shown that
dy 1
if y = ln ax, then =
dx x