Work function (ɸ0)

Metals have free electrons (valence

electrons ). To be freed from the metal,
they need some
minimum energy, called work function of
the metal. The work function of a metal
depends upon the type of the metal and
its temperature.

It is generally denoted by ɸ0
and measured in eV (electron volt).

One electron volt is the energy gained by

an
electron when it has been accelerated by
a potential difference of 1 volt, so that 1
eV = 1.602 ×10-19 J.

The minimum energy required for the

electron emission from the metal surface
can be supplied to the free electrons by
any one of the following physical
processes:
(i) Thermionic emission
(ii) Field emission
(iii) Photo-electric emission
(iv) secondary emission
Work function
A certain minimum amount of energy is
required to be given to an electron to pull
it out from the surface of the metal. This
minimum energy required by an electron
to escape from the metal surface is called
the work function of the metal.

Note from Table 11.1 that the work function of

platinum is the highest (5.65 eV) while it is the
lowest ( 2.14 eV) for caesium.
Electron emission

The minimum energy required for the electron

emission from the metal surface can be supplied
to the free electrons by any one of the following
physical processes:

(i) Thermionic emission: By suitably heating,

sufficient thermal energy can be imparted to the
free electrons to enable them to come out of the
metal. Such emission occurs in diode, triode and
TV tube ( Cathode ray tube ).

(ii) Field emission: By applying a very strong

electric field (of the order of 108 V m-1) to a metal,
electrons can be pulled out of the metal, as in a
spark plug.

(iii) Photo-electric emission: When light of

suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface,
electrons are emitted from the metal surface.
These photo(light)-generated electrons are called
photoelectrons. This method is called
photoelectric emission.
(iv) secondary emission: it occurs when fast
moving electrons ( high energy electrons,
called primary electrons) strike the metal
surface. They transfer their energy to the free
electrons of the metal. The so emitted
electrons are called secondary electrons.
Effect of intensity of light on
photocurrent

Keeping the frequency of the incident

radiation and the accelerating potential fixed

Photocurrent increases linearly with

intensity of incident light as shown
graphically in Fig. 11.2.

The photocurrent is directly proportional

to the number of photoelectrons emitted
per second. This implies that the number
of photoelectrons emitted per second is
directly proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation.
Effect of potential on photoelectric
current
Effect of frequency of incident
radiation on stopping potential
Different values of stopping potential but the
same value of the saturation current for
incident radiation of different frequencies

Stopping potentials are in the order V03 >

V02 > V01 if the frequencies are in the order
ν3 > ν2 > ν1 . This implies that greater the
frequency of incident light, greater is the
maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons.
Stopping potential
The graph shows that

i) the stopping potential V0 varies linearly with

the frequency of incident radiation for a given
photosensitive material.

(ii) there exists a certain minimum cut-off

frequency v0 for which the stopping potential
is zero.
These observations have two implications:

(i) The maximum kinetic energy of the

photoelectrons varies linearly with the
frequency of incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity.

(ii) For a frequency v of incident radiation,

lower than the cut-off frequency v0, no
photoelectric emission is possible even if
the intensity is large.

This minimum, cut-off frequency v0, is

called the threshold frequency.
Laws of photoelectric effect

(i) For a given photosensitive material and

frequency of incident radiation (above the
threshold frequency), the photoelectric
current is directly proportional to the
intensity of incident light (Fig. 11.2).

(ii) For a given photosensitive material

and frequency of incident radiation,
saturation current is found to be
proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation whereas the stopping potential is
independent of
its intensity (Fig. 11.3).

(iii) For a given photosensitive material,

there exists a certain minimum cut-off
frequency of the incident radiation, called
the threshold frequency, below which no
emission of photoelectrons takes place, no
matter how intense the incident light is.
Above the threshold frequency, the
stopping potential or equivalently the
maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons increases linearly with the
frequency of the incident radiation, but is
independent of its intensity (Fig. 11.5).
(iv) The photoelectric emission is an
instantaneous process without any
apparent time lag (∼10-9 s or less), even
when the incident radiation is made
exceedingly dim.
Wave theory fails to explain the characteristics of
photoelectric effect.

( 1 ) According to the wave theory, energy and intensity of

light wave depend on its amplitude. Hence energy of photo-
electrons should increase with intensity of light. But
experimental results indicate that the energy of photo-
electrons does not depend upon
the intensity of light.

( 2 ) According to the wave theory, energy of light has no

relation with its frequency. Hence, change in energy of
photo-electrons with the change in frequency cannot be
explained.

( 3 ) Photo-electrons are emitted spontaneously. This cannot

be explained by wave theory. Free electron in a metal is
emitted only when it gets certain minimum energy called
“work function” ( φ ) of the metal. If the light has wave
nature, free electron in metal may get energy gradually and
some time elapses before it gets energy equal to its work
function and gets emitted. This is in contradiction to the
spontaneous emission.

( 4 ) With less intense light, the emission of electrons will be

slower as per the wave theory. But with light of sufficiently
high frequency, emission of photo-electrons is immediate
even if its intensity is low.
Davission and Germier Experiment
The intensity of electron beam scattered at different angles
of scattering can be measured for the given accelerating
voltage.
Angle of scattering ( θ ) is the angle between the incident
beam and scattered beam of electrons. The graph in polar
coordinates of intensity → θ for the observations taken by
Davisson and Germer between 44 V and 68 V are shown
qualitatively in the figure given below.
The graphs indicate angle at which maximum scattering
occurs for a given voltage. It is 50° for 54 V.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

If the uncertainty in the x-coordinate of the position of a

particle is ∆ x and uncertainty in the x-component of
its momentum is ∆ p, then

∆ x . ∆ p ≈ h / 2π

∴ ∆ x→0⇒ ∆ p→∞

and ∆ p → 0 ⇒ ∆ x→∞
Einstein’s photoelectric equation
Einstein described the photoelectric effect
as a consequence of conservation of energy
as

hv = W0 + (KE)max

Here v is the frequency of incident radiation

And W0 is called work function.
The value of work function is constant for a
particular material and is different for
different materials.
Work Function
○ It is the minimum amount of energy
required to eject an electron from the
surface of the metal.
○ It is related to the threshold frequency v0
as
W0 = hv0

It follows that when v=v0 the kinetic

energy of photoelectrons will be zero.
○ Work function is inversely proportional to
the stopping potential
○ Work function varies from metal to
metal.
○ When temperature of metal increases,
work function decreases.

Intensity of light
○ The intensity of incident light depends
upon the no. Of photons present in it.
○ It doesn’t depend on the frequency of
incident light.

Kinetic energy of photoelectrons

○ It depends on the frequency of incident
light as
hv = W0 + (KE)max
or(KE)max = hv - W0
i.e (KE)max ∞ hv
○ It does not depend upon intensity of
incident radiation.
Number of photoelectrons emitted
○ Depends upon the intensity of incident
light
○ Independent of the frequency of the
incident light, provided v >v0
 The Photoelectric Effect
The remarkable aspects of
the photoelectric effect
when it was first observed
were:
1. The electrons were
emitted immediately -
no time lag!
2. Increasing the
intensity of the light
increased the number
of photoelectrons, but
not their maximum
kinetic energy!
3. Red light will not
cause the ejection of
electrons, no matter
The details of the photoelectric what the intensity!
effect were in direct contradiction
4. A weak violet light
to the expectations of very well
will eject only a few
developed classical physics.
electrons, but their
maximum kinetic
energies are greater
than those for intense
light of longer
wavelengths!
 Wave-Particle Duality: Light

Can be explained
Can be explained
Phenomenon in terms of
in terms of waves.
particles.

Reflection

Refraction

Interference

Diffraction

Polarization

Photoelectric
effect
suggested a particle nature for light. Then electrons too
were found to exhibit dual natures.
 DeBroglie Hypothesis
Starting with the Einstein formula:

Another way of expressing this is

Therefore, for a particle of

zero rest mass

For a
photon:

The momentum-wavelength
relationship for a photon can then be
derived and this DeBroglie wavelength
relationship applies to other particles as
well.
 Failures of Classical Physics
Some experimental situations where "classical"
physics fails:
Photoelectric
Blackbody radiation
effect
Physiological effects of
Line spectra
radiation
Wave properties of electron (electron
microscope)
Davisson-Germer Experiment
Davisson-Germer Experiment
 DeBroglie Wavelengths

The Davisson-Germer
experiment showed that
electrons exhibit the
DeBroglie wavelength given
by:
DeBroglie
Wavelengths
Photon Energies for EM Spectrum
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Spectral Colors
Examples of Electron Waves
Wave Nature of Electron