Abstract—

In the microgrid system, the distributed energy resource (DER) based single-phase

inverter is usually adopted. In order to reduce conversion losses, the key is to save

costs and size by removing any kind of transformer as well as reducing the power

devices. The objective of this paper is to study a novel fivelevel multistring inverter

topology for DERs based DC/AC conversion system. In this study, a high step-up

converter is introduced as a front-end stage to improve the conversion efficiency of

conventional boost converters and to stabilize the output DC voltage of various

DERs such as PV and fuel cell modules for use with the simplified multilevel

inverter. The simplified multilevel inverter requires only six active switches instead

of the eight required in the conventional cascaded Hbridge (CCHB) multilevel

inverter. In addition, two active switches are operated under line frequency. The

studied multistring inverter topology offers strong advantages such as improved

output waveforms, smaller filter size, and lower EMI and THD. Simulation and

experimental results show the effectiveness of the proposed solution.

1
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1. INTRODUCTION:

The present power distribution system is usually configured as a three-phase

three-wire or four-wire structure featuring a power-limit voltage source with significant
source impedance, and an aggregation of various types of loads. Ideally, the system
should provide a balanced and pure sinusoidal three-phase voltage of constant amplitude
to the loads; and the loads should draw a current from the line with unity power factor,
zero harmonics, and balanced phases. To four-wire systems, no excessive neutral current
should exist. As a result, the maximum power capacity and efficiency of the energy
delivery are achieved, minimum perturbation to other appliances is ensured, and safe
operation is warranted. However, with a fast increasing number of applications of
industry electronics connected to the distribution systems today, including nonlinear,
switching, reactive, single-phase and unbalanced three-phase loads, a complex problem
of power quality evolved characterized by the voltage and current harmonics, unbalances,
low Power Factor (PF).In recent years active methods for power quality control have
become more attractivecompared with passive ones due to their fast response, smaller
size, and higher performance. For example, Static VAR Compensator (SVC) have been
reported toimprove the power factor; Power Factor Corrector (PFC) and Active Power
Filters (APF) have the ability of current harmonics suppression and power factor
correction; some active circuits were developed to compensate unbalanced currents as

2
well as limit the neutral current. In general, parallel-connected converters have the ability
to improve thecurrent quality while the series-connected regulators inserted between the
load and the supply, improve the voltage quality. For voltage and current quality control,
both series and shunt converters are necessary, which is known as Unified Power Quality
Conditioner (UPQC) and have been analyzed in this thesis. UPQC was presented
during1998. Such solution can compensate for different power quality phenomena, such
as:sags, swells, voltage imbalance, flicker, harmonics and reactive currents. UPQC
usually consists of two voltage-sourceconverters sharing the samecapacitive DC link.

3
One of theconverters is an active rectifier (AR) or shunt active filter while other is a
series active filter (SF). Also, at the point of the load connection, passive filter banks are
connected. In UPQC the series active power filter eliminates supply voltage
flicker/imbalance from the load terminal voltage and forces an existing shunt passive
filter to absorb all the current harmonics produced by a nonlinear load. The shunt active
filter performs dc link voltage regulation, thus leading to a significant reduction of
capacity of dc link capacitor. This seminar discusses various power quality problems and
solutions with an emphasis on the UPQC.

1.2. LITERATURE SURVEY:

Recent advances in the power-handling capabilities of static switch devices such as

IGBTs with voltage rating up to 4.5 kV commercially available, has made the use of the
voltage source inverters (VSI) feasible for high-power applications. High power and
high-voltage conversion systems have become very important issues for the power
electronic industry handling the large ac drive and electrical power applications at both
the transmission and distribution levels. For these reasons, a new family of multilevel
inverters has emerged as the solution for working with higher voltage levels. Multilevel
inverters include an array of power semiconductors and capacitor voltage sources, the
output of which generate voltages with stepped waveforms. Capacitors, batteries, and
renewable energy voltage sources can be used as the multiple dc voltage sources. The
commutation of the power switches aggregate these multiple dc sources in order to
achieve high voltage at the output; however, the rated voltage of the power
semiconductor switches depends only upon the rating of the dc voltage sources to which
they are connected.

Switch-mode dc-to-ac inverters used in ac power supplies and ac motor drives

where the objective is to produce a sinusoidal ac output whose magnitude and frequency
can both be controlled. Practically, we use an inverter in both single-phase and three
phase ac systems. A half-bridge is the simplest topology, which is used to produce a two
level square-wave output waveform. A center-tapped voltage source supply is needed in
such a topology. It may be possible to use a simple supply with two well-matched
capacitors in series to provide the center tap. Today, multilevel inverters are extensively

4
used in high-power applications with medium voltage levels. The field applications
include use in laminators, mills, conveyors, pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, and so
on.

OdavicEt Al. Proposed a current control strategy for shunt APF in electric power
networks. A predictive controller with a genetic algorithm and multilevel converters are
applied in order to compensate the inherent delay of digital control systems.

BiaginiEt Al. investigated the development of an improved deadbeat controlled

shunt APF for aerospace applications working in an electric power system with a supply
frequency of 400 Hz.

H. Hu, W. Shi. Proposed a Moultrie solution control strategy is proposed for the
dsp controlled shunt APF to reduce real-time computational requirements. However, the
system dynamic performance from the given experimental result is not improved.

A. Eid, M. Abdel-Salam.A shunt APF using perfect harmonic cancellation is

studied. The harmonic filtering performance of the APF in both the conventional and the
advanced aircraft EPS is presented with MATLAB simulation results.

A. Eid, M. Abdel-Salam.Based on the given structure and modeling of the

advanced aircraft EPS, performance characteristics of the EPS without and with APF are
compared. The power-quality characteristics of both the conventional and the advanced
aircraft EPS with APF are shown to be in compliance with the popular electrical
standards, I.E., Ieee-Std. 519 and Mil-Std-704 F.

In this Project, A high-performance Aircraft APF Is proposed. Differently from

traditional open-loop control Strategy, The proposed APF works in a close-loop way.
Good power quality of the EPS is achieved by using the APF. Furthermore, in order to
improve the dynamic performance of the load response, a feed forward path of the load
the progress of “More Electric Power System,” introducing active power filter (APF)
technology into the electric power system to improve its quality and reliability catches
growing interest.

In this Paper, based on the analysis and modeling of the shunt APF with close-
loop control, afeed forward compensation path of load current is proposed to improve the

5
dynamic performance of the APF and the two H-Bridge cascaded inverter is selected
forthe cascaded shunt APF.

1.3.OBJECTIVE OF THESIS:

The objective of this work is, due to the power electronics loads, power system to
be polluted such as harmonic generation may causes to distorts the To propose a
Cascaded shunt point of common coupling (PCC) parameters which maintain
fundamental frequency and source current goes to distorts and other loads also affected it
depends on PCC, a traditional passive power filter is used for compensation but it have
several disadvantages such as doesn’t support under variable load conditions and bulky
size, due to this problem offer the active power filter, this APF eliminates the unwanted
frequencies at PCC and maintains fundamental frequency, in this APF consists cascaded
H-bridge based inverter module controlling based on gate drive circuit and reference
current generation from proposed control strategy and have favorable advantages like
harmonic compensation, reduction of current distortion, power quality improvement and
also for reactive power compensation and improve power factor.

1.4.ORGANIZATION OF THESIS:

Chapter 1: The work carried out, in this project, has been organized in six chapters. The
present chapter introduces the overview, literature Survey, objective of
thesis.

Chapter 2: In this chapter various power quality issues, are explained.

Chapter 3: In this chapter brief description of active power filter was explained.

Chapter 4: In this chapter Control method of the Cascaded inverter based active power
I filter was explained.

Chapter 5: Simulated results and analysis are explained & presented in this chapter.

Chapter 6: In this chapter conclusions and future scope are discussed.

6
 CHAPTER 2

POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

2.1. IMPORTANCE OF CLEAN POWER:

Modern semiconductor technology is a tool for achieving productivity and profit.

It is designed to run on clean electrical power. The irony is as this technology increases in
sophistication, so does it's susceptibility to power disturbances because nonlinear devices,
such as power electronics converters, inject harmonic currents in the ac system and
increase overall reactive power demanded by the equivalent load. Also, the number of
sensitive loads that require ideal sinusoidal supply voltages for their proper operation has
increased. In order to keep power quality under limits proposed by standards, it is
necessary to include some sort of compensation. Clean power for technologyis like clean
fuel for automobiles.

2.2. INTRODUCTION OF POWER QUALITY:

The term electric power quality broadly refers to maintaining a nearly sinusoidal
power distribution bus voltage at rated magnitude and frequency. In addition, the energy
supplied to a consumer must be uninterrupted from reliability point of view. Though
power quality is mainly a distribution system problem, power transmission system may
also have impact on quality power.

2.3. POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS:

With the ever-increasing use of sophisticated controls and equipment in industrial,

commercial, institutional, and governmental facilities, the continuity, reliability, and
quality of electrical service has become extremely crucial to many power users. Electrical
systems are subject to a wide variety of power quality problems which can interrupt
production processes, affect sensitive equipment, and cause downtime, scrap, and
capacity losses. Momentary voltage fluctuations can disastrously impact production and
extended outages have a greater impact.

Many power quality problems are easily identified once a good description of the
problems is obtained. Unfortunately, the tensions caused by power problems often result

7
in overly dramatic descriptions of the problem. When power problems happen, one must
try to note the exact time of the occurrence, its effect on electrical equipment, and any
recently installed equipment that could have introduced problems to the system.

A power quality audit can help determine the causes of one‘s problems and
provide a well-designed plan to correct them. The power quality audit checks one‘s
facility's wiring and grounding to ensure that it is adequate for one‘s applications and up
to code. The auditor will check the quality of the AC voltage itself, and consider the
impact of the utility's power system. The findings will be included in a report outlining
problems found during the audit and recommend solutions. Many businesses and
organizations rely on computer systems and other electrical equipment to carry out
mission-critical functions, but they aren't safeguarding against the dangers of an
unreliable power supply

2.3.1. Source of Power Quality Problems:

 Disturbances can be generated external to a facility.

 Disturbances can be generated internal to a facility.

External Origins:

 Lightning
 Grid Switching
 Power Factor Correction
 Inductive Load Switching
 Utility Fault Clearing

Internal Origins:

 Internal disturbances are typically more numerous and destructive.

 They are created by all the various electrical loads in your facility.
 The disturbance sources are also closer to sensitive devices which limit the
damping effect of wiring.

2.3.2. Generic Power Problems:

The following are the generic power problems: Blackouts & Brownouts, Sags,
Surges, Impulses, Frequency Changes, Noise, Harmonics, and Power Factor Problems.
8
2.3.3. Responsibility of utility:

 Constant Voltage
 All the current needed (breaker limited)
 Protection for people and traditional loads (lights and motors) through grounding
procedures.

2.4. MOST COMMONPOWER QUALITY PROBLEMS:

A. Voltage Sags:

Voltage sags are the most common power problem encountered. Sags are a short-
term reduction in voltage (that are 80-85% of normal voltage) [5], and can cause
interruptions to sensitive equipment such as adjustable-speed drives, relays, and robots.
Sags are most typically are non-repetitive, or repeat only a few times due to recloser
operation. Sags can occur on multiple phases or on a single phase and can be accompanied
by voltage swells on other phases.

B. Power Interruptions:

Power interruptions are zero-voltage events that can be caused by weather,

equipment malfunction, recloser operations, or transmission outages. Interruptions can
occur on one or more phases and are typically short duration events, the vast majority of
power interruptions are less than 30 seconds.

C. Voltage Flicker:

Voltage flicker is rapidly occurring voltage sags caused by sudden and large
increases in load current. Voltage flicker is most commonly caused by rapidly varying
loads that require a large amount of reactive power such as welders, rock-crushers,
sawmills, wood chippers, metal shredders, and amusement rides. It can cause visible
flicker in lights and cause other processes to shut down or malfunction.

D. Power Surges:

A power surge takes place when the voltage is 110% or more above normal. The
most common cause is heavy electrical equipment being turned off. Under these

9
conditions, computer systems and other high tech equipment can experience flickering
lights, equipment shutoff, errors or memory loss.

E. High-Voltage Spikes:

High-voltage spikes occur when there is a sudden voltage peak of up to 6,000

volts. These spikes are usually the result of nearby lightning strikes, but there can be
other causes as well. The effects on electronic systems can include loss of data and
burned circuit boards.

F. Switching Transients:

Switching transients are extremely rapid voltage peak of up to 20,000 volts with
duration of 10microseconds to 100 microseconds. Switching transients take place in such
a short duration that they often do not show up on normal electrical test equipment. They
are commonly caused by machinery starting and stopping, arcing faults and starting
discharge. In addition, switching disturbances initiated by utilities to correct line
problems may happen several times a day. Effects can include data errors, memory loss
and component stress that can lead to breakdown.

G. Frequency Variation:

A frequency variation involves a change in frequency from the normally stable

utility frequency of 50Hz.This may be caused by erratic operation of emergency
generators or unstable frequency power sources. For sensitive equipment, the results can
be data loss, program failure, equipment lock-up or complete shutdown.

H. Electrical Line Noise:

Electrical line noise is defined as Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) and

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and causes unwanted effects in the circuits of
computer systems. Sources of the problems include motors, relays, motor control devices,
broadcast transmissions, microwave radiation, and distant electrical storms. RFI, EMI
and other frequency problems can cause equipment to lock-up, and data error or loss.

10
I. Brownouts:

A brownout is a steady lower voltage state. An example of a brownout is what

happens during peak electrical demand in the summer, when utilities can't always meet
the requirements and must lower the voltage to limit maximum power. When this
happens, systems can experience glitches, data loss and equipment failure.

J. Harmonics:

A harmonics is defined as the content of signal who’s frequency is integer

multiple of the system fundamental frequency. Due to harmonic effect the sinusoidal
waveform is no longer have stand and it became non-sinusoidal or complex waveform.
The complex waveform consists of a fundamental wave of 50 Hz and a number of other
sinusoidal waves whose frequencies are integral multiple of fundamental wave like
2f(100hz), 3f (150 Hz), 4f (200 Hz) etc. Wave having frequency of 2f, 4f, 6f etc. are
called the even harmonics and those having frequency of 3f, 5f, 7f etc. are called as odd
harmonics. When fundamental frequency is super imposed with high-level harmonics, it
results into complex wave and which is non-sinusoidal. The non-linear load draws
current that currentpasses through all of the impedance that is between the load and the
system source. As a result of the current flow, harmonic voltages are produced by
impedance in the system for each harmonic. These voltages sum is added to the nominal
voltage produce voltage distortion. The magnitude of the voltage distortion depends on
the source impedance and the harmonic voltages produced. If the source impedance is
low then the voltage distortion will be low. If a significant portion of the load becomes
non-linear (harmonic currents increase) and/or when a resonant condition prevails
(system impedance increases), the voltage can increase dramatically.

SUMMARY:

In this chapter Importance of Clean Power, Introduction of Power Quality, Power

Quality Problems and Most Common Power Quality Problems are discussed.

11
 CHAPTER 3

ACTIVE POWER FILTER

3.1. INTRODUCTION:

Active power filters are powerful tools for compensating for not only the current
harmonics produced by non-linear loads, but also the reactive power and unbalance of
non-linear and fluctuating loads. The shunt active power filter operates as a controlled
current source connected in parallel to the non-linear loads for injecting current
harmonics into the ac source. The injected current harmonics are equal in magnitude but
opposite to the load current harmonics.

In APF design and control, instantaneous reactive power theory was often served
as the basis for the calculation of compensation current. In this theory, the mains voltage
was assumed to be an ideal source in the calculation process. However, in most of time
and most of industry power systems, mains voltage may be unbalanced and/or distorted.
Under such scenarios, this theory may not be valid for application.

The p–q theory, since its proposal, has been applied in the control of three-phase
active power filters. However, power system voltages being often non-ideal, in distorted
voltage systems the control using the p–q theory does not provide good performance. For
improving APF performance under non-ideal mains voltages, new control methods are
proposed by Komatsu and Kawabata and Huang and Chen and Hsu. In this paper, the
proposed control algorithm gives adequate compensating current reference even for non-
ideal voltage system. Consequently, it is primarily concerned with the development of
APF performance under non-ideal or distorted mains voltage conditions. Performance of
the proposed scheme has been found feasible and excellent to that of the instantaneous
reactive power algorithms under various non-ideal mains test scenarios.

12
 Fig. 3.1 Block diagram of APF

3.2.SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER:

Along with increasing demand on improving power quality, the most popular
technique that has been used is Active Power Filter (APF); this is because APF can easily
eliminate unwanted harmonics, improve power factor and overcome voltage sags.

Harmonic is defined as “a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity

having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency”. Harmonic
is turnout of several of frequency current or voltage multiply by the fundamental voltage
or current in the system. Previous technique used to compensate load current harmonics
is L-C passive filter; as a result the filter cannot adapt for various range of load current
and sometimes produce undesired resonance. In electrical power supply there are many
nonlinear power loads drawing non-sinusoidal current. Non sinusoidal current will pass
through the different kind of impendence in the power system and produce voltage
harmonics. This will affect to the power system components especially sensitive
equipment.

“The increasing use of power electronics-based loads (adjustable speed drives,

switch mode power supplies, etc.) to improve system efficiency and controllability is
increasing the concern for harmonic distortion levels in end user facilities and on the
overall power system”.

Shunt active power filter compensate currentharmonics by injecting equal-but-

opposite harmoniccompensating current. In this case the shunt active powerfilter operates
as a current source injecting the harmoniccomponents generated by the load but phase

13
shifted by180o. This principle is applicable to any type of loadconsidered a harmonic
source. Moreover, with anappropriate control scheme, the active power filter canalso
compensate the load power factor. In this way, thepower distribution system sees the
nonlinear load and theactive power filter as an ideal resistor. The currentcompensation
characteristic of the shunt active powerfilter is shown in Fig.3.2.

Fig. 3.2 Compensation characteristics of a shunt activepower filter

The shunt-connected active power filter, with a self-controlled dc bus, has a

topology similar to that of a static compensator (STATCOM) used for reactive power
compensation in power transmission systems. Shunt active power filters compensate load
current harmonics by injecting equal-but opposite harmonic compensating current. In this
case the shunt active power filter operates as a current source injecting the harmonic
components generated by the load but phase-shifted by 180°.

14
 Fig.3.3Shunt active power filters topology

Harmonic current pollution of three-phase electrical power systems is becoming

a serious problem due to the wide use of nonlinear loads, such as diode or thyristor
rectifiers and a vast variety of power electronics based appliances. Traditionally, passive
LC filters have been used to eliminate the current harmonics and to improve the power
factor. However, passive LC filters are bulky, load dependent and inflexible. They can
also cause resonance problems to the system. In order to solve these problems, APFs
have been reported and considered as a possible solution for reducing current harmonics
and improving the power factor. Fig. 3.3 shows the basic compensation principle of the
three phase shunt APF. It is designed to be connected in parallel with the nonlinear load
to detect its harmonic and reactive current and to inject into the system a compensating
current. In the conventional p-q theory based control approach for the shunt APF, the
compensation current references are generated based on the measurement of load
currents. However, the current feedback from the SAPF output is also required and
therefore, minimum six CSs are desired in an unbalanced system. In addition, the
reference current calculation algorithm are simplified and easily implemented in the
experimental prototype. In the reduced current measurement control algorithm, sensing
only three-phase voltages, three source currents and a DC-link voltage is adequate to

15
compute reference currents of the three phase SAPF. In this way, the overall system
design becomes easier to accomplish and the total implementation cost is reduced.

3.2.1.. REFERENCE CURRENT SIGNAL GENERATION FOR SHUNT ACTIVE

POWER FILTER:

Instantaneous reactive power (p-q) theory is used to control of shunt active power
filter in real time. In this theory, instantaneous three-phase current and voltages are
transformed to K-L-0 from ABC coordinates as shown in equation (1) and (2).

Fig.3.4 Shunt active power filter control block diagram

3.3.SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER OPERATION:

The three-phase shunt active power filter is a three-phase current controlled

“voltage-source inverter” (CC-VSI) with a mid-point earthed, split capacitor in the dc bus
and inductors in the ac output (It is essentially three independent single phase inverters
with a common dc bus). Conventionally, a shunt APF is controlled in such a way as to
inject harmonic and reactive compensation currents based on calculated reference
currents. The injected currents are meant to “cancel” the harmonic and reactive currents
drawn by the non-linear loads. However, the reference or desired current to be injected
must be determined by extensive calculations with inherent delays, errors and slow
transient response.

16
3.3.1. SERIES INDUCTANCE:

A key component of this system is the added series inductance XLwhich is

comparable in size to the effective grid impedance, ZS. Without this inductance (or a
series active filter), load harmonic voltage sources would produce harmonic currents
through the grid impedance, which could not be compensated by a shunt APF. Currents
from the APF do not significantly change the harmonic voltage at the loads. Therefore,
there are still harmonic voltages across the grid impedance, which continue to produce
harmonic currents. The inductance XLtakes the place of a series active power filter at
significantly less cost, providing the required voltage decoupling between load harmonic
voltage sources and the grid.

3.3.2. DIRECT CONTROL OF THE GRID CURRENT:

In this scheme (see Figure 3.1), the CC-VSI is operated to directly control the ac
grid current rather than its own current. The grid current is sensed and directly controlled
to follow symmetrical sinusoidal reference signals in phase with the grid voltage. Hence,
by putting the current sensors on the grid side, the grid current is forced to behave as a
sinusoidal current source and the grid appears as a high-impedance circuit for harmonics.
By forcing the grid current to be sinusoidal, the APF automatically provides the
harmonic, reactive, negative and zero sequence currents for the load, following the basic
current summation rule:

𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖𝐴𝑃𝐹 + 𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (3.1)

The sinusoidal grid current reference signal is given by:

𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓 = k 𝑣𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑑 -1 (3.2)

Where vgrid-1 is the fundamental component of the grid voltage and k is obtained from an
outercontrol loop regulating the CC-VSI dc-bus voltage. This can be accomplished by a
simple PI control loop. This is an effective way of determining the required magnitude of
active current required, since any mismatch between the required load active current and
that being forced by the CC-VSI would result in the necessary corrections to regulate the
dc-bus voltage. In the VSI topology used in the APF, the dc-capacitor voltage must be

17
greater than the peak of the ac grid voltage𝑑𝑖⁄𝑑𝑡Permitted by the inductance𝑋𝐿 . This
provides the CC-VSI complete control over the ac grid current.

3.4.SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER WITH HARMONIC VOLTAGE

SOURCING LOADS:

3.4.1. Compensation for Harmonic Voltage Sources:

To show a compensation for harmonic voltage sources, a simulation was

conducted using circuitconstants from the literature based on a three phase ac system
with a grid voltage of 400V- 50Hz, a 60kW diode rectifier load with dc filter capacitor, a
filter inductance (𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑣 ) of 0.45mH (5.3%), ZSof 1.8%, and XLof 1.8%, without a high
frequency filter. The circuit equivalent fromthe harmonic point of view is shown in
Figure 3.3. From computer simulation results, the three-phase shunt APF successfully
forces sinusoidal current from the grid, as and In doing this, the APF compensates the
harmonic voltages because the load harmonic voltage in spectral performance up to
1kHz) appears across 𝑋𝐿 in These same harmonic voltages appear (in relative proportion
to the inductances) in the inverter voltage in and across the inverter inductance in Thus,
the load harmonic voltages do not appear across ZS and load harmonic currents are not
created through this grid impedance. Also, assuming the grid voltage harmonics are
negligible, the ac grid voltage at the PCC will be sinusoidal. It is apparent that the CC-
VSI generates harmonic voltages with the same characteristics as the load harmonic
voltages. Moreover, the harmonic voltage of CC-VSI yields equal-but opposite voltage
on the filter inductance (𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑣 ) to keep harmonic voltage at the PCC close to zero. This
result leads the output harmonic current of the active filter to match the harmonic
components of I loads. When XLis reduced to 0.5%, the filter cannot suppress the
harmonics properly, so that the grid currents are still distorted and contain significant
amount of harmonics. The load harmonic voltage cannot be removed completely by the
harmonic voltage on XL, because the inverter cannot produce sufficient harmonic voltage
to compensate load harmonic voltage. Then, harmonic voltages still occur across grid
impedance. As a result, the inverter loses its controllability and the compensation by the
active filter cannot be accomplished.

18
3.5. POWER CIRCUIT TOPOLOGY:

Shunt active power filters are normally implemented with pulse-width modulated
voltageControlled voltage source. Traditionally, 2 levels PWM-VSI have been used to
implement such system. However, in the past years multilevel PWM voltage source
inverters have been proposed to develop active power filters for medium voltage
applications. Also, active power filters implemented with multiple VSI connected in
parallel to a dc bus but in series through a transformer or in cascade has been proposed in
the technical literature with PWM voltage-source inverters. The use of VSI connected in
cascade is an interesting alternative to compensate high power non-linear load. The use of
two PWM-VSI of different rated power allows the use of different switching frequencies,
reducing switching stresses and commutation losses in the overall compensation system.
In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using multilevel inverters for high
power energy conversion, especially for drives and reactive power compensation.
Multilevel PWM inverters can be connected to high voltage source without a coupling
transformer.

Fig. 3.5Implementation ofShunt active power filter topologies

For these types of applications, the output voltage of the multilevel inverter must
be able to generate an almost sinusoidal output current. In order to generate a near

19
sinusoidal output current, the output voltage should not contain low frequency harmonic
components. For active power filter applications the three levels NPC inverter output
voltage must be able to generate an output current that follows the respective reference
current which contain the harmonic and reactive component required by the load. The
power circuit topology of an active power filter implemented with a Neutral-Point-
Clamped voltage-source inverter is shown in Fig. 3.6. The three levels NPC voltage-
source inverter is connected in parallel through a link reactor to the power distribution
system.

Fig.3.6 Active power filter implemented with a three level

NPC voltage-source inverter

3.5.1. Control Scheme:

The block diagram of a shunt active power filter control scheme is shown in Fig. 3.7 and
consists of a current reference generator, a dc voltage control and the inverter gating
signals generator.

20
 Fig. 3.7 Block diagram of a shunt active power filter

Control scheme

The current reference circuit generates the reference currents required to compensate the
load current harmonics and reactive power, and also try to maintain constant the dc
voltage across the two electrolytic capacitors. There are many possibilities to develop this
type of control. Also, the compensation effectiveness of an active power filter depends on
its ability to follow with a minimum error and time delay the reference signal calculated
to compensated the distorted load current. Finally, the dc voltage control unit must keep
the total dc bus voltage constant and equals to a given reference value. The dc voltage
control is achieved by adjusting the small amount of real power absorbed by the inverter.
This small amount of real power is adjusted by changing the amplitude of the
fundamental component of the reference current.

3.5.2. REFERENCE SIGNALS GENERATOR:

The compensation characteristics of the series activepower filter are defined

mainly by the algorithm used togenerate the reference signals required by the
controlsystem. These reference signals must allow current andvoltage compensation with
minimum time delay. Also it isimportant that the accuracy of the information contained
inthe reference signals allows the elimination of the currentharmonics and voltage
unbalance presents in the powersystem. Since the voltage and current control scheme

21
areindependent, the equations used to calculate the voltagereference signals are the
following:

𝑉𝑎0 1 1 1 1 𝑉𝑎
𝑉
[ 𝑎1 ] = [1 𝑎 𝑎2 ] [𝑉𝑏 ]
𝑉𝑎2 √3 1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑉𝑐

(3.3)

The voltages𝑉𝑎 ,𝑉𝑏 and 𝑉𝑐 correspond to the phase to neutral voltages before the series
transformer (Fig. 3.7). The reference voltage signals are obtained by making the positive
sequence component,𝑉𝑎1, zero and then applying the inverseof the Fortescue
transformation. In this way the series activepower filter compensates only voltage
unbalance and notvoltage regulation. The reference signals for the voltageunbalance
control scheme are obtained by applying thefollowing equations:

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑎 1 −𝑉𝑎0
1 1 12
[𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑏 ] = [1 𝑎 𝑎 ][ 0 ]
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑐 √3 1 𝑎 𝑎2 −𝑉𝑎2

(3.4)

In order to compensate current harmonics generated bythe nonlinear loads, the following
equations are used

1 0
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑎
2 −1⁄ √3⁄ 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 −1 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 1 𝑖0
[𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑏 ] = √ 2 2 [−𝑉 ] [𝑞 ] + [𝑖 0 ]
3 𝑏 𝑉𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑓 √3 𝑖
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑐 −1 −√3⁄ 0
[ ⁄2 2]

(3.5)

Where𝑖0 is the fundamental zero sequence component of theline current and is calculated
using the Fortescuetransformation.

𝑖0 = 𝑖𝑎 +𝑖𝑏 +𝑖𝑐 (3.6)

Where𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 ,𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑓 , 𝑉𝑎 , and 𝑉𝑏 are defined according with theinstantaneous reactive power
theory. The zero sequencefundamental component of the line currents are generated
bythe source voltage unbalance. Since the system voltageunbalance is eliminated by
compensating the negative andzero sequence components present in the source voltage,

22
themagnitude of the fundamental component of the linecurrents are significantly reduced,
and therefore they neednot to be compensated by the current control scheme. Forthis
reason, the fundamental component of 𝑖0 from equationis filtered, leaving only the zero
sequence harmoniccomponents of 𝑖0 (𝑖0𝑟𝑒𝑓 ), which need to be eliminated from thesource
line current. Finally, the general equation that definesthe references of the PWM voltage-
source inverter requiredto compensate voltage unbalance and current harmonics isthe
following:

1 0
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑎 𝑖
2 −1⁄ √3⁄ 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑏 −1 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑓 1 0𝑟𝑒𝑓
[𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑏 ] = 𝐾1 √ 2 2 [−𝑉 ] [𝑞 ] + [𝑖0𝑟𝑒𝑓 ]
3 𝑏 𝑉𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑓 √3 𝑖
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑐 −1⁄ −√3⁄ 0𝑟𝑒𝑓
[ [ 2 2]

1 1 1 −𝑉𝑎0
+ 𝐾2 [1 𝑎2 𝑎 ][ 0 ]
1 𝑎 𝑎2 −𝑉𝑎2
]

(3.7)

Where 𝐾1 is the gain of the series transformer which defines magnitude of the impedance
for high frequency currentcomponents, and 𝐾2 defines the degree of compensation
forvoltage unbalance, ideally 𝐾2 equals to 1. Also, 𝑖0𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑖0 –𝑖01 ,where 𝑖01 is the
fundamental component of i0. The blockdiagram of the control scheme that generates is
shown inFig. 3.7 It is important to note that the references signalsCalculated with allow
the flow of only reactive powerbetween the series active power filter and the
compensatedPower system. In order to compensate voltage regulation, the positive
sequence component of the line voltages must beIncluded. The compensation of voltage
regulationrequiresgenerating active power from the active power filterto the power
system. Since there is no active power storage Element in this topology, this function
cannot be achievedwith the proposed scheme.

3.6. TOPOLOGY AND MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF CASCADE FIVE-LEVEL

APF:

3.6.1.TOPOLOGY OF CASCADE FIVE-LEVEL APF:

23
 The cascade h-bridge converter is in parallel with the nonlinear load. The main
circuit consists of three two-cell cascade h-bridge converters with the Y connection. In
the figure, 𝑢𝑆𝑘 (k = a, b, c),𝑖𝐿𝑘 ,and 𝑖𝐶𝑘 represent the source voltage, source current, load
current and compensating current separately, 𝑢𝐶𝑘 is the compensating voltage, 𝐿𝑘 is the
coupling inductor. Variables 𝑢𝑘𝑗 (j=1, 2),𝐶𝑘𝑗 ,𝑖𝑘𝑗 and 𝑉𝑘𝑗 are output voltage, DC capacitor,
capacitor current and capacitor voltage of cell j in phase k. The first switch of

Fig.3.8 APF based on cascade five-level converter

Cellj in phase k is named 𝑄𝑘1𝑗 and so are other switches. The advantages of employing
cascade topology are listed as follows. It can meet the requirement of high bandwidth of
aircraft grid with a low switching frequency; the voltages of each DC-link capacitor are
low so that the voltage stress of the power switch gets decreased; the modular design
makes the system simple and reliable.

3.6.2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL:

By supposing that 𝑉𝑘1=𝑉𝑘2=𝑉𝑑𝑐 , each cell produces three distinct voltage levels:
0, ±𝑉𝑑𝑐 . When 𝑢𝑘𝑗 =+𝑉𝑑𝑐 , 𝑄𝑘1𝑗 and 𝑄𝑘4𝑗 are on; When 𝑢𝑘𝑗 =-𝑉𝑑𝑐 , 𝑄𝑘3𝑗 and 𝑄𝑘2𝑗 are on;
When 𝑢𝑘𝑗 =0, 𝑄𝑘1𝑗 and 𝑄𝑘3𝑗 or 𝑄𝑘2𝑗 and 𝑄𝑘4𝑗 are on. According to switches on and off, the
switching function of each cell can be defined as follows:

𝑃𝑘𝑗 = 𝑄𝑘1𝑗 − 𝑄𝑘3𝑗 (3.8)

24
Here, Q=1 means switch on, Q=0 means off.Output voltage of each cell is shown:

𝑢𝑘1 = (𝑄𝑘11 − 𝑄𝑘31 ) × 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑃𝑘1 × 𝑉𝑑𝑐

𝑢𝑘2 = (𝑄𝑘12 − 𝑄𝑘32 ) × 𝑉𝑑𝑐 = 𝑃𝑘2 × 𝑉𝑑𝑐

(3.9)

Assuming that the loop impedance of each phase is 𝑅𝑘 , the compensating currents yield
the expressions:

𝑑𝑖𝐶𝑎 1
= (𝑢𝑆𝑎 − 𝑖𝐶𝑎 × 𝑅𝑎 − 𝑢𝑎1 − 𝑢𝑎2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑑𝑖𝐶𝑏 1
= (𝑢𝑆𝑏 − 𝑖𝐶𝑏 × 𝑅𝑏 − 𝑢𝑏1 − 𝑢𝑏2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑑𝑖𝐶𝑐 1
= (𝑢𝑆𝑐 − 𝑖𝐶𝑐 × 𝑅𝑐 − 𝑢𝑐1 − 𝑢𝑐2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

(3.10)

Substitute (3.8) into (3.10), model of AC side can be written as:

𝑑𝑖𝐶𝑎 1
= (𝑢𝑆𝑎 − 𝑖𝐶𝑎 × 𝑅𝑎 − 𝑃𝑎1 × 𝑉𝑑𝑐 − 𝑃𝑎2 × 𝑉𝑑𝑐 )
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑑𝑖𝐶𝑏 1
= (𝑢𝑆𝑏 − 𝑖𝐶𝑏 × 𝑅𝑏 − 𝑃𝑏1 × 𝑉𝑑𝑐 − 𝑃𝑏2 × 𝑉𝑑𝑐 )
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑑𝑖𝐶𝑐 1
= (𝑢𝑆𝑐 − 𝑖𝐶𝑐 × 𝑅𝑐 − 𝑃𝑐1 × 𝑉𝑑𝑐 − 𝑃𝑐2 × 𝑉𝑑𝑐 )
𝑑𝑡 𝐿

(3.11)

Capacitor currents can be written as:

𝑖𝑘1 = (𝑄𝑘11 − 𝑄𝑘31 ) × 𝑖𝐶𝑘 = 𝑃𝑘1 × 𝑖𝐶𝑘

𝑖𝑘2 = (𝑄𝑘12 − 𝑄𝑘32 ) × 𝑖𝐶𝑘 = 𝑃𝑘2 × 𝑖𝐶𝑘

25
 (3.12)

Relationship between Capacitor voltages and currents areillustrated:

𝑑𝑉𝑘1 1
= 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑘1 𝑘1

𝑑𝑉𝑘2 1
= 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑘2 𝑘2

(3.13)

Substitute (3.12) into (3.13), the model of DC side is obtained:

𝑑𝑉𝑘1 1
= 𝑃 × 𝑖𝑐𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑘1 𝐾1

𝑑𝑉𝑘2 1
= 𝑃 × 𝑖𝑐𝑘
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑘2 𝐾2

(3.14)

3.7. SYSTEM CONTROL:

The conventional control strategy of APF is detecting the harmonic and reactive
components as the reference of compensating current and sending it to the current
controller, making the practical compensating current tracking the reference. However,
for source current, the conventional control strategy is open-loop. The compensation
accuracy depends on the voltage and current sampling and harmonic detecting scheme to
a great extent. But for the electric power system, of which the frequency is as high as
400Hz, the delay of the digital technique now a day cannot meet the demands. In order to
meet the requirements of the electric power system, the source current direct control is
employed in this project and it is closed-loop to the source current. Fig. 3.9 illustrates the
control diagram of phase a. The overall control has two parts source current direct control
and DC link voltage balance control. In source current direct control, 𝑖𝑆𝑎 * is the reference
of the source current. Its phase signal 𝑒𝑆𝑎 is obtained by locking the phase of source
voltage 𝑢𝑆𝑎 . The amplitude of 𝑖𝑆𝑎 has two components fundamental of load current feed
forward component 𝐼𝑓𝑓𝑎 and APF DC-link voltage feedback component𝑖𝑓𝑏𝑎 . The load
current feed forward component is obtained by processing the load instantaneous power

26
with a low pass filter (LPF) step and it is the majority of the amplitude of source current
reference. APF DC-link voltage feedback component is the output of APF DC-link
voltage loop and it is a relatively small active signal. The sum of the two components
above is the amplitude of source current reference. The source current reference 𝑖𝑆𝑎 *
minus the practical source current 𝑖𝑆𝑎 is the control variable of source current 𝑣𝑚𝑎 .

Fig.3.9 System control diagram of proposed APF

To guarantee the normal working of the cascade APF, the DC voltage balance control is
required. The DC voltage balance control acts on the modulation process directly. The
error between two capacitor voltages will be sent to the DC voltage balance regulator and
𝑑𝑉 𝑎 is got. The DC voltage balance control variable 𝑉𝑏𝑎 is the product of 𝑑𝑉 𝑎 and the
polarity of compensating current. The nature of DC voltage balance control is regulating
the active power of the different DC capacitors to make the capacitor voltages balance.

3.8. PROPOSED ACTIVE POWER FILTER:

From the analysis provided in the previous section, the basic function of
the two core function modules is presented. Configuration and operation principle of the
proposed APF based on this two module will be given in this section. The complete
active power filter configuration is illustrated by Fig. 3.11. In the power stage, APF
consists of a 2-H bridge cascaded inverter and a boost inductor. Nonlinear loads are
selected as the capacitive and inductive load. The control stage consists of the following
three control loops: dc link voltage control loop, source current control loop and dc link
voltage balance control loop. The operation principle of these three control loops will be
given as follow.

27
 Fig. 3.10 System diagram of active power filter

Fig. 3.11Operation principle of cascaded inverter under CPS control

3.8.1. Dc Link Voltage Control:

With the voltage control loop, the dc link voltage of APF follows its reference, to
ensure the proper operation and good compensation performance. In the proposed APF’s

28
voltage control loop, the dc link voltages of every cascaded inverter (𝑉𝑑𝑐1and𝑉𝑑𝑐2) are
detected and average value of them is obtained. After comparison with the voltage
reference𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 , the voltage error is sent to the voltage regulator. The output of the voltage
regulator AS is sent to the multiplier together with the synchronous sine wave ES. The
detailed voltage control scheme is given by Fig. 3.12. It should be noticed that, in this
control scheme, feedback control target is the sum of all inverter’s dc link voltage, which
is different with the traditional source current direct control. Furthermore, this voltage
control scheme could be expanded to N-H bridge cascaded inverter topology. So this
control scheme actually control the maximum value of the cascaded converter 𝑉𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =N
×𝑉𝑑𝑐 . Here, N corresponds to the number of cascaded converter units. One obvious
advantage of this control scheme is that final compensation performance would not get
worse when one or more cascaded units stop working. Remaining cascaded units would
share the dc link voltage of the fault one.

Fig. 3.12 Operation principle of dc link voltage control

This voltage Control scheme can increase the fault toleration and reliability of the APF
system.

3.8.2. Source Current Control”

In the source current control loop, the current error 𝑖𝑆 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜 ois amplified by the
current controller and sent to the PWM modulation. It is the same with the traditional
current control.

SUMMARY:

In this chapter Introduction, Shunt Active Power Filter, Shunt Active Power Filter
Operation, Shunt Active Power Filter with Harmonic Voltage Sourcing Loads, Power

29
circuit Topology, Topology of Cascaded 5-level APF, System ControlandProposed
Active Power Filter are discussed.

CHAPTER 4

30
 CASCADED SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER FOR
POWER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
4.1. INTRODUCTION:

The increasing use of electrical power in place of hydraulic,pneumatic, and

mechanical power is demandingmore advanced power systems. The concept of the“all-
electric power system” and the “more electric power system”have been introduced to
overcome some of the drawbacksfound in conventional architectures and bring more
attractiveadvantages, such as improved fuel consumption and lowermaintenance and
operation costs. This implies an increaseof the electrical load and power electronic
equipment, higherconsumption of electrical energy, more demand for generatedpower,
power quality, and stability problems.Fig. 4.1 illustrates the next-generation electrical
power system (EPS). In the variable-speed variable-frequency (VSVF)-based EPS, the
“constant speed drive” is moved. Harmoniccurrent compensation by means of active
power filter (APF) is a well-known effective solution for the reductionof current
distortion and for power quality improvement inelectrical systems. The shunt
compensator behaves as a controlled current source that can draw any chosen current
referenceswhich is usually the harmonic components of the loadcurrents. Meanwhile,
more and more APFs are appliednot only in harmonic current and reactive power
compensationbut also in the neutral line current compensation, harmonicdamping
application, and power flow control. As Fig. 4.1 shows,in the EPS, the APF could be
installed in the sourceside (such as the generator) or near the load side, and itcould even
be integrated into the load-front converter (such asthe input stage converter of variable-
speed drives).Introducing APF technology to resolve the power quality issues of the EPS
catches increasing attention. Severalpapers have been published about the APF’s
application in theEPS since 2005. Ganthony and Bingham proposedan integrated series
active filter for control surface actuation. Simulation results based on MATLABare given
as well as the hardware platform picture. Lavopa et al. proposed an estimation method of
fundamentalfrequency and harmonics for APF applications in Electric Power Systems of
Good harmonic real-timedetection performance is achieved from both simulationand
experimental waveforms.Odavicet al. proposeda current control strategy for shunt APF in

31
powernetworks. A predictive controller with a genetic algorithm andmultilevel converters
are applied. In order to compensate theinherent delay of digital control systems, Biaginiet
al. investigatedthe development of an improved deadbeat controlledshunt APF for
aerospace applications working in a power system with a supply frequency of 400 Hz.
AMoultriesolution control strategy is proposed for the DSP controlledshunt APF to
reduce real-time computational requirements.However, the system dynamic performance
from thegiven experimental result is not improved. A shunt APFusing perfect harmonic
cancellation is studied. The harmonicfiltering performance of the APF in both the
conventional andthe advanced EPS is presented with Mat lab simulationresults. Based on
the given structure and modeling of theadvancedEPS, performance characteristics of the
EPSwithout and with APF are compared. The power-quality characteristicsof both the
conventional and the advanced EPS with APF are shown to be in compliance with the
popularelectrical standards, i.e., IEEE-Std. 519 and MIL-STD-704 F.In this paper, a high-
performance APF is proposed.Differently from traditional open-loop control strategy, the
proposed Active Power Filter (APF) works in a close-loop way.Good power quality of
the EPS is achieved by using the novel cascaded shunt APF. Furthermore, in order to
improve the dynamic performance of the load response, a feedforward path of the load
current is added.

Fig. 4.1 Next-generation electrical power system

Based on the modeling and analysis of theclose-loop system, the operation principle of
the feedforwardcompensation path is revealed. Meanwhile, the control methodof the
cascaded-inverter-based APF is proposed. The operationprinciple containing the overall

32
voltage control andvoltage-balance control is given. Simulation results under
differentfundamental frequencies and load conditions are given.In order to verify the
beforementioned analysis and compensationperformance of the proposed APF, an
APFsystem with a 7.2-kVA load power is built and tested in the laboratory. Experimental
waveforms in different load conditionsindicate the good performance of the APF.

4.2. CLOSE-LOOP CONTROL STRATEGY ANDITSFEEDFORWARD

COMPENSATION:

4.2.1. Close-Loop Control Strategy:

In the traditional control of APF, the current reference is usually the harmonic and
reactive components of the load currents.However, the approach, essentially based on
feedforward openloopcontrol, is sensitive to the parameter mismatches and relieson the
ability to accurately predict the voltage-source invertercurrent reference and its control
performance. In the close-loop control, detection and control target is the source current.
In the EPS, the fundamental frequency ismuch higher than 50-Hz power system.
Furthermore, measureerrors, analog to digital conversion time, digital delay, and
othernon-ideal factors will deteriorate the open-loop compensationeffect to a worse
degree.

Fig. 4.2 Control diagram of source current direct control.

As we known, feedback control hasthe following merits: It could reduce the transfer
function fromdisturbances to the output, and it causes the transfer functionfrom the

33
reference input to the output to be insensitive tovariations in the gains in the forward
path. Therefore, comparedwith open-loop control, close-loop control is more suitable
forthe aeronautical application.

4.2.2. Source Current Direct Control:

In this paper, the close-loop control named as source currentdirect control is

applied as the main control strategy of theproposed APF. The source current direct
control is proposedby Wu and Jou. The basic system diagram of the closed loopcontrol
scheme is given in Fig. 4.2. This control strategyoperates as follows: The dc-link voltage
is sent to the voltageregulator, and the output of the regulator is sent to the multiplier as
well as a synchronous sine wave which is detected fromthe phase voltage. The output of
the multiplier is sent to thecurrent regulator, being the source current reference. The
outputof the current regulator will be sent to the modulator to generatethe pulsewidth
modulation waveforms. Fig. 4.3 gives the equivalentcontrol model of this compensation
strategy. As shownin Fig. 4.3, the source current reference of the source currentdirect
control comes from the variation of the dc-link voltage.Here, 𝐺𝑣 (s) corresponds to the
transfer function of the voltagecontroller; 𝐾𝑓 is the dc-link voltage detection coefficient.

Fig. 4.3Model for active power analysis

4.3 Cascaded H-Bridge multilevel Inverter (CMLI):

The cascaded H-bridge multilevel Inverter (CMLI) uses separate dc sources

(SDCSs). The multilevel inverter using cascaded-inverter with SDCSs synthesizes a
desired voltage from several independent sources of dc voltages, which may be obtained

34
from batteries, fuel cells, or solar cells. This configuration recently becomes very popular
in ac power supply and adjustable speed drive applications. This new inverter can avoid
extra clamping diodes or voltage balancing capacitors. Again, the cascaded multilevel
inverters are classified depending on the type of DC sources used throughout the input.

A single-phase structure of an m-level cascaded inverter is each separate dc

source (SDCS) is connected to a single-phase full-bridge, or H-bridge, inverter. Each
inverter level can generate three different voltage outputs, +Vdc, 0, and –Vdc by
connecting the dc source to the ac output by different combinations of the four switches,
𝑆1, 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 , and 𝑆4 . To obtain +Vdc, switches 𝑆1and 𝑆4 are turned on, whereas –Vdc can be
obtained by turning on switches 𝑆2 and𝑆3 . By turning on 𝑆1and 𝑆2 or 𝑆3 and 𝑆4 , the output
voltage is 0. The ac outputs of each of the different full-bridge inverter levels are
connected in series such that the synthesized voltage waveform is the sum of the inverter
outputs.

One more alternative for a multilevel inverter is the cascaded multilevel inverter
(CMLI) or series H-bridge inverter. The series H-bridge inverter appeared in 1975[14].
Cascaded multilevel (CMLI)inverter was not fully realized until two researchers, Lai and
Peng. They patented it and presented its various advantages in 1997.

Fig 4.4 Single phase structures of Cascaded inverter (a) 3-level, (b) 5-level,

(c) 7-level

35
 Since then, the CMLI has been utilized in a wide range of applications. With its
modularity and flexibility, the CMLI shows superiority in high-power applications,
especially shunt and series connected FACTS controllers. The CMLI synthesizes its
output nearly sinusoidal voltage waveforms by combining many isolated voltage levels.
By adding more H-bridge converters, the amount of VAR can simply increase without
redesign the power stage, and build-in redundancy against individual H-bridge converter
failure can be realized. A series of single-phase full bridges makes up a phase for the
inverter.

A three-phase CMI topology is essentially composed of three identical phase legs

of the series-chain of H-bridge converters,which can possibly generate different output
voltage waveforms and offers the potential for AC system phase-balancing. This feature
is impossible in other VSC topologies utilizing a common DC link. Since this topology
consists of series power conversion cells, the voltage and power level may be easily
scaled. The dc link supply for each full bridge converter is provided separately, and this
is typically achieved using diode rectifiers fed from isolated secondary windings of a
three-phase transformer. Phase-shifted transformers can supply the cells in medium-
voltage systems in order to provide high power quality at the utility connection.

4.3.1. Features of CMLI:

For real power conversions, (ac to dc and dc to ac), the cascaded-inverter needs
separate dc sources. The structure of separate dc sources is well suited for various
renewable energy sources such as fuel cell, photovoltaic, and biomass, etc.

Connecting separated dc sources between two converters in a back-to-back fashion is not

possible because a short circuit will be introduced when two back-to-back converters are
not switching synchronously.

In summary, advantages and disadvantages of the cascaded inverter based

multilevel voltage source converter can be listed below.

Advantages and Disadvantages of CMLI:

i) The regulation of the DC buses is simple.

36
 ii) Modularity of control can be achieved. Unlike the diode clamped and
capacitor clamped inverter where the individual phase legs must be modulated
by a central controller, the full-bridge inverters of a cascaded structure can be
modulated separately.

iii) Requires the least number of components among all multilevel converters to
achieve the same number of voltage levels.

iv) Soft-switching can be used in this structure to avoid bulky and lossy resistor-
capacitor-diode snubber.

Disadvantages:

i) Communication between the full-bridges is required to achieve the

synchronization of reference and the carrier waveforms.

ii) Needs separate dc sources for real power conversions, and thus its
applications are somewhat limited.

4.4. CONTROL METHOD OF THE CASCADED-INVERTER BASED APF:

A shunt APF acts as a controlled harmonic current source,injecting current which

is inverse equivalent to the load harmonic. In the 400-Hz EPS, frequencies of the 11th
and13th harmonics reach as high as 4.4 and 5.2 kHz. How to drawa high-frequency
harmonic current accurately is a key issue ofdeveloping APF.

Fig. 4.5Four possible solutions of APF (a) Three-leg-inverter-based APF (b) H-bridge-
based APF (c) Two H-bridge cascaded APF. (d) Four H-bridge cascaded APF

37
 The Fig. 4.5 shows four possible solutions of APF: the threeleg-inverter-based
APF, the H-bridge-based APF, the twoH-bridge cascaded APF, and the four H-bridge
cascaded APF.Comparative study of these solutions is taken as follows.

For the first solution, in order to achieve good current trackingperformance in

400-Hz system, the switching frequenciesof APF are selected as 60, 120, and 240 kHz,
and the dc-link voltage is adopted as 400V.For the second solution, considering the
“double equivalentswitching frequency effect” of the carrier phase shift (CPS)PWM
modulation, the switching frequencies of APF areselected as 30, 60, and 120 kHz, and the
dc-link voltage is adoptedas 300 V. Meanwhile, the same equivalent switching
frequencymeansalmost the same current tracking performance andalmost the same
bandwidth of APF. The switching frequenciesand dc-link voltage of the other two
solutions is given in APPENDIX-B and in the power switches are all from
InternationalRectifier (IR) Corporations with the current rating near 24 A.

1) Compared with the last two solutions, switching powerloss plays important roles for
the first two solutions. Negligible switching power losses make the first twosolutions
less competitive when the switching frequencyincreases.
2) Negligible switching power losses in the last two solutionsmake the total power
losses smaller in a wide rangeof switching frequency. Meanwhile, power losses of
thelast two solutions are nearly in the same level.

On the other hand, the “dead-time effect” deteriorates thecurrent tracking performance of
APF, particularly in the highswitching frequency application. For the multilevel
cascadedconverter with CPS PWM modulation, the “dead-time effect”could be
attenuated in a large degree by using a relatively lowswitching frequency.

In this paper, the two H-bridge cascaded APF is selectedas the power stage
configuration of the APF, both forthe accepted small power loss and reliability (as shown
inFig. 4.5). The switching frequency is selected as 30 kHz, sothe ac voltage of each
cluster becomes a five-level line toneutralPWM waveform with the lowest harmonic
sidebandcentered at 120 kHz (= 30 kHz × 2 × 2). Maintenance ofthe voltage balance of
the capacitors is critical to the safeoperation of the H-bridge-based APF. The voltage-
balancecontrol of the floating dc capacitors can be divided into thefollowing:

38
1) Clustered overall control;

2) Balancing control.

Fig. 4.6 Power losses of different possible APF solutions (a) with the equivalent
switching frequency of 60 kHz (b) With the equivalent switching frequencyof 120 kHz
(c) With the equivalent switching frequency of 240 kHz

Fig. 4.7 System diagram of the Cascaded Shunt APF in Electrical Power System

4.4.1. Clustered Overall Control:

In the cluster overall voltage control loop, sums of thecapacitor voltages in each
cluster (for example: 𝑣𝑢1 and 𝑣𝑢2 for phase-u) are the control target. This cluster overall
controlyields the u-phase clustered overall voltage signal 𝑣𝑜𝑢 from thedc capacitor voltage

39
reference 𝑣𝑑𝑐 , the dc capacitor voltages ofthe u-phase cluster 𝑣𝑢1 , 𝑣𝑢2 , and the
synchronous sine wave𝑒𝑆𝑢 (as shown in Fig. 4.8). Furthermore, this voltage
controlscheme could be expanded to the N H-bridge cascaded invertertopology. Here, N
corresponds to the number of cascadedconverter units.One obvious advantage of this
control scheme is that thefinal compensation performance would not get worse when
oneor more cascaded units stop working. The remaining cascaded unitswould share the
dc-link voltage of the fault one. This voltage control scheme can increase the fault
toleration and reliability of the APF system.

Fig. 4.8 Control diagram of the cluster over all control.

40
 Fig. 4.9Operation principle of voltage-balance control (a) Control diagram

(b) Regulation procedure.

4.4.2. Balancing Control:

As Fig. 4.10(a) shows, the balancing control yields a balancecontrol signal 𝑣𝑏𝑛 (n
= u, v, w) to make the voltage of thecapacitors in each cluster balanced. The individual
balancecontrol yields two modulation waves vmn1 and vmn2 from theorigin modulation
wave 𝑣𝑚 and the dc capacitor voltages ofeach cluster vn1, vn2. In the CPS PWM
modulation, PWMsignals for Q1,Q2 and Q3,Q4 are modulated by vmn1, whilePWM
signals for Q5,Q6 and Q7,Q8 are modulated by vmn2.The current direction and the switch
combination define thecharging or discharging of the each particular capacitor ofthe dc
link. Depending on the current direction and neededcharging or discharging process, the
voltage signal 𝑉𝑏𝑢𝑠 shouldbe added or subtracted to/from the modulating signal. For
theupper cascaded unit, the input power decreases when the dutycycles of Q1 and Q4
decrease, resulting in the dc-link voltagevu1 being reduced. Similarly, the dc-link voltage

41
of the lowercascaded unit 𝑉𝑢2 will get increased. The voltage balance istherefore
achieved.Take the phase-u cluster for example to show the regulationprocedure of
voltage-balance control [as shown in Fig. 4.10(b)].In the steady state, the modulation
wave of bridge 1 (composedof Q1 and Q2) is 𝑣𝑚𝑢 , and the conduct times of Q1 andQ2 are
tu1 and tu2, respectively. When the situation vu1>vu2 happens, a positive balance control
voltage signal 𝑣𝑏𝑢𝑠 isobtained under the regulator’s action. As Fig. 4.10(a) shows,the final
modulation wave for Q1 and Q2 is the sum of 𝑣𝑚𝑢 and −𝑣𝑏𝑢 , which becomes vmu1 after
′ ′
regulation. Therefore,the conduction times of Q1 and Q2 turn to be 𝑡𝑢1 and 𝑡𝑢2 .As Fig.
4.10(b) illustrates, we could find that tu1< tu1 andtu2> tu2, which means that the duty cycle
of Q1 decreased but the duty cycle of Q2 increased.

Fig. 4.10 Control diagram for phase-u of the proposed APF.

Meanwhile, the duty cycleof Q3 increased, and the duty cycle of Q4 decreased.The whole
control diagram for phase-u of the proposedAPF is given in Fig. 4.10, which contains the
overall voltagecontrol, voltage-balance control, load current feed forward
compensation,and source current direct control.Instantaneous reactive power (p-q) theory
is used to control of shunt active power filter in real time.The p-q theory performs a
metamorphosis (known as “Clarke Transformation”) of astationary coordinate system of
coordinates a – b - c to a coordinate system of coordinates α - β – zero and stationary the
calculation of the p-q theory instantaneous power components. The Voltage and Current
control equations are as shown in the below:
Where the voltages and currents can be calculated from following mathematical model
equations,

42
 2 1 1
𝑣𝛼 = √3 (𝑣𝑎 − 2 𝑣𝑏 − 2 𝑣𝑐 ) (4.1)

2 √3 √3
𝑣𝛽 = √3 (0 + 𝑣 − 𝑣) (4.2)
2 𝑏 2 𝑐

2 1 1
𝑖𝛼 = √3 (𝑖𝑎 − 2 𝑖𝑏 − 2 𝑖𝑐 ) (4.3)

2 √3 √3
𝑖𝛽 = √3 (0 + 𝑖 − 𝑖 ) (4.4)
2 𝑏 2 𝑐

Instantaneous Real Power (p)and Imaginary Power (q):

𝑝 = 𝑣𝛼 𝑖𝛼 + 𝑣𝛽 𝑖𝛽 (4.5)
𝑞 = 𝑣𝛼 𝑖𝛽 − 𝑣𝛽 𝑖𝛼 (4.6)
Where pis the mean value of the instantaneous real power and it corresponds to the
energy per time unity that is transferred from the power source to the load through the
voltage and current.
q − Mean value of instantaneous imaginary power.The instantaneous imaginary power, q,
has to do with power (and corresponding undesirable currents) that is exchanged between
the system phases, and which does not imply any transference or exchange of energy
between the power source and the load.
To calculate the reference compensation currents in the α-β coordinates, the expression is
inverted, and the Powers to be compensated.

1 𝑣𝛼 𝑣𝛽 𝑝
𝑖𝛼𝛽 ∗ = 𝑣2 2
[𝑣 −𝑣𝛼 ] [𝑞 ] (4.7)
𝛼 +𝑣𝛽 𝛽

From the above equation we get that 𝑖𝛼 ∗ and 𝑖𝛽 ∗ ,

𝑣𝛼 𝑝−𝑣𝛽 𝑞
𝑖𝛼 ∗ = (4.8)
𝑣𝛼 2 +𝑣𝛽 2
𝑣𝛽 𝑝−𝑣𝛼 𝑞
𝑖𝛽 ∗ = (4.9)
𝑣𝛼 2 +𝑣𝛽 2

In order to get thereference compensation currents within the a-b-c coordinates

the inverse of the transformation given in expression is
2
𝑖𝑢 = √3 [𝑖𝛼 ∗ ] (4.10)

43
 2 1 √3 ∗
𝑖𝑣 = √3 [− 2 𝑖𝛼 ∗ − 𝑖 ] (4.11)
2 𝛽

2 1 √3 ∗
𝑖𝑤 = √3 [− 2 𝑖𝛼 ∗ − 𝑖 ] (4.12)
2 𝛽

SUMMARY:
In this chapter Introduction, Closed loop control strategy and its feed forward
compensation, Cascaded H-Bridge Multi level inverter and Control method of the
cascaded Inverter based active power filter are discussed.

44
 CHAPTER 5

MATLAB AND SIMULATION RESULTS

5.1 SIMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION:

The proposed APF is tested with MATLAB composed of three single-phase two
H-bridge cascaded voltage source inverters in a Y-connection. The whole APF system
majorly consists of the power circuit and control circuit. The parameter values configured
system and controller gains are shown in Appendix - A

In this chapter simulation results are presented to investigate the performance of

shunt active power filter in electrical power system with cascaded H-bridge inverter. The
simulation models of Shunt active power Filter and Cascaded H-bridge inverter have
been developed by using MATLAB/Simulink. Simulation results are obtained by using
P-Q control technique for diode rectifier with inductive load and capacitive load, on its
DC side as its nonlinear load.Fig. 5.1 shows the Simulink model of proposed cascaded
multilevel inverter based APF. Fig. 5.2 shows the control circuit, Fig. 5.3 shows the APF
and Fig. 5.4 shows the multilevel inverter Simulink implementation diagrams.

Fig. 5.1MATLAB/Simulink Model of Proposed Cascaded Multilevel Inverter Based APF

45
Fig. 5.2 MATLAB/Simulink diagram of Control circuit of proposed Shunt Active Power
Filter

Fig. 5.3 MATLAB/Simulink diagram proposed Active Power Filter

46
Fig. 5.4 MATLAB/Simulink diagram of Cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter

5.2 Simulation results without APF:

The simulation results for source voltage, source current, compensation current,
and load current and𝑉𝑑𝑐 of without connecting APF is shown in Fig 5.5. The simulation
is performed under the parameters of source voltage 11 kV, and the nonlinear diode
rectifier load of 60Ohm, 100mH. In this case the diode rectifier connected with inductive
load on dc side is considered as nonlinear load. It is observed due to nonlinear load across
the load terminals the load currents draws harmonic current which should be supplied by
the source. Therefore the source current is same as the load current and hence disturbing
the quality of the supply current.

47
 Fig. 5.5Source Voltage, Source Current, Compensation Currents, Load Current, 𝑉𝑎𝑐
without APF

The diode rectifier nonlinear load is connected to the source at PCC, the source
and load currents contain harmonic distortion. The FFT analysis of source current
waveform without connecting APF is shown in Fig 5.6. It shows that the total THD of
28.29%. As the harmonic order increases, the magnitude of the harmonics decreases and
becomes negligible after 20th harmonic. The fundamental component has a frequency of
50HZ. The other harmonics has frequencies multiplied by their order.

48
 Fig. 5.6 FFT analysis of Source current wave form without APF

5.3. Simulation results for Proposed CMLI Based APF with inductive load on dc
side:

The simulation results for Source Voltage, Source Current, Compensation

Currents, LoadCurrent, and𝑉𝑑𝑐 of Proposed Cascaded Multilevel Inverter (CMLI) Based
APF with Inductive load on dc side of the rectifier is as shown in the Fig. 5.7. It is
observed that with connecting APF even though load current is non-sinusoidal and source
currents are sinusoidal.

49
 Fig. 5.7Source Voltage, Source Current, Compensation Currents, Load Current, 𝑉𝑎𝑐 of
Proposed CMLI based APF with Inductive load on dc side

The FFT analysis of source current waveform with connecting CMLI based APF
is as shown in Fig 5.8. It shows that due to connected load is purely nonlinear, when
considering maximum harmonic frequency at that THD is 62.09%.

50
 Fig. 5.8 FFT Analysis of Source Current of Proposed CMLI Based APF with Inductive
Load on dc side

5.4.Simulation result for Proposed Cascaded Multilevel Inverter Based APF under
Capacitive load condition:

The simulation results for Source Voltage, Source Current, Compensation

Currents, LoadCurrent, and𝑉𝑑𝑐 of Proposed Cascaded Multilevel Inverter (CMLI) Based
APF with Capacitive load on dc side of the rectifier is as shown in the Fig. 5.9. It is
observed that with connecting APF even though load current is non-sinusoidal and source
currents are sinusoidal.

51
 Fig. 5.9Source Voltage, Source Current, Compensation Currents, Load Current, 𝑉𝑎𝑐 of
Proposed CMLI based APF with Capacitive load on dc side

The FFT analysis of source current waveform with connecting CMLI based APF
is as shown in Fig 5.10. It shows that due to connected load is purely nonlinear, when
considering maximum harmonic frequency at that THD is 67.94%.

52
Fig. 5.10 FFT Analysis of Source Current of Proposed CMLI Based APF with Capacitive
Load Condition

53
5.5. Simulation results for Proposed CMLI based APF with variable Frequency of
EPS-100 Hz, 200 Hz, and 300 Hz:

Fig. 5.11 Source Voltage, Source Current, Compensation Currents, Load Current, 𝑉𝑎𝑐 of
Proposed CMLI based APF with variable Frequency of EPS-100Hz, 200Hz, and 300Hz

54
Case 1: Using 100 Hz

Fig. 5.12 Source Voltage, Source Current, Compensation Currents, Load Current, 𝑉𝑎𝑐 of
proposed CMLIbased APF with variable Frequency of EPS-100Hz

55
Case 2: Using 200Hz Frequency of EPS

Fig. 5.13Source Voltage, Source Current, Compensation Currents, Load Current, 𝑉𝑎𝑐 of
Proposed CMLI based APF with variable Frequency of EPS-200Hz

56
Case 3: Using 300Hz Frequency of EPS

Fig. 5.14 Source Voltage, Source Current, Compensation Currents, Load Current, 𝑉𝑎𝑐 of
Proposed CMLI based APF with variable Frequency of EPS-300Hz

57
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND FUTURESCOPE

6.1 CONCLUSION:

APF technology is a useful method to resolve the powerquality issues of the

modern EPS. In this aload current feedforward compensation method for the source
current direct control-based APF has been proposed. Thecorresponding system control
strategy of the cascaded-inverterbasedactive filter system is shown. Simulation results
with a load power of 7.2 kW are shown to confirmthe good compensation behavior for
various kinds of nonlinearload condition it also provides better dynamic performance of
the proposed control method. The simulation results also shows that the under variable
frequency control, the proposed method provides good dynamic control in mitigating the
harmonic distortion in the source current.

6.2 FUTURE SCOPE:

In this work control and the performance of cascaded shunt active power filter for
electrical power system with H-bridge inverter proposed and results were analyzed. This
proposed technique Hardware implementation of the system has to be done as future
work and also applied to intelligence and hybrid intelligence applications and also
implemented to higher levels for getting qualities voltage at inverter terminals with
different modulations schemes and also applied to distribution generation system with
different loading conditions.

58
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60
 APPENDIX-A

Parameter and Constants Used for the Laboratory Setup

Parameter Notation Values used

Line voltage 𝑉𝑠 115V
Fundamental Frequency 𝑓0 50Hz
Load Power 𝑃𝐿 7.2kVA
DC link Voltage of each 𝑉𝑑𝑐 120V
inverter
Switching Frequency 𝑓𝑠𝑤 30kHZ
Switching Device Q FQ24N60
Boost inductance in each 𝐿𝑓 600µH
inverter
DC capacitance 𝐶𝑑𝑐 680µF
Inductance in the AC side 𝐿𝑎𝑐 50µH
of the Rectifier
Controller of DC voltage 𝐾𝑝0 0.1/1
⁄𝐾
𝑖𝑜
loop
Controller of DC voltage 𝐾𝑝𝑏 0.3/0.5
⁄𝐾
𝑖𝑏
balance loop
Controller of Source 𝐾𝑝𝑖 5
Current Control loop

61
 APPENDIX-B

Parameters of Four Possible APF Solutions

Solution Dc-link voltage(V) Power device Switching

Frequency(kHz)
Three-leg inverter 400 IRFP26N60L 60
based APF 120
240
H-bridge based 300 IRFP23N50L 30
APF 60
120
Two H-bridge 150 IRFP254N 15
cascaded APF 30
60
Four H-bridge 75 IRFP23N15D 7.5
cascaded APF 15
30

62