CHAPTER 2

PHASORS AND
SYSTEM ARRANGEMENTS

Chapter 2 Page 1 Phasors and System Arrangements

 PHASORS AND SYSTEM ARRANGEMENTS
Relationship between Current And Voltage In Various System
Elements
• Resistor
• Inductor
• Capacitor
• Complex Impedance
Three Phase Power Loads
• Introduction
• Problem 1
Relationship Between Currents and Voltages

Characteristics of Faults

Using Phasor Relationships to Design Directional Relays

Problem 2: V,I Phasor Relationships

Types of Distribution Systems

• Radial System

• Loop System (Ring Main Unit)

• Primary Slective System

• Secondary Selective System

Substation Bus Arrangements

• Single Bus Arrangement

• Doube Bus – Double Breaker

• Main and Transfer Bus

• Double Bus Single Breaker

• Ring Bus Arrangement

• Breaker and a Half Scheme

• Reliability Comparisons

IEEE Device Numbers

Chapter 2 Page 2 Phasors and System Arrangements

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN
VARIOUS SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Resistor
The current and voltage are in phase in a purely resistive circuit, as shown in Figure
2-1.

Figure 2-1. Resistor Circuit

Inductor
The current lags the voltage by π/2 radians or 90o in a purely inductive circuit, as
shown in Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2. Inductor Circuit

Chapter 2 Page 3 Phasors and System Arrangements

Capacitor
The current leads the voltage by π/2 radians or 90o in a purely capacitive circuit, as
shown in Figure 2-3.

Figure 2-3. Capacitor Circuit

Complex Impedance
In general, impedance is a complex number of the form Z = R+ jX, where R
(resistance) is the real part and X (reactance) is the reactive or imaginary part.

The inductive reactance (XL) in a coil or wire that is measured in ohms (Ω) is equal to
2π times the frequency (f) times the inductance (L) of the coil that is measured in
Henries (H) or XL = 2πfL. The capacitive reactance (XC) of a capacitor that is
measured in ohms (Ω) is equal to the reciprocal of 2π times the frequency (f) times
the capacitance that is measured in farads (F) or XC = 1/(2πfC).

Because impedance is a complex number it may be represented on the complex

number plane; however, because resistance is never negative, only the first and
fourth quadrants are involved in the analysis. The resistance (R) is located on the
positive real axis, inductive reactance (XL) is located on the positive reactance
(imaginary) axis, and capacitive reactance (XC) is located on the negative reactance
(imaginary) axis, as shown in Figure 2-4.

Chapter 2 Page 4 Phasors and System Arrangements

Complex Impedance

Figure 2-4. Complex Impedance

An impedance triangle is often used as a graphical representation of impedance.

The impedance triangle consists of vectors that represent resistance (R) and
reactance (± jX), as shown in Figure 2-5. The vector Z is the sum of the two vectors
R and jX.

Figure 2-5. Impedance Triangle

Chapter 2 Page 5 Phasors and System Arrangements

THREE-PHASE POWER LOADS

Introduction
A three-phase system has three sources of power with a certain time interval
between each source. It is very easy to generate three-phase voltages by
connecting three windings 120o apart on a generator. Figure 2-6 shows a three-
phase system in an ABC phase rotation sequence.

Three wires of a three-phase system can provide 173% ( 3) more power than two
wires of a single-phase system. When both single-phase and three-phase loads are
supplied from the same power supply, a three-phase, four-wire system (3φ, 4-wire),
which is called a wye (Y) connection, is used to supply power. If there are only
three-phase loads, a three-phase, three wire system (3φ, 2-wire), which is called a
delta (Δ) connection, is used to supply power.

Figure 2-6. Three-Phase Power

Chapter 2 Page 6 Phasors and System Arrangements

PROBLEM 1:
Given a five breaker bus with power flows as indicated in Figure 2-7, and the system
elements that are indicated below, identify each breaker (insert the letter) with its
respective system component.

System elements:
a. p.f. correction capacitor d. induction motor
b. pure resistive heater e. synchronous motor
c. generator

Figure 2-7. Power Flow Phasors (Problem 1)

Chapter 2 Page 7 Phasors and System Arrangements

SOLUTION TO PROBLEM 1:

Figure 2-8. Solution to Problem 1

Chapter 2 Page 8 Phasors and System Arrangements

Summary

Voltage, Current, and Impedance:

• E = IZ
• I = E/Z
• Z = E/I = R + j(XL - XC)
• |Z| = [R2 + (XL - XC)2]1/2
• cos θ = R/Z = p.f.
• sin θ = X/Z
• tan θ = X/R

Power (Single-Phase):
• S = EI = (P2 + Q2)1/2
• P = EI cos θ = S cos θ
• Q = EI sin θ = S sin θ
• cos θ = P/S = p.f.
• sin θ = Q/S
• tan θ = Q/P

Power (Three-Phase):
• S = 3 EI =(P2 + Q2)1/2
• P = 3 EI cos θ = S cos θ
• Q = 3 EI sin θ = S sin θ
• cos θ = P/S = p.f.
• sin θ = Q/S
• tan θ = Q/P

Motors:
• kWin = (hpout x .746 kW/hpout)/(η)
• kVAin = kWin/p.f.
• I = (hpout x .746 kW/hpout)/( 3 x kV x η x p.f.)
= kVA/( 3 x kV)
• Note: If η x p.f. ≈ .746 then kVAin = hpout

Transformers:
• kVA = 3 x kV x I
• Ipri = kVA/( 3 x kVpri)
• Isec = kVA/( 3 x kVsec)

Chapter 2 Page 9 Phasors and System Arrangements

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES

Van
Vab

Ia

Vbc
Ic Ib
Vcn

Vbn

Vbc
Figure 2-9.

Relationship between Current and Voltage for a System with Unity Power
Factor

At unity power factor

Ia leads Vbc by 90 degrees

Ib leads Vca by 90 degrees

Ic leads Vab by 90 degrees

Chapter 2 Page 10 Phasors and System Arrangements

CHARACTERISTICS OF FAULTS
SYSTEM VOLTAGE FAULT ANGLES

7.2 – 23 kV 20° to 45° lag

23 – 69 kV 45° to 75° lag

69 – 230 kV 60° to 80° lag

230 kV and above 75° to 85° lag

Chapter 2 Page 11 Phasors and System Arrangements

USING PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS TO DESIGN
DIRECTIONAL RELAYS

Back-Feed
67
Ia
Vbc

Ia and Van are in Phase

Ia leads Vbc by 90 degrees

Fault on
Transformer
Primary
67 Ia
Vbc

Ia lags Ia(before fault) by approx. 60 degrees

Ia leads Vbc by 30 degrees

Normal Load

67
Vbc

Ia lags Ia (before fault) by 180 degrees Ia

Ia lags Vbc by 90 degrees

Figure 2-10 Ninety Degrees Connection for Directional Relays

Chapter 2 Page 12 Phasors and System Arrangements

PROBLEM 2: V, I PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS
Given the circuit diagram that is shown in Figure 2-11a with current flows and V, I
phasor relationships as shown in Figure 2-11b, match the following elements in the
circuit diagram (insert the letter).

a. pure capacitor c. pure resistor

b. pure inductor d. generator

VAB I1 I2 I3 I4

(a) Circuit Diagram

I4

I3 VAB
I1

I2

(b) Phasor Relationships

Figure 2-11. V, I Phasor Relationships (Problem 3)

Chapter 2 Page 13 Phasors and System Arrangements

TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
RADIAL SYSTEM

(a) (b)
Figure 2-12. Examples of Radial Systems

Advantages

Ö Low initial investment

Ö Reduced Fault level compared to other systems

Ö Simple to operate

Ö Simple Relaying (no need for directional relays)

Disadvantages

Ö No redundancy

Ö Taking out any component for maintenance causes power interruption to

part or all of the system

Comments

Used to feed non-critical loads

Chapter 2 Page 14 Phasors and System Arrangements

LOOP SYSTEM (RING MAIN UNIT)

(a)

(b)

Figure 2-13. Examples of Loop Systems

Advantages

Ö Provides some redundancy

Ö Faults on the high side loop do not cause outages, if the loop is closed, and
proper relaying is used

Disadvantages

Ö High initial investment

Ö High Fault level, compared to the radial systems

Ö More complex to operate

Ö Need directional relaying

Comments

Used to feed critical loads

Chapter 2 Page 15 Phasors and System Arrangements

PRIMARY SELECTIVE SYSTEM

Figure 2-14. Example of a Primary Selective Radial System

Advantages

Ö Relatively low initial investment

Ö Reduced Fault level compared to loop system

Ö Simple to operate

Ö Simple Relaying (no need for directional relays)

Disadvantages

Ö Only provides redundancy for faults on the primary side of the selector
switch

Comments

Provides some degree of redundancy

Chapter 2 Page 16 Phasors and System Arrangements

SECONDARY SELECTIVE SYSTEM

Normally Open Tie Breaker

or
Normally Closed Tie Breaker

(a) (b)
Figure 2-15. Example of Secondary Selective System

Advantages

Ö Relatively Low initial investment

Ö Same fault level as radial system (if tie breaker is open)

Ö Simple to operate

Ö No need for directional relays (if tie breaker is open)

Disadvantages

Ö High fault level (if tie breaker is closed)

Ö Need directional relaying (if tie breaker is closed)

Comments

Provides good degree of redundancy

Chapter 2 Page 17 Phasors and System Arrangements

SUBSTATION BUS ARRANGEMENTS
SINGLE BUS ARRANGEMENT

Line

Bus

Disc. Switch

Circuit Breaker

Lines

Figure 2-16. Example of a Single Bus Arrangement

The single-bus scheme is not normally used for major substations. Dependence on
one main bus can cause serious outage in the event of breakers or bus failure. The
station must be de-energized in order to carry out bus maintenance or add bus
extensions. Although the protective relaying is relatively simple, the single bus
scheme is considered inflexible and subject to complete outage.

Chapter 2 Page 18 Phasors and System Arrangements

DOUBLE BUS - DOUBLE BREAKER

Line Line

Transformer
Figure 2-17. Examples of Double Bus-Double Breaker Scheme

The double-bus-double-breaker scheme requires two circuit breakers for each feeder
circuit. Normally each circuit is connected to both busses. In some cases, half of the
circuits could operate on each bus. For these cases, bus or breaker failure would
cause the loss of half the circuits. The location of the main bus must be such as to
prevent faults spreading to both buses. The use of two breakers per circuit makes
this scheme expensive. However, it represents a high order of reliability when all
circuits are connected to operate on both busses.

Chapter 2 Page 19 Phasors and System Arrangements

MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS

Line Line

Main Bus

Bus
Tie
Breaker

Transfer Bus
Transformer

Figure 2-18. Examples of a Main and Transfer Bus Scheme

The main-and-transfer-bus scheme adds a transfer bus to the single-bus scheme.

An extra bus-tie circuit breaker is provided to tie the main and transfer busses
together.

When a circuit breaker is removed from service for maintenance, the bus tie circuit
breaker is used to keep that circuit energized. Unless the protective relays are also
transferred, the bus-ti relaying must be capable of protecting transmission lines or
generators. This is considered rather unsatisfactory since relaying selectivity is poor.

A satisfactory alternative consists of connecting the line and bus relaying to current
transformers located on the lines rather than on the breakers. For this arrangement
line and bus relaying need not be transferred when a circuit breaker is taken out of
service for maintenance, with the bus-tie breaker used to keep the circuit energized.

If the main bus is ever taken out of service for maintenance, no circuit breakers
remain to protect any of the feeder circuits. Failure of any breaker or failure of the
main bus can cause complete loss of service of the station.

Disconnect switch operation with the main-and-transfer-bus scheme can lead to

operator error, injury, and possible shutdown.

Chapter 2 Page 20 Phasors and System Arrangements

DOUBLE BUS SINGLE BREAKER

Bus No. 1

Bus No. 2

Bus tie breaker

Line Line

Figure 2-19. Example of a Double Bus Arrangement Scheme

This scheme used two main busses, and each circuit includes two bus selector
disconnect switches. A bus –tie circuit connects to the two main busses and, when
closed, allows transfer of a feeder from one bus to the other bus without de-
energizing the feeder circuit by operating the bus selector disconnect switches. The
circuits may all operate from the No. 1 main bus, or half of the circuits may be
operated off either bus. In the first case, the station will be out of service for bus or
breaker failure. In the second case, half of the circuits would be lost for bus or
breaker failure.

In some cases circuits operate from both the No. 1 and No. 2 bus and the bus-tie
breaker is normally operated closed. For this type of operation a very selective bus
protective relaying scheme is required in order to prevent complete loss of the
station for a fault on either bus.

Disconnect switch operation becomes quite involved with the possibility of operator
error, injury and possible shutdown. The double-bus-single-breaker scheme is poor
in reliability and is not used for important substations.

Chapter 2 Page 21 Phasors and System Arrangements

RING BUS ARRANGEMENT

Transformer
Line

Transformer
Line

Figure 2-20. Example of a Ring Bus Arrangement

In the ring-bus scheme, the breakers are arranged in a ring with circuits connected
between breakers. There is the same number of circuits as there are breakers.
During normal operation, all breakers are closed. For a circuit fault, two breakers are
tripped, and in the event one of the breakers fails to operate to clear the fault, an
additional circuit will be tripped by operation of breaker-failure backup relays. During
breaker maintenance, the ring is broken, but all lines remain in service.

The circuits connecter to the ring are arranged so that sources are alternated with
loads. For an extended circuit outage, the line disconnects switch may be opened
and the ring can be closed

No changes to protective relays are required for any of the various operating
conditions or during maintenance.

The ring bus scheme is economical in cost, has good reliability, is safe for operation,
is flexible, and is normally considered suitable for important substations up to a limit
of five circuits. Protective relaying and automatic reclosing are more complex than
for previous schemes described. It is common practice to build major substations
initially as a ringbus; for more than five outgoing circuits, the ring bus is usually
developed to the breaker-and-a-half scheme.

Chapter 2 Page 22 Phasors and System Arrangements

BREAKER AND A HALF SCHEME

Line Line

Bus No. 1

Tie
Breaker

Bus No. 2

Line
Line

Figure 2-21. Examples of Breaker and a Half Scheme

The breaker-and-a-half scheme, sometimes called the three-switch scheme, has

three breakers in series between the main busses. Two circuits are connected
between the three breakers, hence the term breaker and a half. This pattern is
repeated along the main busses so that one and a half breakers are used for each
circuit.

Under normal operating conditions, all breakers are closed and both busses are
energized. AA circuit is tripped by opening the two associated circuit breakers. Tie
breaker failure will trip one additional circuit, but no additional circuit is lost if a line
trip involves failure of a bus tie breaker.

Either bus may be taken out of service at any time with no loss of service. With
sources connected opposite loads, it is possible to operate with both busses out of
service. Breaker maintenance can be done with no loss of service, no relay changes,
and simple operation of the breaker disconnects.

The breaker and a half arrangement is more expensive than the other schemes,
except the double breaker-double-bus scheme. However, the breaker-and-a-half
scheme is superior in flexibility, reliability, and safety. Protective relaying and
automatic reclosing schemes are more complex than for other schemes.

Chapter 2 Page 23 Phasors and System Arrangements

RELIABILITY COMPARISONS
The various schemes have been compared to emphasize their advantages and
disadvantages. The basis of comparison to be employed is the economic justification
of a particular degree of reliability. The determination of the degree of reliability
involves an appraisal of anticipated operating conditions and the continuity of service
required by the load to be served.

Chapter 2 Page 24 Phasors and System Arrangements

 SUMMARY OF COMPARISON OF SWITCHING SCHEMES
Switching Advantages
Scheme
Single Bus 1. Lowest Cost
Double bus, 1. Each circuit has two
double breaker dedicated breakers
2. Has flexibility In permitting
feeder circuits to be
connected to either bus.
3. Any breaker can be taken
out of service for
maintenance
4. High reliability
Main and 1. Low initial and ultimate cost
Transfer 2. Any breaker can be taken
out of service for
maintenance
3. Potential devices may be
used on the main bus for
relaying
Double bus, 1. Permits some flexibility with
single breaker two operating busses
2. Either main bus may be
isolated for maintenance
3. Circuits can be transferred
readily from one bus to the
other bus by use of bus-tie
breaker and bus selector
disconnect switches.
Chapter 2 Page 25
Disadvantages
2. Failure of bus or any circuit
breaker results in shutdown of
entire substation
3. Difficult to do any maintenance
4. Bus cannot be extended without
completely de-energizing the
substation
5. Can be used only where loads can
be interrupted or have other supply
arrangements
1. Most expensive
2. Would lose half of the circuits for
breaker failure if circuits are not
connected to both busses
1. Requires one extra breaker for the
bus tie
2. Switching is somewhat
complicated when maintaining a
breaker
3. Failure of bus or any circuit
breaker results in shutdown of
entire substation
1. One extra breaker is required for
the bus tie
2. Four switches are required per
circuit
3. Bus protection schemes may
cause loss of substation when it
operates if all circuits are
connected to that bus
4. High exposure to bus faults
5. Line breaker failure takes all
circuits connected to that bus out
of service
6. Bus-tie breaker failure takes entire
substation out of service
Phasors and System Arrangements
 SUMMARY OF COMPARISON OF SWITCHING SCHEMES (Cont'd.)
Switching Advantages
Scheme
Ring bus 1. Low initial and ultimate cost
2. Flexible operation for
breaker maintenance
3. Any breaker can be
removed for maintenance
without interrupting load
4. Requires only one breaker
per circuit
5. Does not use main bus
6. Each circuit is fed by two
breakers
7. All switching is done with
breakers
Breaker and a 1. Most flexible operation
Half 2. Highly reliable
3. Breaker failure of bus side
breakers removes only one
circuit from service
4. All switching is done with
breakers
5. Simple operation; no
disconnect switching
required for normal
operation
6. Either main bus can be
taken out of service at any
time for maintenance
7. Bus failure does not remove
any feeder circuits from
service
Chapter 2 Page 26
Disadvantages
1. If a fault occurs during a breaker
maintenance period, the ring can be
separated into two sections
2. Automatic reclosing and protective
relaying circuitry rather complex
3. If a single set of relays are used, the
circuit must be taken out of service
to maintain the relays (Common on
all schemes)
4. Requires potential devices on all
circuits since there is no definite
potential reference point. These
devices may be required in all cases
for synchronizing, live line, or
voltage indication
5. Breaker failure during a fault on one
of the circuits causes loss of one
additional circuit owing to operation
of breaker-failure relaying
1. 1½ breakers per circuit
2. Relaying and automatic reclosing
are somewhat involved since the
middle breaker must be responsive
to either of its associate circuits
Phasors and System Arrangements
Chapter 2 Page 27 Phasors and System Arrangements