1-Day Short Course on “Rainfall-

induced Slope Failures: Analyses,

Monitoring & Preventive Measures”

Shear Strength and Slope Stability

Analyses under Rainfall Loading

Organized by:
Geotechnical Engineering Technical Division,
The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia
Four Points by Sheraton Puchong, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia – March 5, 2019
Harianto Rahardjo
PhD, MSc, PEng
Professor
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering

50 Nanyang Avenue, North Spine, Block N1-01b-36, Singapore 639798

Tel: +65 6790 5246 Fax: +65 6791 0676
E-mail: chrahardjo@ntu.edu.sg www.ntu.edu.sg/CEE
A School of the College of Engineering
Shear Strength of Soils
 Stress in Soils

• Total stress - s
• Pore-air pressure - ua
• Pore-water pressure - uw

4
 Stress in Soils

• Total stress – s
P
σ = =  hi γi 2
units : kN/m , kPa
A
• Pore-air pressure - ua
ua = atmospheric pressure = 0 kPa

• Pore-water pressure - uw
uw = hwρw g = hw γ w units : kPa
5
 Stress in Soils
1m

2m 5m
Sand σ A =  hi γ i
g = 15 kN/m3
= (3 )(15) + (2)(17)
4m
A Silt
= 45 + 34
g = 17 kN/m3 = 79 kPa

u wA = h w γ w
Stiff Clay = (4 )(10)
g = 19 kN/m3 = 40 kPa
CV2302-LEC 6
 Stress in Soils
1m

σ B =  hi γ i
Sand
2m g = 15 kN/m3

= (3)(15) + (4 )(17) + (3)(19)

4m
10 m Silt = 45 + 68 + 57
g = 17 kN/m3
= 170 kPa
u wB = h w γ w
= (9 )(10)
B Stiff Clay
g = 19 kN/m3
= 90 kPa
CV2302-LEC 7
 Stress in Soils
1m
Sand
2m g = 15 kN/m3 Standpipe
or
4m
Silt
piezometer
10 m
g = 17 kN/m3

B Stiff Clay
g = 19 kN/m3

CV2302-LEC 8
Effective Stress Principles
 Effective Stress

s '= s − u
effective total pore water
stress stress pressure

It is the effective stress that controls

certain aspects of soil behaviour notably,
the strength and deformation of soil.

10
 Effective Stress
1m
Sand
2m 5m g = 15 kN/m3
σ A = 79 kPa
4m u wA = 40 kPa
A Silt
g = 17 kN/m3 σ' A = 79 − 40
= 39 kPa

Stiff Clay
g = 19 kN/m3

CV2302-LEC 11
 Effective Stress
1m
Sand
2m g = 15 kN/m3

σ B = 170 kPa
4m
10 m Silt uwB = 90 kPa
g = 17 kN/m3
σ'B = 170 − 90 = 80 kPa

B Stiff Clay
g = 19 kN/m3

CV2302-LEC 12
 Shear Strength of Soils

 = c + s nf tan 

c
sn
13
 Shear Strength of Soils

 = c'+(s nf − u )tan  '

’

c'
sn
14
 Lab Test for Shear Strength

•Laboratory Tests
•Direct Shear Test
•Triaxial Tests – UC, UU, CU, CD

15
 Lab Test for Shear Strength

➢ Tests should be conducted over

stress range that the soil is expected
to experience.

16
Lab Test for Shear Strength
Direct Shear Test

17
 Lab Test for Shear Strength

Direct Shear Test N

N sn =
A

S
=
A
S

18
 Lab Test for Shear Strength

Direct Shear Test

s’


direct

19
 Lab Test for Shear Strength

Direct Shear Test



f3
f
f2 tan  =
sn
f1

c=0 sn1 sn2 sn3 s

20
 Lab Test for Shear Strength

Triaxial Test
s1

s2
s3

21
 Lab Test for Shear Strength
Triaxial Test

s1 – s3

s2 = s3

22
 Lab Test for Shear Strength

Triaxial Test – Unconfined compression

s1 – s 3 = s1
s2 = s3= 0

23
 Lab Test for Shear Strength

Triaxial Test – Unconfined compression

 s1 – s3 = s1= qu
s2 = s3= 0
cu
qu
cu =
2
s3=0 qu s
24
 Lab Test for Shear Strength

Triaxial Test
Test consists of 2
stages:

1.Unconsolidated
or Consolidated
2.Undrained or
Drained

25
 Lab Test for Shear Strength

Triaxial Test - UU

'

cu

c’=0 s3f' s3 s ' s1 s

1f

26
 Lab Test for Shear Strength
Triaxial Test - CU
150

100
 (kPa)

Du
50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
For NC clay, c'  0 kPa s' (kPa)

27
 Lab Test for Shear Strength

Triaxial Test - CD

'

c’=0 s3f' s1f' s'

28
 Drained and Undrained

Governed by:

Rate of loading versus Rate of pore-water pressure dissipation

Rate of loading <<< Rate of pore-water pressure dissipation

Drained condition (e.g., ks> 10-6 m/s)

Rate of loading >>> Rate of pore-water pressure dissipation

Undrained condition (e.g., ks< 10-8 m/s)

Reference: TR 26 : 2010 (2013) “Technical Reference for deep

excavation.”
29
First textbook on Unsaturated Soil Mechanics.
Published by John Wiley in 1993,
translated into Chinese in 1997 30
Vol 1 Vol 2
Translated into Vietnamese
in 1998 and 2000 31
Spanish Translation 32
Japanese Translation 33
Second Textbook on Unsaturated Soil Mechanics.
Published by John Wiley in 2012 34
 A Digital Project, Unsaturated
Soil Mechanics for Sustainable
Urban Living in Singapore, is
now Live!

www.ntu.edu.sg/library/unsaturatedsoil
Natural Condition of Unsaturated Soils –
Soils above Ground Water Table

Subdivisions of unsaturated
soil zone (vadose zone) on
37
local and regional basis.
37
Illustration of The Vadose Zone in Soil Layer
(Modified from Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993)

38
 Water Contents in an Unsaturated Soil?
Equilibrium Equilibrium
negative pore- negative pore- Water content
water pressure water pressure or degree of
Ground surface line
Ground surface line Water content
saturation Water content
Permeability

Cracked, fissured zone

Cracked, fissured zone Dry zone Dry zone

Soil-Water Permeability
Vadose or Vadose
Unsaturated
or Vadose or Soil-water
Characteristic Soil-water
Permeability
Two-phase zone Two-phase zone function
unsaturated
Soil Zone soil zone
unsaturated soil zone characteristic
Curve, SWCC characteristic
function
curve, SWCC curve, SWCC

AEV
Capillary zone Capillary zone decrease
Phreatic surface Phreatic surface
S% -13 kw(m/s)
0% 010
100 % % ks
100 %

39
Relationship between SWCC and Permeability
Function and Shear Strength

40
Man made Unsaturated Soils - Compacted Soil

41
Standard and Modified Proctor Compaction
Curves for Crosby B Till

42
Separation of Saturated and Unsaturated Soil
Mechanics

UNSATURATED SOIL MECHANICS

Negative pore-water pressure

Net normal stress (s - ua) ( ua - uw) Matric suction

Water table

Effective stress (s - uw)

Positive pore-water pressure

SATURATED SOIL MECHANICS

43
 Theory of Unsaturated Shear Strength

• The theory of shear strength for unsaturated soils can

be viewed as an extension of theories used for
describing saturated shear strength
• The Mohr-Coulomb (Mohr, 1914) can be extended to
embrace a shear strength component related to soil
suction; as such it is called the “extended Mohr-
Coulomb” shear strength theory
• Other failure theories could also be extended to
embrace unsaturated soil behavior
• Terzaghi (1936) presented the Mohr-Coulomb shear
strength theory in terms of effective stresses, (s – uw)
for a saturated soil

44
 Shear Strength for Saturated Soils

 = c'+(s f − u ) tan  '

ff w f

where:

45
 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope

Saturated Soil

Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for saturated soil

46
 Shear Strength

Saturated soil:

 = c + (s − uw ) tan  

Unsaturated soil:

 = c + ua − uw tan  + (s − ua ) tan  
 ( ) b

c = c + (u a − u w ) tan 
 b

47
 Linear Shear Strength Envelope

 = c'+(s f − u ) tan  '+(u − u ) tan 

ff a f a w f
b

48
 Linear Shear Strength Envelope

 = c'+(s f − u ) tan  '+(u − u ) tan 

ff a f a w f
b

Remainder of variables defined

49
 Extended Mohr-Coulomb Failure

Extended Mohr-Coulomb failure surface depicted in terms of

independent stress state variables (Fredlund et al., 1978)50
 Measurement of Shear Strength
• Both direct shear and triaxial testing equipment can be
used to measure the shear strength of unsaturated soils
• Each apparatus used for testing unsaturated shear
strength properties must be modified to have a high air
entry disk installed in the pedestal of the apparatus
• The high air entry disks allow the separation of the air
and water pressures that are either applied to the soil
specimen or measured in the soil specimen
• A number of stress paths can be used for testing the
unsaturated soils; each stress path bears a semblance
to the stress paths commonly used for saturated soil
testing

51
Extended Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope for
Unsaturated Soil

52
Triaxial Cell for Unsaturated Soil Testing

53
Triaxial Cell for Unsaturated Soil Testing

54
Deviator stress versus axial strain curve for residual soil from the
sedimentary Jurong formation obtained from multistage CD triaxial tests
at constant net confining pressure and various matric suctions

55
Interpretation of angle of internal friction with respect to matric suction,
b, from the results of multistage triaxial tests at a constant net confining
pressure
56
Cohesion intercept at  versus (ua−uw) plane (where (s−ua) = 0) for fine
grained residual soils from the Jurong sedimentary formation

57
 Experimental
Values
Measured for b

58

58
 Experimental Values Measured for b of Residual
Soils in Singapore
Location Formation c’ (kPa) ’ (o) b (o)
Bukit Merah JF 5 30 22
Jalan Kukoh JF 15 33 25
Havelock Road JF 14 34 15
Depot Road JF 12 35 20
Ang Mo Kio BTG 8 30 18
Thomson Road BTG 15 33 25
Marsiling Road BTG 9 30 21
Bukit Batok BTG 12 37 28
Joo Seng Road OA 8 35 21
Bedok OA 3 34 26
Tampines OA 5 37 20
Note: JF = Jurong Formation; BTG = Bukit Timah Granite; OA = Old Alluvium

59
 Direct Shear Tests

• Direct shear tests have the advantage of a

reduced length of drainage path for testing
unsaturated soils
• It is more difficult to modify a direct shear
apparatus because the shear box must be
enclosed
• It is only possible to perform drained type shear
tests in the direct shear apparatus

60
Direct shear for testing unsaturated soils 61
Cross-sectional view of the shear box and the pressure chamber
62
 Line of Intercepts along Failure Plane

63
Line of intercepts along failure plane on τ versus ua – uw plane
63
 Two Components of Cohesion

c = c'+(ua − uw )f tan  b

64
Shear Strength with Two Components of Cohesion

 = c + (s f − u ) tan  '
ff a f

total cohesion = effective cohesion intercept + suction component

Reduces shear strength equation to two components: one

frictional and the other cohesive

65
 Horizontal Projection of Failure Envelope

Horizontal projection of failure envelope onto τ versus ua – uw

plane viewed parallel to σ – ua66axis as contour lines of failure
envelope on τ versus ua – uw plane 66
 10% 40% 80% 100%
-gwh2

h2

h1

gwh1

67
Equivalent increase in cohesion for various matric
suction profiles for the residual soil from Jurong
Formation and Bukit Timah Granite

Residual soil from Jurong Formation (b=18)

Residual soil from Bukit Timah Granite (b=18)
68
Equivalent increase in cohesion for various matric
suction profiles for the residual soil from Old
Alluvium

Residual soil from Old Alluvium (b=21)

69
Soil-water Characteristic Curve
(Fredlund, 2005)
 Tempe Pressure Cell for SWCC test

• Saturation for both high air-entry disk

and specimen prior to the test

• Increasing matric suctions applied in

the range of 0.1-100 kPa. Air pressure
control system

• Tempe cell was weighed at specific

time interval

• SWCC obtained was based on the

Axis-translation technique (maintain
Tempe Cell
uw at atmospheric pressure, i.e. uw=0),
(Hilf, 1956)
Pressure Plate Apparatus for Drying SWCC test

ua ua
ua
Uw=0

Air-entry value of disk = 15 bar

HYPROP (Evaporation method) as Alternative SWCC
test up to 100 kPa

(b) Soil specimen

inside HYPROP

Software for
real-time Electronic
monitoring balance
 HYPROP (Evaporation method)

Drying / evaporation

uw (-)

Soil

uw (-)
Bottom of HYPROP
Small-Scale Centrifuge as Alternative Drying SWCC
test up to 250 kPa

(b)
Soil
specimen
inside a
steel ring

Mould

Steel
rods Specimen
holder
WP4C (Dew point method) for drying SWCC test
(500 kPa – 200,000 kPa)

(a)
 Plotting Data of SWCC Test

25.00
Matric Suction
Water volume change (cm3)

20.00 5 kPa
10 kPa
15.00 20 kPa
50 kPa
10.00 100 kPa
200 kPa
5.00
400 kPa

0.00
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00
Elapsed time (hours)
 Best Fitting of SWCC Laboratory Data

100
Degree of saturation, S r(%)

Matric suction at
80 inflection point
Air-entry value = = 35 kPa
7 kPa
60
Fredlund & Xing
40 parameters Residual
a = 36 suction = 200
n = 1.05 kPa
20 m = 2.45
r = 1500
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Matric Suction (kPa)
Fredlund – Xing Equation (1994) for Best Fitting
SWCC Laboratory Data

where:
 = volumetric water content corresponding to a selected matric
suction
s = saturated volumetric water content
 = matric suction (kPa)
a, n, m= three fitting parameters
r = fitting parameter related to residual suction
e = irrational constant equal to 2.71828
 Statistical Model

• Determine the permeability function using the soil-

water characteristic curve.

• Based on the fact that the permeability function and

the soil-water characteristic curve are primarily
determined by the pore-size distribution of the soil.
 0.60
Commencement

Volumetric water content, w

of desaturation
Commencement
Relationship 0.50 of desaturation
for a sand
for a silty clay

between SWCC 0.40

and 0.30

Permeability 0.20

Functions 0.10 Soil-water characteristic curves

0.00
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
Matric suction, (ua-uw) (kPa)

Coefficient of permeability, kw (m/s)

1e-1
1e-2
1e-3
1e-4
1e-5
1e-6
1e-7
1e-8
Permeability functions
1e-9
1e-10
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
Matric suction, (ua-uw) (kPa)
Indirect Methods to Compute Water Coefficient of
Permeability

• Computation of kw using the soil-water characteristic

curve
➢ The permeability function, kw(θw),

where:
kw(θw)i = predicted water coefficient of permeability for a
volumetric water content, (θw)i, corresponding to the ith interval
(m/s)
 SWCC of Compacted Soil
(50%sand-50%kaolin)
0.5
Laboratory Data
Best fitted using Fredlund and Xing(1994)
Volumetric water content, w

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
10-1 100 101 102 103 104
Suction, (kPa)
 Permeability Function of Compacted Soil
(50%sand-50%kaolin)

1e-6
Coeficient of permeability, kw (m/s)

Indirect measurement (statistical model)

Direct measurement (triaxial permeameter)
1e-7

1e-8

1e-9

1e-10

1e-11
10-1 100 101 102 103 104
Suction, (kPa)
Triaxial Permeameter for Direct Measurement of
Unsaturated Permeability

Low uw
Soil

High uw
 Unsaturated Permeability Tests

Unsaturated permeability test is carried out upon

equalization of water volume at certain matric suction
Slope Stability Analyses
under Rainfall Loading
Open Cut with Gentle Slope

8
Open Cut with Steep Slope (Almost
Vertical Cut)

8
 Po Shan Road Landslide in Hongkong

The landslide demolished a 12-storey building

on 18 June 1972 9
Landslide at Bukit Antarabangsa, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia on 6 December 2008

91
Slope Failure at Bukit Batok, Singapore (2006)

92
Rainfall-induced Slope Failure

93
 Water Contents in an Unsaturated Soil?
Equilibrium Equilibrium
negative pore- negative pore- Water content
water pressure water pressure or degree of
Ground surface line
Ground surface line Water content
saturation Water content
Permeability

Cracked, fissured zone

Cracked, fissured zone Dry zone Dry zone

Soil-Water Permeability
Vadose or Vadose
Unsaturated
or Vadose or Soil-water
Characteristic Soil-water
Permeability
Two-phase zone Two-phase zone function
unsaturated
Soil Zone soil zone
unsaturated soil zone characteristic
Curve, SWCC characteristic
function
curve, SWCC curve, SWCC

AEV
Capillary zone Capillary zone decrease
Phreatic surface Phreatic surface
S% -13 kw(m/s)
0% 010
100 % % ks
100 %

94
 Ground Surface Moisture Flux

Evaporative fluxes
Evaporative fluxes Precipitation fluxes
Precipitation

Actual Rainfall and snowfall

evaporation Evapo-transpiration

Bare ground Vegetative surface

Runoff

Net moisture loss Net infiltration or

percolation
Negative pore- Vadose or Unsaturated Soil
water pressures
Zone
Water table

95
 Slope Stability

• Basic assumptions used in limit equilibrium methods of

analysis in saturated soils can readily be extended to
cases where the soil is unsaturated
• Negative pore-water pressures in the zone above the
water table have often been set to zero for ease of
analysis and the perception of conservatism
• However, it is important to be able to quantify the
significance of negative pore-water pressure on the
calculated factor of safety
• Various limit equilibrium methods of analysis can be
extended to accommodate unsaturated soil behavior

96
Steep Slope with Deep Groundwater Table

97

97
 Forces Acting on One Slice

Forces acting on one slice 98of a sliding mass with a

composite slip surface 98
Quantification of Shear Force Mobilized
Using shear strength failure criterion for
saturated and unsaturated soils

99
Total and Pore-Water Pressures on Base of Slice

Acting total and pore-water stresses at the base of a slice

100
Shearing Resistance at Base of Slice

Shearing resistance at the base of a slice

101
Shear Force Mobilized as Two Components

The reduction of shear strength to two components

means the slope stability charts can be used for the
analysis of simple slopes with constant matric suction

102
 Application of Slope Stability Analyses

• There are several ways in which unsaturated soil shear

strength can be taken into consideration in an analysis
• The best procedure is to modify the slope stability computer
code such that the shear strength equation for unsaturated
soils can be accommodated
• The negative pore-water pressures should be input and it
should also be possible to consider changes in pore-air
pressure
• It is possible to subdivide the unsaturated soil portion of the
soil profile and change cohesion in a manner that considers
cohesion due to matric suction
• Nonlinearity of the unsaturated shear strength envelope
should also be incorporated into the computer code
10
 Total Cohesion Method: using Uniform Total
Cohesion
Assume the pore-water
pressure follows hydrostatic,
-gh below ground water table
h (GWT) has positive pore-water
c’, ’ pressure (PWP) while above
the GWT has negative PWP
H

gH
To simplify the problem,
consider soil above GWT to
have same c and ’ with the
conversion of c=c’+ghtanb.
( )
c = c' + u a − u w tan 
b

c, ’

10
 Total Cohesion Method: using Uniform Total
Cohesion for Slope Stability Analysis
O

c, ’
 (sn-ua)
( )
c = c' + u a − u w tan 
b
=c+(sn-ua)tan’
=c’+ ghtanb +(sn-ua)tan’

When running the slope stability analysis, take one slice, the normal
stress on the base of the slice is sn, then based on Mohr–Coulomb failure
envelop, the shear resistance  on the base of this slice is:  = c+(sn-
ua)tan’.
It is noted that c= c’+ghtanb, then  = c’+ ghtanb +(sn-ua)tan’.
Higher  results in higher factor of safety (FoS), therefore, the FoS
computed using principle of unsaturated soil mechanics is higher than
that computed using classic saturated soil mechanics.
10
 Total Cohesion Method: using Layering with
Different Total Cohesions
-gh4
-gh3 Assume the pore-water
-gh2 h4 pressure follows hydrostatic,
h3 below ground water table
-gh1 h2
h1 c’, ’ (GWT) has positive pore-water
pressure (PWP) while above
H the GWT has negative PWP

gH

-gh4 c4=c’+gh4tanb To simplify the problem, divide

-gh3 c3=c’+gh3tanb the soil above the GWT into
-gh2 h4 c2=c’+gh2tanb certain layers. In each layer,
h
-gh1 h2 3
c’, ’ c1=c’+gh1tanb the soil has same c’ and ’
h1

gH
10
 Total Cohesion Method: using Layering with
Different Total Cohesions
-gh4 c4=c’+gh4tanb
-gh3 c3=c’+gh3tanb Assume the pore-water
-gh2 h4 c2=c’+gh2tanb pressure follows hydrostatic,
h below ground water table
-gh1 h2 3
h1 c’, ’ c1=c’+gh1tanb (GWT) has positive pore-water
pressure (PWP) while above
H the GWT has negative PWP

gH

-gh4 3=c3+(sn3-ua)tan’ 3=c’+ gh3tanb +(sn3-ua)tan’

-gh3 3 (sn3-ua)
2=c2+(sn2-ua)tan’ 2=c’+ gh2tanb +(sn2-ua)tan’
-gh2 (sn2-ua)
2
-gh1 c’, ’
To simplify the problem, divide
the soil above the GWT into
H certain layers. In each layer,
gH the soil has same c’ and ’
10
Total Cohesion Method: using Varying Total
Cohesion based on Hydrostatic Condition

Assume the pore-water

-gh pressure follows hydrostatic,
h below ground water table
c’, ’ (GWT) has positive pore-water
pressure (PWP) while above
H the GWT has negative PWP

gH
With assistance of computer,
use varying suction profile
-gh with the conversion of
h cohesion c using equation
c’, ’ c=c’+(ua-uw)tanb

gH
10
 Total Cohesion Method: using Varying Total
Cohesion based on Hydrostatic Condition for
Slope Stability Analysis
O

c, ’
 (sn-ua)
( )
c = c' + u a − u w tan 
b
=c+(sn-ua)tan’
=c’+ (ua-uw)tanb +(sn-ua)tan’

When runnig the slope stability analysis, take one slice, the normal stress
on the base of the slice is sN, then based on Mohr–Coulomb failure
envelop, the shear resistance  on the base of this slice is:  = c+(sn-
ua)tan’.
c= c’+(ua-uw)tanb, then  = c’+ (ua-uw)tanb +(sn-ua)tan’.
It is noted that  on the base of the slide is not constant, it varies with
respect to suction in the soil.
10
Illustration of Slope Stability using Total Cohesion
Method (Use A Typical Slope of 15 m Slope Height,
35 Slope Angle as An Example).

15m
35
5m

11
Illustration of Slope Stability using Total Cohesion
Method with Uniform Total Cohesion

200 kPa

15m
35
5m

Based on hydrostatic condition, the maximum suction on ground surface

is 200 kPa, the suction on the Ground Water Table (GWT) is 0 kPa, then
the average suction = 100 kPa.
Based on equation, c= c’+ghtanb, c=9+100tanb=41.5 kPa
11
Example to Illustrate Slope Stability using
Uniform Total Cohesion

2.01

11
 Slope Stability Chart with respect to Suction for
Residual Soil from Sedimentary Jurong Formation
(5 m High Slope)

Variations of factor of safety for residual soil slope in sedimentary Jurong

Formation with different slope angles as obtained from Total Cohesion
method using a uniform total cohesion
11
 Slope Stability Chart with respect to Suction for
Residual Soil from Sedimentary Jurong Formation
(15 m High Slope)

Variations of factor of safety for residual soil slope in sedimentary Jurong

Formation with different slope angles as obtained from Total Cohesion method
using a uniform total cohesion
11
 Slope Stability Chart with respect to Suction for
Residual Soil from Bukit Timah Granite
(5 m High Slope)

Variations of factor of safety for residual soil slope at Bukit Timah Granite
with different slope angles as obtained from Total Cohesion method using a
uniform total cohesion 11
 Slope Stability Chart with respect to Suction for
Residual Soil from Bukit Timah Granite
(15 m High Slope)

Variations of factor of safety for residual soil slope at Bukit Timah Granite
with different slope angles as obtained from Total Cohesion method using a
uniform total cohesion 11
 Slope Stability Chart with respect to Suction
for Residual Soil from Old Alluvium
(5 m High Slope)

Variations of factor of safety for residual soil slope at Old Alluvium with
different slope angles as obtained from Total Cohesion method using a
uniform total cohesion 11
 Slope Stability Chart with respect to Suction
for Residual Soil from Old Alluvium
(15 m High Slope)

Variations of factor of safety for residual soil slope at Old Alluvium with
different slope angles as obtained from Total Cohesion method using a
uniform total cohesion 11
Illustration of Slope Stability using Total Cohesion
Method (Using Layering with Different Total
Cohesions)
200 kPa
Average suction = 175 kPa, c4=65.9 kPa
Average suction = 125 kPa, c3=49.6 kPa
35 Average suction = 75 kPa, c2=33.4 kPa
Average suction = 25 kPa, c1=17.1 kPa

Based on hydrostatic condition, the maximum suction on ground surface

is 200 kPa, the suction on the Ground Water Table (GWT) is 0 kPa, then
the average suction = 100 kPa.
Based on equation, layer 1has c=17.1 kPa, layer 2 has c=33.4 kPa, layer 3
11
has c=49.6 kPa, layer 4 has c=65.9 kPa.
 Illustration of Slope Stability using Total Cohesion
Method (Using Layering with Different Total Cohesions)

2.02

c’=65.9 kPa, ’=25

c’=49.6 kPa, ’=25
c’=33.4 kPa, ’=25
c’=17.1 kPa, ’=25

c’=9 kPa, ’=25

12
 Illustration of Slope Stability using Total Cohesion
Method (Using Varying Total Cohesion following
Hydrostatic Condition)

Based on
hydrostatic
condition, the
suction profile in
the slope soil is
computed.

12
Illustration of Slope Stability using Total Cohesion
Method (Using Varying Total Cohesion following
Hydrostatic Condition)

1.94

12
 Extended Shear Strength Method

• Numerical analyses of soil slope consists of:

– Finite element seepage analyses to obtain variations /
changes in pore-water pressures, changes in water
content and variations in groundwater table within soil
layers due to rainwater infiltration
– Limit equilibrium stability analyses to obtain variations
/ changes in factor of safety due to rainwater
infiltration
 Flow Law for Water (Darcy’s Law)

 hw 
Saturated soil: vw = −k s  
 y 
 uw 
hw = y +  
 w g 
 hw 
v w = − k w (u a − u w )
Unsaturated soil:

 y 
 uw 
hw = y +  
 w g 
124
Designation of Amount of Water in a Soil
Gravimetric water content

Volumetric water content

Degree of Saturation, S
SWCC With Distinct Zones of Desaturation

Assumption is made that the

material being tested is
essentially incompressible
1

m2w
 Soil-water Characteristic Curves
for Different Soil Types
0.7
Volumetric Water Content, w

0.6
0.5
0.4
Sandy soil Clayey soil
0.3
0.2 Silty soil
0.1
0.0
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105
Matric Suction, ua-uw (kPa) 127
Role of SWCC in
Governing
Permeability of
Unsaturated Soils

128
 Unsteady State Seepage

Saturated Soil:

Unsaturated Soil:

129
 Parameters Required for Seepage Analyses

• Slope geometry

• Flux boundary conditions (rainfall, evaporation)

• Initial condition (groundwater table)

• Soil-water characteristic curves (SWCC)

• Permeability function (kw)

130
Sequences in Finite Element Seepage Analyses

1. Determine the method of analysis:

➢ Steady state or
➢ Transient analysis
2. Draw the numerical model:
➢ Draw points
➢ Draw regions
3. Key in material properties:
➢ Soil-water characteristic curve
➢ Unsaturated permeability
4. Assign material properties for different soil layer
Sequences in Finite Element Seepage Analyses

5. Draw the groundwater table

6. Draw boundary conditions:
➢ Ground surface boundary condition for rainfall: Flux
boundary (q = rainfall intensity)
➢ Left and right side boundary condition above
groundwater table: No Flow (Q = 0)
➢ Left and right side boundary condition below
groundwater table: Total Head (H = elevation of
groundwater table)
Sequences in Finite Element Seepage Analyses

7. Execute the analysis

8. Post processing data
9. Plot pore-water pressure contours for different time,
especially in the beginning and at the end of rainfall
10. Plot pore-water pressure profiles for different time,
especially in the beginning and at the end of rainfall
Numerical Model for Seepage Analyses

Rainfall (unit flux or q)

No flow
(Q=0) Slope width = 7.6 m No flow
(Q=0)

Total head (H) Total head (H)

No flow
(Q=0)
Example of SWCC used in Seepage Analyses

0.6

0.5
Volumetric water content, w

0.4 1

m2w
Residual soil from
0.3
Old Alluvium:
Air-entry value = 8 KPa
0.2

0.1

0.0
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103
Example of Permeability Function used in Seepage
Analyses

1e-4
Coeficient of permeability, kw (m/s)

1e-5

1e-6 Residual soil from

Old Alluvium
ks = 1.0e-5 m/s
1e-7

1e-8

1e-9

1e-10

1e-11
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103
Matric suction, ua-uw (kPa)
  hw    hw  hw
 +  kw  = mw  w g
2
 kw
x  x  y  y  t
kw (coefficient of permeability) is a function of the pore-
water pressure:

When uw  0 → kw = ks (saturated permeability)

uw < 0 → kw = fn(ua - uw)

Unsteady-state Water Seepage in an

Unsaturated/saturated Soil
137
Development of Wetting Front within Slope Layer
during Rainfall

uw = -90 kPa

uw = 0 kPa
uw at t = 5 h
uw at t = 8 h
- uw
uw at t = 13 h

uw at t = 15 h

Groundwater table
Pore-water Pressure Profiles during Rainfall

uw = -88 kPa

0 kPa
0 kPa
Slope Stability Involving Saturated and Unsaturated
Soil

140
Parameters Required for Slope Stability Analyses

• Slope geometry

• Soil properties

• Saturated and unsaturated shear strength

• Pore-water pressure variation from seepage analyses

141
 Shear Strength

Saturated soil:

 = c + (s − uw ) tan  

Unsaturated soil:

 = c + (ua − uw ) tan  + (s − ua ) tan  

b

c = c + (u a − u w ) tan  b

142
Extended Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope

143
 Slope Stability Analysis

• The computed pore-water pressures from the transient

seepage analyses using finite element can then be as
input to slope stability analyses.

• The factor of safety, Fs, calculation is based on Bishop’s

simplified method as the following equation:

  b  b   
    R tan '
− u 1 −
tan tan
 c '  R +  N − u  
 w tan ' a  
tan '  
 
    (2)
Fs =
Aa + Wx −  Nf
144
 Sequences in Stability Analysis

1. Limit equilibrium analysis

2. Determine method of analysis:
➢ Simplified Bishop
➢ Morgenstern and Price
➢ Spencer
3. Draw the numerical model:
➢ Draw points
➢ Draw regions
 Sequences in Stability Analysis
4. Key in material properties:
➢ Effective cohesion (c’)
➢ Effective friction angle (’)
➢ Total unit weight (g)
➢ b angle
5. Import pore-water pressure variations from seepage
analyses
7. Execute the analysis
8. Plot slip surface associated with different factor of
safety for different time, especially in the beginning and
at the end of rainfall
Model for Slope Stability Analysis

Radius Grid

g = 20 kN/m3
c’ = 5 kPa
’ = 300
Factor of Safety of Slope before Rain Started

uw at t = 0 h
FS = 2.91
Factor of Safety of Slope at the End of Rainfall

FS = 1.84

uw at t = 24 h
 Factor of Safety Variations with Time

3.0
Rain stopped
2.8 at 24 hour

2.6
Factor of Safety, FoS

2.4

2.2

2.0

1.8
Minimum FoS = 1.84
1.6 Rainfall = 22 mm/h

1.4

1.2 Rain stopped at t = 24 h

1.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Time (Hour)
 Factors Controlling Stability of Slopes during
Rainfall

1. Soil Properties: shear strength and hydraulic properties

(Soil-water Characteristic Curves and Permeability
Function).
2. Groundwater table position
3. Rainfall intensity and duration, evaporation and
transpiration
4. Slope Geometry (slope angle and slope height) and
Topography (free draining and accumulation zone of
water)
5. Vegetation Cover
6. Presence of cracks
End