8 Control Basics PDF

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Control System Basics

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Control systems: Number of inputs and outputs
1. Single-input single-output (SISO) – This is the simplest and most
common type, in which one output is controlled by one control signal.
Examples are the cruise control example above, or an audio system, in
which the control input is the input audio signal and the output is the
sound waves from the speaker.
2. Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO)– These are found in more
complicated systems. For example, modern large telescopes such as
the Keck and MMT have mirrors composed of many separate segments
each controlled by an actuator. The shape of the entire mirror is
constantly adjusted by a MIMO active optics control system using input
from multiple sensors at the focal plane, to compensate for changes in
the mirror shape due to thermal expansion, contraction, stresses as it
is rotated and distortion of the wavefront due to turbulence in the
atmosphere. Complicated systems such as nuclear reactors and human
cells are simulated by a computer as large MIMO control systems.
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Sequential Design Example
Desired Actual
head head
Position Position
SISO Closed-loop Control System for Disk Drive
Desired
input Output
Controller Process
responses variables
Measurements
MIMO Closed-loop Control System

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Two Braches of Control Theory
1. Linear control theory – This applies to systems made of devices
which obey the superposition principle, which means roughly that the
output is proportional to the input. They are governed by linear
differential equations.
A major subclass is systems which in addition have parameters
which do not change with time, called linear time invariant
(LTI) systems.
These systems are amenable to powerful frequency domain
mathematical techniques of great generality, such as the Laplace
transform, Fourier transform, Z-transform, Bode plot, root
locus, and Nyquist stability criterion.
These lead to a description of the system using terms like bandwidth,
frequency response, eigenvalues, gain, resonant frequencies, zeros
and poles, which give solutions for system response and design
techniques for most systems of interest.
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2. Nonlinear control theory – This covers a wider class of systems
that do not obey the superposition principle, and applies to more
real-world systems because all real control systems are nonlinear.
These systems are often governed by nonlinear differential

equations. The few mathematical techniques which have been
developed to handle them are more difficult and much less
general, often applying only to narrow categories of systems.
These include limit cycle theory, Poincaré maps, Lyapunov

stability theorem, and describing functions. Nonlinear systems
are often analyzed using numerical methods on computers, for
example by simulating their operation using a simulation
language. If only solutions near a stable point are of interest,
nonlinear systems can often be linearized by approximating
them by a linear system using perturbation theory, and linear
techniques can be used.
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Two Mathematical Techniques of Analyzing and
Designing Control Systems
1. Frequency domain – In this type the values of the state variables,

the mathematical variables representing the system's input, output
and feedback are represented as functions of frequency.
The input signal and the system's transfer function are converted
from time functions to functions of frequency by a transform such
as the Fourier transform, Laplace transform, or Z-
transform.
The advantage of this technique is that it results in a simplification of
the mathematics; the differential equations that represent the
system are replaced by algebraic equations in the frequency
domain which is much simpler to solve.
However, frequency domain techniques can only be used with linear
systems.
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Two Mathematical Techniques of Analyzing and
Designing Control Systems
2. Time domain (state space) representation – In this type the

values of the state variables are represented as functions of time.
With this model, the system being analyzed is represented by one

or more differential equations.
Since frequency domain techniques are limited to linear systems,
time domain is widely used to analyze real-world nonlinear
systems.
Although these are more difficult to solve, modern computer
simulation techniques such as simulation languages have made
their analysis routine.
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Mechatronics Closed loop Control system
Mechatronics Control Action
Question: Write different types of control modes/action.

Mechatronics Two Position Controller
Simplest version of a discontinuous controller.

Two different output states (ON and OFF), for instance pmin
and pmax.
Cheap and used in

residential heating and
domestic refrigerators.
Limited use in process One

control due to discontinuous. controller
switch
point
Controller is essentially just a switch which is activated by the
error signal. Oscillations occurs about the set-point.
In virtually any practical implementation, there is a neutral zone

where no change in the controller output occurs.
To prevent noise from switching the controller unnecessarily
when the output is nearly
the set point.
Rapid switching occurs for

too narrow hysteresis.
Cycling of controlled
variable ⇒ excessive wear on Practical case (dead band/ hysteresis)
control valve.
Two controller switch points

For the liquid-level control system in the following figure, write

down their differential equations and the corresponding transfer
function both during filling up and emptying the tank. Also draw
their corresponding response curve h (liquid level height) versus t
(time).

(time).
dh
RC + h = Rqi ( t )
dt
R
G (s) =
RCs + 1
dh
During filling up RC + h = RQ
dt
dh
During emptying RC +h=0
dt

(time).
dh
RC + h = RQ
dt
h ( t ) = h2 e − t / RC
h ( t ) = h1e − t / RC + RQ (1 − e − t / RC )
Mechatronics Three Position Controller
Three different switching states.

In a temperature control system, these states are not only OFF
and Heating as in a two-position controller, but also Cooling.
So a three-position controller fulfills the function of two coupled
two-position controllers that switch at different states.
xd dead band
xdg differential gap
In the field of control valve technology, three-position controllers

are frequently used in combination with electric actuators.
Mechatronics Proportional (P) Controller
Describe proportional controller with its dynamic behavior.

In feedback control, the objective is to reduce the error signal to zero

where
e ( t ) = ysp ( t ) − ym ( t ) (1)
and
e ( t ) = error signal
ysp ( t ) = set point
ym ( t ) = measured value of the controlled/process variable
(or equivalent signal from the sensor/transmitter)
Although Eq. (1) indicates that the set point can be time-varying, in
many process control problems it is kept constant for long periods of
time.
What is proportional control action? Why is it impossible to
completely eliminate the steady-state error of a system using
proportional control alone?
For proportional control, the controller output is proportional to the error

signal, p (t ) = p + K pe (t ) (2)
where:
p ( t ) = controller output
p = bias (steady-state) value
K p = proportional controller gain (usually dimensionless)
[ p − p]( s ) = K p E ( s ) (3)
Transfer function: G ( s ) = K p
Advantage: Easy to implement.
Disadvantage: Always involves an offset in the output response

causing difference between the set-point and the actual output.
Dynamic Behavior of a P Controller

Some controllers have a proportional band setting instead of a

controller gain. Proportional band is the range of errors over which
the linear relationship between controller output and error tends to
exist. Given that a controller output signal ranges from a minimum
(COmin) to maximum (COmax) value, then:
COmax − COmin
PB =
Kp
The proportional band PB (in
%) is defined as
100%
PB = (4)
Kp
Disadvantage: Overshoot problem that arises when a proportional

controller is used at high gain.
Mechatronics Problem
Problem: Consider a proportional controller which is to be

used to control the height of water in a tank where the water
level can vary from zero to 9.0m. What is the proportional band
and transfer function that will be required if the required height
of water is 5.0m? The controller is to fully close a valve when
the water rises to 5.5m and fully open it when the water falls to
4.5m.
PB = (0.5+0.5)/9
= 11.2% 9.0m
5.0m 5.5m (close)

Kp = 100/PB 4.5m (open)
= 8.9
Mechatronics Example: P Controller
Suppose we have a simple spring-mass-damper system,
The mathematical model of this system is

d 2x dx
m 2 + b + kx = F
dt dt
The transfer function is then obtained as
X (s) 1
G (s) = = 2
F ( s ) ms + bs + k
Let, m = 1 kg, b = 10 Ns/m, k = 20 N/m, f = 1 N
By plugging these values in the transfer function:

X (s) 1
G (s) = = 2
F ( s ) s + 10 s + 20
Now, ωn = 20 = 4.47 and ( )

ζ = 10 / 2 20 = 1.12 > 1
So it is a over-damped system.
Our goal is to investigate the influence of different controllers to
obtain:
Fast rise time
Minimum overshoot
No steady-state error.
No Controller
1
F(s) X(s)
s 2 + 10 s + 20
The (open) loop transfer function for unit step input is given by
X (s) 1
G (s) = = 2
F ( s ) s + 10 s + 20
1
and for unit step input F ( s ) =
s
The steady-state value for the output is
1
xss = lim x ( t ) = lim sX ( s ) = lim sG ( s ) F ( s ) =
t →∞ s →0 s →0 20
No Controller: Open-loop step response
1/20 = 0.05 is the final value of the output to an unit step input.
This corresponds to a steady-state error of 95%, quite large!
The settling and the rise time (10% to 90% for over-damped
system) are about 1.6 and 0.88 sec respectively.
Proportional Controller
F(s)
1 X(s)
Kp
+ s 2 + 10 s + 20
−
The closed-loop transfer function for unit step input is given by

Kp
X (s) s 2
+ 10 s + 20 Kp
= = 2
F (s) Kp s + 10 s + ( 20 + K p )
1+ 2
s + 10 s + 20
X (s) Kp
xss = lim x ( t ) = lim sX ( s ) = lim s F (s) =
t →∞ s →0 s →0 F (s) 20 + K p
Proportional Controller: Closed-loop step response

X (s) 300
Kp = 300 = 2
F ( s ) s + 10s + 320
ωn = 17.9 ζ = 0.28 < 1
>> g = tf([300],[1 10 320])

>> stepinfo(g,'Risetimelimits',[0 1])
>> damp(g)
>> step(g)
The above plot shows that the proportional controller reduces both the
rise time (Tr = 0.108 sec for underdamped system) and the steady-state
error, increases the overshoot, and decreases the settling time (Ts =
0.77 sec) by small amount.
Mechatronics Change in gain in P
controller
• Increase in gain:
→ Upgrade both steady-state and transient responses
→ Reduce steady-state error → Reduce stability!
Mechatronics P controller with High gain
Mechatronics Integral (I) Controller
For integral control, the rate of change of the controller output is

proportional to the error signal,
dp ( t )
= KI e (t )
dt
p ( t ) = p + K I ∫ e ( t ) dt
where:
KI = integral controller gain (usually dimensionless)
[ p − p]( s ) = K I E ( s ) / s
KI
Transfer function: G (s) =
s
Advantage: Improve the steady-state performance.
Integral control action is used to fully correct system deviations at any

operating point.
As long as the error is nonzero, the integral action will cause the value
of the manipulated variable to change.
The higher the integral action coefficient KI, the greater the integral
action of an I controller.
No steady-state error
Sluggish response at low KI
At high KI, the control loop tends to oscillate/may become instable
Explain what happens when integral controller used alone?
The integral controller may lead to oscillatory output and hence
has poor stability, although it improves the steady state
performance.
Dynamic Behavior of an I Controller

Mechatronics Example: I Controller
Integral Controller
F(s)
KI 1 X(s)
+ s s 2 + 10 s + 20
−

KI
X (s)
=
s ( s 2
+ 10s + 20 )
=
KI
F ( s) 1+ KI s ( s 2 + 10 s + 20 ) + K I
s ( s 2 + 10 s + 20 )
3rd order system
X (s)
xss = lim x ( t ) = lim sX ( s ) = lim s F (s) = 1
t →∞ s →0 s →0 F (s)
Mechatronics Example: I Controller
Integral Controller: Closed-loop step response
KI = 1
X (s) 1
= 3
F ( s ) s + 10 s 2 + 20 s + 1
The above plot shows that the integral controller eliminates the steady-
state error, and increases the settling time (Ts = 76.7 sec).
Mechatronics Change in gain in I controller
• Increase in gain:→ Upgrade only transient responses.

→ appear oscillatory response→ Reduce stability!
Mechatronics I controller with High gain
KI = 200
Mechatronics PI Controller
For PI control, the equation describing its action can be written as,
p ( t ) = p + K p e ( t ) + K I ∫ e ( t ) dt
where, Transfer function:

KI
G (s) = K p +
s
Effect of reducing the rise time (never eliminate

P the steady state error)
Effect of eliminating the steady state error (may
I make the transient response worse)
No offset error.
In this combination, one P and one I controller are connected in
parallel.
If properly designed, they combine the advantages of both
controller types (stability and rapidity; no steady-state error), so
that their disadvantages are compensated for at the same time.
Explain why integral controller is not usually used independently
rather it is generally used with proportional controller.
Dynamic Behavior of an PI Controller

Mechatronics Example: PI Controller
Proportional-Integral Controller
F(s)
KI 1 X(s)
Kp +
+ s s 2 + 10 s + 20
−

K p + KI / s
X (s) s 2
+ 10 s + 20 K p s + KI
= = 3
F (s) K p + KI / s s + 10 s 2 + ( 20 + K p ) s + K I
1+ 2
s + 10 s + 20
3rd order system
X (s)
t →∞ s →0 s →0 F (s)
Mechatronics Example: PI Controller
Proportional-Integral Controller: Closed-loop step response
Kp = 30
KI = 70
X (s) 30 s + 70
= 3
F ( s ) s + 10s 2 + 50 s + 70
The above plot shows that the PI controller eliminates the steady-state
error, reduces rise time and increases the overshoot.
Mechatronics Change in gain in PI
controller
• Increase in gain:→ Upgrade only transient response.

→ increase settling time slightly → increase oscillation & overshoot!
Mechatronics Derivative (D) Controller
For derivative control, the controller output is proportional to the

derivative of the error signal,
de ( t )
p (t ) = p + Kd
where: dt
K d = derivative controller gain (usually dimensionless)
[ p − p ] ( s ) = K d sE ( s )
Transfer function: G ( s ) = sK d
Derivative controllers generate the manipulated variable from the

rate of change of the error and not –as P controllers –from their
amplitudes.
These react much faster than P controllers: even if the error is
small, derivative controllers generate – by anticipation – large control
amplitudes as soon as a change in amplitude occurs.
A steady-state error signal, however, is not recognized by D
controllers, because regardless of how big the error, its rate of change
is zero.
Therefore, derivative-only controllers are rarely used in practice.
They are usually found in combination with other control elements,
mostly in combination with proportional control.
Dynamic Behavior of a D Controller

Mechatronics Example: D Controller
Derivative Controller
F(s)
1 X(s)
sK D
+ s 2 + 10 s + 20
−

sK D
X (s) s 2
+ 10 s + 20 sK D
= = 2
F ( s) 1+ sK D s + (10 + K D ) s + 20
s 2 + 10s + 20
X (s)
t →∞ s →0 s →0 F (s)
Mechatronics Example: D Controller
Derivative Controller: Closed-loop step response
KD = 10
X (s) 10 s
= 3
F ( s ) s + 20 s 2 + 20
The above plot shows that the derivative controller alone never
eliminates the steady-state error, rather makes it worse.
Mechatronics PD Controller
For PD control, the equation describing its action can be written as,
de ( t )
p (t ) = p + K pe (t ) + Kd
dt
G ( s ) = K p + sK d

Effect of increasing stability, reducing overshoot
D and improving transient response (no response
for steady state error)
• The control response for steady-state error in PD controllers is

just as it occurs in P controllers.
• Due to the immediate control action whenever there is a change
in the error signal, the control dynamics is faster than with P
controllers.
• Disadvantage: A change in set value will require an offset error.
Dynamic Behavior of an PD Controller

Mechatronics Example: PD Controller
Proportional-Derivative Controller
F(s)
1 X(s)
K p + sK D
+ s 2 + 10 s + 20
−

K p + sK D
X (s) s 2
+ 10 s + 20 K p + sK D
= = 2
F (s) K p + sK D s + (10 + K D ) s + 20 + K p
1+ 2
s + 10 s + 20
X (s) Kp
xss = lim x ( t ) = lim sX ( s ) = lim s F (s) =
t →∞ s →0 s →0 F (s) 20 + K p
Mechatronics Example: PD Controller
Proportional-Derivative Controller: Closed-loop step response
Kp = 300
KD = 10
X (s) 10 s + 300
= 2
F ( s ) s + 20 s + 320
The above plot shows that the PD controller reduces both overshoot
and settling time (Ts = 0.29 sec) and small change of steady-state error
for using P controller.
Mechatronics Change in gain in PD
controller
• Increase in gain:→ Upgrade only transient response.

→ Decrease rise time and overshoot → steady-state error remains!
Mechatronics PID Controller
For PID control, the equation describing its action can be written as,
de ( t )
p ( t ) = p + K p e ( t ) + K I ∫ e ( t ) dt + K d
dt
KI
G (s) = K p + + sK d
s
In the time domain:

de ( t )
p ( t ) − p = K p e ( t ) + K I ∫ e ( t ) dt + K d
dt
 1 de ( t ) 
= K p e ( t ) + ∫ e ( t ) dt + Td 
 Ti dt 
Kp
Integral time constant: Ti =
Ki
Kd
Derivative time constant: Td =
Kp
 1 
Transfer function: G ( s ) = K p 1 + + sTd 
 Ti s 

Effect of eliminating the steady state error (may
I make the transient response worse)
Effect of increasing stability, reducing overshoot
D and improving transient response (no response
for steady state error)
• It is also known as three-mode controller.
• No offset error.
• Tendency for oscillations is reduced.
• Requires proper tuning of PID parameters in accordance with
the system dynamics and response requirement.
• Tuning is inexpensive, but the implementation is time-
consuming.
Dynamic Behavior of an PID Controller

Mechatronics Example: PID Controller
Proportional-Derivative Controller
F(s)
KI 1 X(s)
Kp + + sK D
+ s s 2 + 10 s + 20
−

K p + K I / s + sK D
X (s) s 2
+ 10 s + 20 K D s 2
+ K ps + KI
= = 3
F (s) K p + K I / s + sK D s + (10 + K D ) s 2 + ( 20 + K p ) s + K I
1+
s 2 + 10s + 20
X (s)
t →∞ s →0 s →0 F (s)
Mechatronics Example: PID Controller
PID Controller: Closed-loop step response
Kp = 350
KD = 5500
KI = 300
X (s) 5500 s 2 + 350 s + 300
= 3
F ( s ) s + 5510s 2 + 370s + 300
The above plot shows that the PID controller results no overshoot, no
steady-state error and fast rise time.
Mechatronics Change in gain in PID
controller
Mechatronics Response Characteristics:
PID Controllers
Mechatronics Comparison: PID Controller
Mechatronics Tuning PID Controller
Ziegler–Nichols tuning rules
F(s)
 1  X(s)
+ K p 1 +
 Ts
+ sTd 

Plant
 i 
−
For determining values of the proportional gain Kp, integral time Ti

and derivative time Td on the transient response characteristics of
a given plant.
There are two methods called Ziegler–Nichols tuning rules: the

first method and the second method. Here the second method will
be discussed with example.
Mechatronics Example: Tuning PID Controller
F(s)
 1  1 X(s)
K p 1 + + sTd 
+  Ts
 i

 s ( s + 1)( s + 5 )
−
First set Ti = ∞ and Td = 0. We obtain the closed-loop transfer

function as
X (s) Kp
=
F ( s ) s ( s + 1)( s + 5 ) + K p
Characteristics Equation:
s ( s + 1)( s + 5 ) + K p = 0
s 3 + 6 s 2 + 5s + K P = 0

The value of Kp that makes the system marginally stable so that
sustained oscillation occurs can be obtained by use of Routh’s
stability criterion.
Sustained oscillation with period Pcr (is measured in sec.)


3 2
Characteristics Equation: s + 6 s + 5s + K P = 0
Routh Table
So K P = K cr = 30
Characteristics Equation: s 3 + 6s 2 + 5s + 30 = 0
Marginal stability: 6s 2 + 30 = 0 ⇒ s 2 + 5 = 0 ∴ s = ± j 5
Frequency of sustained oscillation is ω = 5 = 2.24 rad/sec


2π 2π
Period of sustained oscillation is Pcr = = = 2.8sec
ω 2.24
K p = 0.6 K cr = 0.6 × 30 = 18
Ti = 0.5Pcr = 0.5 × 2.8 = 1.4
Td = 0.125 Pcr = 0.125 × 2.8 = 0.35
Ziegler–Nichols tuning rules K p = 0.6 K cr = 0.6 × 30 = 18

Ti = 0.5Pcr = 0.5 × 2.8 = 1.4
Unit Response Curve
Td = 0.125 Pcr = 0.125 × 2.8 = 0.35
Ziegler–Nichols tuning rule has provided a starting point for fine

tuning.
K p = 18
Ti = 3.077
Td = 0.7692
Unit Response Curve

Ziegler–Nichols tuning rule has provided a starting point for fine

tuning.
K p = 39.42
Ti = 3.077
Td = 0.7692
Unit Response Curve

Mechatronics Conclusion
Increasing the proportional feedback gain reduces steady-

state errors, but high gains almost always destabilize the
system.
Integral control provides robust reduction in steady-state

errors, but often makes the system less stable.
Derivative control usually increases damping and improves

stability, but has almost no effect on the steady state error.
These 3 kinds of control combined from the classical PID

controller

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1

Control System Basics

Control System Basics

Control System Basics

Control System Basics

Control System Basics

Control System Basics

Control System Basics

Control System Basics

SISO Closed-loop Control System for Disk Drive

MIMO Closed-loop Control System

Control System Basics

Control System Basics

These systems are often governed by nonlinear differential

These include limit cycle theory, Poincaré maps, Lyapunov

Control System Basics

1. Frequency domain – In this type the values of the state variables,

Control System Basics

2. Time domain (state space) representation – In this type the

With this model, the system being analyzed is represented by one

Control System Basics

Question: Write different types of control modes/action.

Simplest version of a discontinuous controller.

Cheap and used in

Limited use in process One

In virtually any practical implementation, there is a neutral zone

Rapid switching occurs for

Two controller switch points

For the liquid-level control system in the following figure, write

For the liquid-level control system in the following figure, write

For the liquid-level control system in the following figure, write

Three different switching states.

In the field of control valve technology, three-position controllers

Describe proportional controller with its dynamic behavior.

In feedback control, the objective is to reduce the error signal to zero

For proportional control, the controller output is proportional to the error

Disadvantage: Always involves an offset in the output response

Dynamic Behavior of a P Controller

Some controllers have a proportional band setting instead of a

Disadvantage: Overshoot problem that arises when a proportional

Problem: Consider a proportional controller which is to be

5.0m 5.5m (close)

Suppose we have a simple spring-mass-damper system,

The mathematical model of this system is

Let, m = 1 kg, b = 10 Ns/m, k = 20 N/m, f = 1 N

By plugging these values in the transfer function:

Now, ωn = 20 = 4.47 and ( )

No Controller: Open-loop step response

The closed-loop transfer function for unit step input is given by

Proportional Controller: Closed-loop step response

ωn = 17.9 ζ = 0.28 < 1

>> g = tf([300],[1 10 320])

For integral control, the rate of change of the controller output is

Integral control action is used to fully correct system deviations at any

Dynamic Behavior of an I Controller

The closed-loop transfer function for unit step input is given by

Integral Controller: Closed-loop step response

• Increase in gain:→ Upgrade only transient responses.

where, Transfer function:

Effect of reducing the rise time (never eliminate

Dynamic Behavior of an PI Controller

The closed-loop transfer function for unit step input is given by

Proportional-Integral Controller: Closed-loop step response