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To test and troubleshoot circuits, it is necessary to understand how to use basic
electronic measuring instruments. The digital multimeter (DMM) is the most widely used
electronic measuring instrument. Also, the clamptype ammeter is useful for measuring
current, especially in power applications. An older analog meter called the voltohm
milliammeter (VOM) is still used in some applications but has largely been replaced by
the DMM.
Digital Multimeter Working
A digital multimeter (DMM) is an instrument that can measure several basic electrical quantities and shows the measurement with
a number in a display.
All multimeters measure ac and dc voltage (voltmeter), ac and dc current (ammeter), and resistance (ohmmeter). Some can also
measure other electrical quantities such as frequency or even temperature. A typical DMM with probes is shown in Figure 1.
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To measure voltage, connect the meter leads across the component to be measured (this is a parallel connection). With digital meters,
the meter normally sets the polarity automatically, and the sign is indicated on the display. It is convenient to use a red lead in the voltage
jack and a black one on the common. Then positive or negative readings are easy to interpret.
Many DMMs are capable of autoranging, a feature in which the DMM selects the optimum range automatically for displaying the
reading. The range is the maximum voltage that can be displayed with a particular setting. Lowerpriced meters have manual
ranging, which requires the user to select an appropriate range for the measurement.
To make a voltage measurement, first move the selector switch to DC VOLTS; if the meter is a manualranging type, choose a range
larger than the expected voltage (this is not necessary with an autoranging meter). Sometimes the dc volts position is indicated by the
letter V and a straight line over a dashed line (to remind you of dc). Only after selecting the proper function (DC VOLTS) and range,
should you connect the meter to the circuit.
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Figure 2: DC Voltage Measurement.
The meter is connected directly across the component to be measured; in this case, the reading is the voltage across the resistor.
Most meters indicate the voltage no matter which way the leads are connected to the circuit. If the positive meter lead is connected to the
more positive voltage, then the voltage reading is displayed as a positive value; otherwise, it is indicated as a negative value. An
example of measuring the voltage in a basic circuit on a protoboard is shown in Figure 2(a). The schematic equivalent is shown
in Figure 2(b).
AC Voltage Measurements
AC voltage measurements are done in the same way as dc measurements except the selector switch must be in the AC VOLTS position.
Some meters indicate ac with a small sine wave. As is the case with dc measurements, select the function and range (if necessary)
before you hook the meter to the circuit. Because ac goes between positive and negative values, the polarity is not important and is
displayed as a positive value in any case. It is important to realize that the reading is displayed as an RMS value for ac.
Another important consideration in ac voltage measurements is the frequency you are measuring. DMMs vary widely in their ability to
measure higher frequencies; many are accurate only for a very small range of frequencies. Typically, the range may be from 45 Hz to 1
kHz (1 kilohertz), but some meters can be used up to 1 MHz (megahertz). You should check the accuracy specification of a meter.
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Current Measurements
For DMMs, select either the AC or DC function (it is necessary to move the probes to separate current jacks on the meter). As in any
current measurement, connect the meter in series (in line) with the circuit under test. It is necessary to break a connection in the circuit in
order to insert the meter. In this case, the meter is inserted in series between the voltage source and the resistor. Note that, if you are
Fuel Cell: Characteristics Curve &
measuring ac, it will be shown on the display as the RMS value. A current measurement on a protoboard is shown in Figure 3(a); its
Losses
schematic equivalent is illustrated in Figure 3(b). In this section, the
properties and control
characteristic curve of the
fuel cells are examined …
Caution! If the meter is inadvertently connected across a voltage source, there will be very high current through the meter, causing either
a fuse to blow or damage to the meter.
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Figure 3: DC Current Measurement. The meter is connected in series with the components by breaking the circuit. In this case, the
reading is the current through the resistor and LED.
Clamp Meter Working
directly to a current reading.
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This develops a voltage across the unknown resistance that is proportional to the resistance. The voltage developed across the unknown
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is converted internally by the meter to a resistance value and displayed.
Resistance is always measured with one (or both) ends of the resistor under test disconnected from the circuit to ensure that another
path in the circuit or another voltage is not present that can cause the meter to produce an erroneous reading or damage the
end of the resistor is disconnected from the source.
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Review Questions
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1. What measurements can be made with a basic DMM?
2. What are two procedures that must be done when connecting a DMM for a current measurement?
3. Why is it necessary to disconnect a voltage source when using a DMM to measure resistance?
4. Is it easier to measure current with a DMM or a clampon ammeter?
5. What is a continuity check?
Answers
1. Voltage (ac and dc), current (ac and dc) and resistance
2. Probes are moved to a current jack and the circuit is broken to insert the meter.
3. If the voltage is connected, the current will cause an erroneous reading or damage to the meter.
4. Generally, a clamp on an ammeter is easier to use because the circuit does not need to be broken (but the current needs to be
isolated).
5. A check of an electrical path
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