6th International Renewable Energy Storage (28.-30.11.

2010) Berlin

On Vacuum-Insulated Thermal Storage

Benjamin Fuchs1,2, Klaus Hofbeck1

1
Georg-Simon-Ohm University of Applied Sciences, Kesslerplatz 12, 90489 Nuremberg, Germany,
Phone: +49-911-5880-1852, Fax: +49-911-5880-5800, e-mail: benjamin.fuchs@ohm-hochschule.de
2
Institute of Resource and Energy Technology, Technical University, Munich, Germany

1. Introduction
Nowadays, the insulation for thermal energy storage (TES) is not as good as it should be. One
reason for this is the higher investment cost for better insulation. Nevertheless, most of the
recent studies show that the thermal losses of long-term storage have been underestimated [1].
Therefore, recent research studies have focused on vacuum-insulated thermal storage. There are
two common concepts with regard to the use of vacuum insulation for thermal storage. On the
one hand, the Center for Applied Energy Research (ZAE) in Munich uses an evacuated double
vessel filled with pearlite [9]. On the other hand, the Ohm University uses vacuum insulation
panels (VIP) [2]. Both the insulation concepts are based on the Knudsen effect. Thus, the
thermal conductivity is lowered by a factor of 6–10, when compared with the conventional
insulation materials, such as EPS, XPS, or mineral wool. Both the concepts are adoptions of the
existing insulation applications. The filled double vessel tank is already being used for
cryogenic storage for liquid gases. Furthermore, VIPs are being used to insulate passive houses.
However, the use of vacuum insulation for thermal energy storage causes different problems
due to higher temperatures and moisture. Nevertheless, vacuum insulations are a promising
solution for small thermal long-term storage. This study presents the first state-of-the-art review
on vacuum-insulated thermal tanks.

2. Vacuum Insulations
The physics of heat transfer through insulation materials is well known. According to Schwab
[7], the overall heat transfer can be divided into three major processes:

λov = λr + λs + λg (+λcoupling ) (1.1)

where λov is the total heat transfer, λr is the heat transfer via radiation, λs is the heat transfer
through the solid of the core, and λg is the heat transfer due to gas conductivity.
 6th International Renewable Energy Storage (28.-30.11.2010) Berlin

As proposed by Sir James Dewar (1892), the lowest heat transfer via gas conductivity can be
achieved by a perfect vacuum. Therefore, a vacuum can reduce the thermal conductivity of most
of the traditional insulation materials [3]. However, according to kinetic gas theory, the thermal
gas conductivity is independent of gas pressure. Rath [4] explained that the number of gas
molecules, and thus the number of collisions within the unrestricted gas, is directly proportional
to the pressure, while the amount of energy transferred per collision between the molecules is
inversely proportional. Thus, both the effects cancel each other out [5]. According to Kennard
[6] and Baetens [3], gas conductivity in porous materials can be described as:
λg ,0
λg = (1.2)
1 + 2β K n
with

mfp
Kn = (1.3)
δ
and

k BT
mfp = (1.4)
2π d g2 pg

where Kn is the Knudsen number, δ is the characteristic size of pores, mfp is the mean free path,
β is a constant between 1.5 and 2.0 characterizing the efficiency of energy transfer when the gas
molecules hit the solid structure [3], kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature,
dg is the diameter of the gas molecules, and pg is the gas pressure. According to Schwab [7], the
heat transfer through gas can be described with three equations based on the Knudsen number.
For Knudsen numbers less than 1 (Kn<<1), the major heat transfer is caused by molecule–
molecule collisions, and for those greater than 1 (Kn>>1), the major heat transfer is caused by
elastic molecule–boundaries collisions. In the transition zone (Kn~1), where the mean free path
is in the same order as the pore diameter, the gas conductivity can be written as:

λg ,0
λg = (1.5)
p1/2 g
1+
pg

Further equations for the median pressure p1/2g and pg,0 can be found in [7]. The theoretic
thermal conductivity and the conductivity of insulation materials are presented in Figure 1.
 6th International Renewable Energy Storage (28.-30.11.2010) Berlin

Figure 1 The thermal conductivity of air, λ, is a function of the gas pressure pg. The smaller the pore diameter is, the
higher will be the pressure to achieve certain thermal conductivity. Fumed silica, as used in VIP, has a pore diameter
of 200 nm [7], and perlite, as used in the ZAE tank, has a grain size of up to 2 mm [8]; pore size diameters of 0.1 mm
can also be found. (redrawn from [3, 5, 9])

3. Vacuum Super Insulated Storage

outer vessel Currently, ZAE is researching on vacuum-insulated

inner vessel filled hot water storage. This concept uses the technique of
with liquid gas
vacuum super insulations (VSI) with expanded perlite.

annular gap, filled

The perlite is filled into the gap between two
with evacuated perlite
cylindrical tanks. To achieve Knudsen effect, the gap
has to be evacuated to 0.01 mbar [9]. Till date, this

Figure 2 Schematic sketch of a typical

kind of insulation is used for liquid gas tanks at
cryogenic storage for liquid gases (redrawn temperatures between 20 and 90 K [9] (see Figure 2).
from [9])
A further theoretical study was done by Altenburger
[10] with other opaque materials. Beikircher presented, on the one hand, the results of
laboratory experiments and, on the other hand, the experimental results of a 16.4-m³ prototype.
 6th International Renewable Energy Storage (28.-30.11.2010) Berlin

The ZAE measured the thermal gas conductivity of evacuated perlite at different temperatures
(20–150 °C), vacuum pressures (0.001–1000 mbar), densities (55–95 kg/m³), and grain
structures. The pressure-dependency gas conductivity of the evacuated perlite with a density of
55 kg/m³ is shown in Figure 1. Additional experiments measuring the heat transfer through
radiation using the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy have been carried out.
Further information about the methods and results can be found in [9] and [11].
Besides the laboratory experiments, the ZAE also built a real prototype. Together with the
Hummelsberger GmbH, a 16.4-m³ storage with a diameter of 2.4 m and a 20-cm thick gap
between both the vessels was installed in December 2010. The net volume of the tank was 15.5
m³ with a height of 5 m and a diameter of 2 m [11]. The gap was filled with perlite with a
density of 92.4 kg/m³ and was evacuated to a pressure of 0.08 mbar. To measure the thermal
losses, the tank was filled with hot water of 86.5°C and the cooling rate was determined over a
total interval of 10 days. Beikircher found a cooling rate, including pipe losses and thermal
bridges, of 0.23/K/day. This cooling rate corresponds to an effective thermal conductivity of
10.1±1 mW/(m·K) [11]. Therefore, the effective u-value is 0.05 W/(m²·K).

4. Vacuum Insulation Panel storage

VIP Since March 2009, the OHM University of Applied

Science is researching on vacuum-insulated thermal
tanks. As opposed to the ZAE, the storage uses VIPs for
insulation. VIPs are well known in building insulation
concret
for passive houses [12]. For this storage concept, VIPs
with fumed silica with a pressure of 1–3 mbar is used
Figure 3 Schematic sketch of a thermal (see Figure 1). Instead of using a steel tank, this concept
storage with VIP. The tank is designed with
an inner octagon. [2] employs a concrete tank. The insulation is installed on
the inner wall (see Figure 3) Theoretical analysis led to an effective thermal conductivity
between 5.7 and 6.0 mW/(m·K), without pipe losses, but with thermal bridges. The effective
thermal conductivity was found to be oblique to the linear thermal bridges [13, 14]. Therefore,
the u-value could vary between 0.05 and 0.10 W/(m²·K). Experiments calculating the real
cooling rate of two prototypes with a volume of 100 and 10 m³ will be operated in the following
months.
 6th International Renewable Energy Storage (28.-30.11.2010) Berlin

5. Discussion
Nowadays, thermal long-term storing is almost exclusively involved with huge thermal
storages. Ochs had summarized the state-of-the-art modeling of large-scale thermal energy
stores [15]. In Europe, stores with volumes up to 20.000 m³ have been analyzed. The motivation
to build such huge thermal stores is the surface–volume ratio (see Figure 4). Owing to smaller
surfaces, energy losses of huge tanks are reduced. As shown in Figure 4, the specific surface of
a 100-m³ storage, when compared with a 10,000-m³ storage, is about four times higher, and
when compared with a 10-m³ storage, the surface–volume ratio is about eight times higher.
Ochs found u-values between 0.124 and 0.34 W/(m²·K) for long-term storages of 300–12.000
m³. Therefore, tanks with a volume of 10 and 100 m³ should have at least a u-value of 0.05 and
0.01 W/(m²·K), respectively, to achieve the same specific heat losses per cubic meter. This
rough calculation shows that there is a need of high-performance insulations for small thermal
stores. As mentioned earlier, both the concepts are able to improve the insulation of small
thermal storages. This leads to the possibility of long-term usage of small thermal storage.

Figure 4 Surface–volume ratio of optimized cylindrical tanks

Nevertheless, vacuum insulations are expensive. As shown in Figure 5, the specific investment
cost per square meter and thermal resistance for conventional insulations in the solar thermal
market is about 40 (€/m²)·(W/m²K), i.e., an investment of 400 €/m² for a u-value of 0.1 W/m²K.
Furthermore, the investment cost for VIPs with a u-value of 0.1 W/m²K is about 200 €/m² [16].
 6th International Renewable Energy Storage (28.-30.11.2010) Berlin

Therefore, vacuum insulations are quite cheap for high insulated thermal stores. One reason for
this is the usage of planar VIPs in the OHM concept, instead of using expansive radial
insulations. Also, the ZAE concept can achieve investment costs, which are mainly caused by
the second steel vessel and perlite, in this order. Further improvements in the thermal
conductivity performance and further costs reductions are in par for the course. Another
disadvantage, especially for the VIPs, is the higher temperature, when compared with the
present applications. The higher temperature causes higher rates of water vapor diffusion [17].
However, the assignment of high-performance laminates [18] over and above thicker materials
can lengthen the service lifetime of VIPs under high temperatures and high humidity. In both
the concepts, moisture content plays an important role regarding the thermal conductivity and
service lifetime [7, 11].

Figure 5 Specific investment cost for thermal insulations in the solar thermal market [19–22]

6. Conclusion
This first review shows the potential of vacuum insulation materials in the field of thermal
storage. Till date, two basic concepts have been developed that use vacuum insulations for hot
water tanks. The first concept employs vacuum super insulations, as applied in liquid gaseous
tanks. The second concept uses vacuum insulation panels, as applied in the insulation of passive
houses. Both the concepts are promising in significantly reducing the thermal losses of small
thermal stores.

7. Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the Bavarian Ministry of Science, Research and Art, as well as
Max Bögl, Variotec, Sailer, and the Institute for Energy and Buildings (Nuremberg).
 6th International Renewable Energy Storage (28.-30.11.2010) Berlin

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