Myers’ Psychology for AP®, 2e

David G. Myers
PowerPoint Presentation Slides
by Kent Korek
Germantown High School
Worth Publishers, © 2014  
AP® is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board ®, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.
 Unit 2:
Research Methods
 Unit 02 - Overview
•  The Need for Psychological Science
•  The Scientific Method and Description
•  Correlation and Experimentation
•  Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life
•  Frequently Asked Questions About
Psychology

Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.
 Module 04:
The Need for Psychological
Science
Did We Know It All Along?
Hindsight Bias
 Did We Know It All Along?
Hindsight Bias
•  Hindsight Bias
– “I knew it all along”
Overconfidence
 Overconfidence

•  Overconfidence
– We tend to think we know more
than we do
– Richard Goranson Study
•  WREAT ---------- WATER
•  ETRYN------------ ENTRY
•  GRABE------------ BARGE
Perceiving Order in Random
Events
Perceiving Order in Random
Events
•  Comes from our need to make
sense out of the world
– Coin flip
– Poker hand
 The Scientific Attitude:
Curious, Skeptical and Humble
 The Scientific Attitude:
Curious, Skeptical and Humble
•  Three main components
– Curious eagerness
– Skeptically scrutinize competing ideas
– Open-minded humility before nature
•  Hindsight bias, overconfidence and our
tendency to perceive patters in random
events often lead us to overestimate our
intuition.
Critical Thinking
 Critical Thinking

•  Critical Thinking
– “Smart thinking”
– Elements
• Examines assumptions
• Assesses the source
• Discerns hidden values
• Confirms evidence
• Assesses conclusions
 Module 05:
The Scientific Method and
Description
The Scientific Method
 The Scientific Method

•  Theory
– “mere hunch”
•  Hypothesis
– Can be confirmed or refuted
•  Operational Definition
•  Replication (repeat)
The Scientific Method
The Scientific Method
The Scientific Method
The Scientific Method
 The Scientific Method
•  A good theory is useful if it:
– Effectively organizes a range of
self-reports and observations
– Leads to clear hypotheses
(predictions) that anyone can use to
check the theory
– Often stimulates research that
leads to a revised theory which
better predicts what we know
Description
 Description
The Case Study
•  Case Study
– Hope to reveal universal truths
– Problems with atypical individuals
– Cannot discern general truths
 Description
Naturalistic Observation
•  Naturalistic Observation
– Describes behavior
– Does not explain behavior
 Description
The Survey
•  Survey
– Looks at many cases at once
•  Word effects
•  Random sampling
– Representative sample
– Sampling bias
 Description
The Survey
•  Sampling
– Population
– Random Sample
 Module 06:
Correlation and
Experimentation
Correlation
 Correlation
•  Correlation (correlation coefficient)
– How well does A predict B
– Positive versus negative correlation
– Strength of the correlation
• -1.0 to +1.0
– Scatterplot
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
Correlation
 Correlation
Correlation and Causation
•  Correlation helps predict
– Does not imply cause and effect
 Correlation
Illusory Correlations
•  Illusory Correlation
– Perceived non-existent correlation
– A random coincidence
Experimentation
 Experimentation

•  Experiment
– Can isolate cause and effect
– Control of factors
• Manipulation the factor (s) of
interest
• Hold constant
(“controlling”) factors
 Experimentation
•  Groups
– Experimental Group
• Receives the treatment
(independent variable)
– Control Group
• Does not receive the
treatment
 Experimentation
•  Randomly assigned
– Eliminates alternative explanations
– Equalizes the two groups
– Reduces the influence
of other (confounding
variables)
– Different from
random sample
 Experimentation

•  Blind (uninformed)
– Single-Blind Procedure
– Double-Blind
Procedure
•  Placebo Effect
 Experimentation
Independent and Dependent
Variables
•  Independent Variable
– Confounding variable
• Effect of random assignment on
confounding variables
•  Dependent Variable
– What is being measured
•  Validity
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
Comparing Research Methods
 Module 07:
Statistical Reasoning in
Everyday Life
The Need for Statistics
 The Need for Statistics

•  Understanding
basic statistics
is beneficial for
everyone
Descriptive Statistics
 Descriptive Statistics
•  Descriptive Statistics
•  Histogram (bar graph)
– Scale labels
Descriptive Statistics
Histogram
Descriptive Statistics
Histogram
Descriptive Statistics
Histogram
Descriptive Statistics
Histogram
Descriptive Statistics
Histogram
Descriptive Statistics
Histogram
Descriptive Statistics
Histogram
Descriptive Statistics
Histogram
Descriptive Statistics
Histogram
Descriptive Statistics
Histogram
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
•  Mean (arithmetic average)
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
•  Mean (arithmetic average)
•  Median (middle score)
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
•  Mean (arithmetic average)
•  Median (middle score)
•  Mode (occurs the most)
•  Skewed distribution
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Variability
•  Range
•  Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Variability
•  Normal Curve (bell shaped)
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Variability
•  Normal Curve (bell shaped)
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Variability
•  Normal Curve (bell shaped)
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Variability
•  Normal Curve (bell shaped)
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Variability
•  Normal Curve (bell shaped)
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Variability
•  Normal Curve (bell shaped)
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Variability
•  Normal Curve
 Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Variability
•  Normal Curve
Inferential Statistics
 Inferential Statistics
When Is an Observed Difference
Reliable?
•  Inferential statistics
•  Representative samples are
better than biased samples
•  Less-variable observations are
more reliable than those that are
more variable
•  More cases are better than fewer
 Inferential Statistics
When Is a Difference Significant?
•  Statistical significance
– The averages are reliable
– The differences between averages is
relatively large
– Does imply the importance of the results
 Module 08:
Frequently Asked Questions
About Psychology
Psychology Applied
 Psychology Applied
•  Can laboratory experiments
illuminate everyday life?
– The principles, not the research findings,
help explain behavior
•  Does behavior depend on one’s
culture and gender?
– Culture
– Gender
Ethics in Research
 Ethics in Research
•  Ethics in animal research
– Reasons for using animals in research
– Safeguards for animal use
 Ethics in Research

•  Ethics in human research

– Informed consent
– Protect from harm and
discomfort
– Maintain confidentiality
– Debriefing
The End
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 Teacher  Informa-on  
•  Unit  Coding  
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•  Psychology’s  History  and  Approaches            
•  Research  Methods            
•  Biological  Bases  of  Behavior                      
•  Sensa-on  and  Percep-on  
•  States  of  Consciousness  
•  Learning  
•  Cogni-on  
•  Mo-va-on,  Emo-on,  and  Stress  
•  Developmental  Psychology  
•  Personality  
•  Tes-ng  and  Individual  Differences  
•  Abnormal  Psychology  
•  Treatment  of  Abnormal  Behavior  
•  Social  Psychology  
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Kent  Korek  
Germantown  High  School  
Germantown,  WI  53022  
262-­‐253-­‐3400  
kkorek@germantown.k12.wi.us    
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 Definition Slide

= add definition here

Definition
Slides
 Hindsight Bias
= the tendency to believe, after learning an
outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
•  Also known as the “I knew it all along”
phenomenon.
 Critical Thinking
= thinking that does not blindly accept
arguments and conclusions. Rather, it
examines assumptions, discerns hidden
values, evaluated evidence, and assesses
conclusions.
 Theory
= an explanation using an integrated set of
principles that organizes observations and
predicts behaviors or events.
 Hypothesis
= a testable prediction, often implied by a
theory.
 Operational Definition
= a carefully worded statement of the exact
procedures (operations) used in a
research study.
•  For example, human intelligence may be
operationally defined as what an
intelligence test measures.
 Replication
= repeating the essence of a research study,
usually with different participants in
different situations, to see whether the
basic finding extends to other participants
and circumstances.
 Case Study
= an descriptive technique in which one
individual or group is studied in depth in
the hope of revealing universal principles.
 Naturalistic Observation
= observing and recording behavior in
naturally occurring situations without trying
to manipulate and control the situation.
 Survey
= a technique for ascertaining the self-
reported attitudes or behaviors of a
particular group, usually by questioning a
representative, random sample of the
group.
 Sampling Bias
= a flawed sampling process that produces
an unrepresentative sample.
 Population
= all the cases in a group being studied,
from which samples may be drawn.
•  Note: Except for national studies, this does
NOT refer to a country’s whole population.
 Random Sample
= a sample that fairly represents a
population because each member has an
equal chance of inclusion.
 Correlation
= a measure of the extent to which two
factors change together, and thus of how
well either factor predicts the other.
 Correlation Coefficient
= a statistical index of the relationship
between two things (from -1.0 to +1.0).
 Scatterplot
= a graphed cluster of dots, each of which
represents the values of two variables.
The slope of the points suggests the
direction of the relationship between the
two variables. The amount of scatter
suggests the strength of the correlation
(little scatter indicates high correlation).
 Illusory Correlation
= the perception of a relationship where
none exists.
 Experiment
= a research method in which an
investigator manipulates one or more
factors (independent variables) to observe
the effect on some behavior or mental
process (the dependent variable). By
random assignment of participants, the
experimenter aims to control other
relevant factors.
 Experimental Group
= in an experiment, the group that is
exposed to the treatment, that is, to one
version of the independent variable.
 Control Group
= in an experiment, the group that is NOT
exposed to the treatment; contrasts with
the experimental group and serves as a
comparison for evaluating the effect of the
treatment.
 Random Assigment
= assigning participants to experimental and
control groups by chance, thus minimizing
preexisting differences between those
assigned to the different groups.
 Double-Blind Procedure
= an experimental procedure in which both
the research participants and the research
staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the
research participants have received the
treatment or the placebo. Commonly used
in drug-evaluation studies.
 Placebo Effect
= experimental results caused by
expectations alone; any effect on behavior
caused by the administration of an inert
substance or condition, which the recipient
assumes is an active agent.
•  Latin for “I shall please”
 Independent Variable
= the experimental factor that is
manipulated; the variable whose effect is
being studied.
 Confounding Variable
= a factor other than the independent
variable that might produce an effect in an
experiment.
 Dependent Variable
= the outcome factor; the variable that may
change in response to manipulations of
the independent variable.
 Validity
= the extent to which a test or experiment
measures or predicts what it is suppose to.
 Descriptive Statistics
= numerical data used to measure and
describe characteristics of groups. Include
measures of central tendency and
measures of variability.
 Histogram
= a bar graph depicting a frequency
distribution.
 Mode
= the most frequently occurring score(s) in a
distribution.
 Mean
= the arithmetic average of a distribution,
obtained by adding the scores and then
dividing by the number of scores.
 Median
= the middle score in a distribution, half the
scores are above it and half are below it.
 Skewed Distribution
= a representation of scores that lack
symmetry around their average value.
 Range
= the difference between the highest and
lowest score in a distribution.
 Standard Deviation
= a computed measure of how much scores
vary around the mean score.
 Normal Curve
= a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that
describes the distribution of many types of
data; most scored fall near the mean (68
percent fall within one standard deviation
of it) and fewer and fewer near the
extremes.
•  Normal distribution
 Inferential Statistics
= numerical data that allow one to
generalize – to infer from sample data the
probability of something being true to a
population.
 Statistical Significance
= a statistical statement of how likely it is
that an obtained result occurred by
chance.
 Culture
= the enduring behavior, ideas, attitudes,
and traditions shared by a group of people
and transmitted from one generation to the
next.
 Informed Consent
= an ethical principle that research
participants be told enough to enable them
to choose whether they wish to participate.
 Debriefing
= the postexperimental explanation of a
study, including its purpose and any
deceptions, to its participants.