Serpentinite From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A sample of serpentinite rock, partially made up of chrysotile

Boulder of Serpentinite at Soldiers Delight Natural Environmental Area, Maryland

Serpentinite is a rock composed of one or more serpentine group minerals. Minerals in this group are formed
by serpentinization, a hydration and metamorphic transformation of ultramafic rock from the Earth's mantle.
The alteration is particularly important at the sea floor at tectonic plate boundaries. It is the state rock of
California, USA and the California Legislature specified that serpentine was “the official State Rock and
lithologic emblem.”[1] However, a serious faction is trying to remove the rock's title, as it occasionally contains
asbestos, considered inappropriate as a state symbol.

Contents
• 1 Formation
• 2 Hydrogen production by anaerobic oxidation of fayalite ferrous ions
• 3 Serpentinite reactions
• 4 Carbon sequestration
• 5 Bleistein or Ofenstein
• 6 Serpentinization on Mars
• 7 See also
• 8 External links

• 9 References

Formation
Serpentinization is a geological low-temperature metamorphic process involving heat and water in which low-
silica mafic and ultramafic rocks are oxidized (anaerobic oxidation of Fe2+ by the protons of water leading to the
formation of H2) and hydrolyzed with water into serpentinite. Peridotite, including dunite, at and near the
seafloor and in mountain belts is converted to serpentine, brucite, magnetite, and other minerals — some rare,
such as awaruite (Ni3Fe), and even native iron. In the process large amounts of water are absorbed into the rock
increasing the volume and destroying the structure.
The density changes from 3.3 to 2.7 g/cm3 with a concurrent volume increase of about 40%. The reaction is
exothermic and large amounts of heat energy are produced in the process.

Rock temperatures can be raised by about 260 oC, providing an energy source for formation of non-volcanic
hydrothermal vents. The magnetite-forming chemical reactions produce hydrogen gas under anaerobic
conditions prevailing deep in the mantle, far from the Earth atmosphere. Carbonates and sulfates are
subsequently reduced by hydrogen and form methane and hydrogen sulfide. The hydrogen, methane, and
hydrogen sulfide provide energy sources for deep sea chemotroph microorganisms.

Hydrogen production by anaerobic oxidation of fayalite ferrous ions

In the absence of atmospheric oxygen (O2), in deep geological conditions prevailing far away from Earth
atmosphere, hydrogen (H2) is produced by the anaerobic oxidation of ferrous ions (Fe2+) present in the crystal
lattice of the iron-endmember fayalite by the protons (H+) of water.
Considering three formula units of fayalite (Fe2(SiO4)) for the purpose of stoechiometry and reaction mass
balance, four ferrous ions will undergo oxidation by water protons while the two remaining will stay
unoxidised. Neglecting the orthosilicate anions not involved in the redox process, it is then possible to
schematically write the two half-redox reactions as follows:

4 (Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–) (oxidation of ferrous ions)

2 (H2O + 2 e– → O2– + H2) (reduction of protons into hydrogen)

This leads to the global redox reaction involving ferrous ions oxidation by water:

4 Fe2+ + 2 H2O → 4 Fe3+ + 2 O2– + 2 H2

The two unoxidised ferrous (Fe2+) ions still available in the three formula units of fayalite finally combine with
the four ferric (Fe3+) cations and oxide anions (O2–) to form two formula units of magnetite (Fe3O4).

Finally, considering the required rearrangement of the orthosilicate anions into free silica (SiO2) and free oxide
anions (O2–), it is possible to write the complete reaction of anaerobic oxidation and hydrolysis of fayalite
according to the following mass balance:

3 Fe2SiO4 + 2 H2O → 2 Fe3O4 + 3 SiO2 + 3 H2

fayalite + water → magnetite + quartz + hydrogen

This reaction closely resembles the Schikorr reaction observed in the anaerobic oxidation of the ferrous
hydroxide in contact with water:

3 Fe(OH)2 → Fe3O4 + 2 H2O + H2

ferrous hydroxide → magnetite + water + hydrogen

Serpentinite reactions
Serpentinite is formed from olivine via several reactions, some of which are complementary. Olivine is a solid
solution between the magnesium-endmember forsterite and the iron-endmember fayalite. Serpentinite reactions
1a and 1b, below, exchange silica between forsterite and fayalite to form serpentine group minerals and
magnetite. These are highly exothermic reactions.
Reaction 1a:
Fayalite + water → magnetite + aqueous silica + hydrogen

3Fe2SiO4 + 2H2O → 2Fe3O4 + 3SiO2 + 2H2

Reaction 1b:
Forsterite + aqueous silica → serpentine

3Mg2SiO4 + SiO2 + 4H2O → 2Mg3Si2O5(OH)4

Reaction 1c:
Forsterite + water → serpentine + brucite

2Mg2SiO4 + 3H2O → Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + Mg(OH)2

Reaction 1c describes the hydration of olivine with water only to yield serpentine and Mg(OH)2 (brucite).
Serpentine is stable at high pH in the presence of brucite like calcium silicate hydrate, (C-S-H) phases formed
along with portlandite (Ca(OH)2) in hardened Portland cement paste after the hydration of belite (Ca2SiO4), the
artificial calcium equivalent of forsterite.

Analogy of reaction 1c with belite hydration in ordinary Portland cement:

Belite + water → C-S-H phase + portlandite

2 Ca2SiO4 + 4 H2O → 3 CaO · 2 SiO2 · 3 H2O + Ca(OH)2

After reaction, the poorly soluble reaction products (aqueous silica or dissolved magnesium ions) can be
transported in solution out of the serpentinized zone by diffusion or advection.

A similar suite of reactions involves pyroxene-group minerals, though less readily and with complication of the
additional end-products due to the wider compositions of pyroxene and pyroxene-olivine mixes. Talc and
magnesian chlorite are possible products, together with the serpentine minerals antigorite, lizardite, and
chrysotile. The final mineralogy depends both on rock and fluid compositions, temperature, and pressure.
Antigorite forms in reactions at temperatures that can exceed 600°C during metamorphism, and it is the
serpentine group mineral stable at the highest temperatures. Lizardite and chrysotile can form at low
temperatures very near the Earth's surface. Fluids involved in serpentinite formation commonly are highly
reactive and may transport calcium and other elements into surrounding rocks; fluid reaction with these rocks
may create metasomatic reaction zones enriched in calcium and called rodingites.

In the presence of carbon dioxide, however, serpentinitization may form either magnesite (MgCO3) or generate
methane (CH4). It is thought that some hydrocarbon gases may be produced by serpentinite reactions within the
oceanic crust.

Reaction 2a:

Olivine + water + carbonic acid → serpentine + magnetite + methane

 (Fe,Mg)2SiO4 + nH2O + CO2 → Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + Fe3O4 + CH4

or, in balanced form:

18Mg2SiO4 + 6Fe2SiO4 + 26H2O + CO2 → 12Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + 4Fe3O4 + CH4

Reaction 2b:

Olivine + water + carbonic acid → serpentine + magnetite + magnesite + silica

(Fe,Mg)2SiO4 + nH2O + CO2 → Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + Fe3O4 + MgCO3 + SiO2

Reaction 2a is favored if the serpentinite is Mg-poor or if there isn't enough carbon dioxide to promote talc
formation. Reaction 2b is favored in highly magnesian compositions and low partial pressure of carbon dioxide.

The degree to which a mass of ultramafic rock undergoes serpentinisation depends on the starting rock
composition and on whether or not fluids transport calcium, magnesium and other elements away during the
process. If an olivine composition contains sufficient fayalite, then olivine plus water can completely
metamorphose to serpentine and magnetite in a closed system. In most ultramafic rocks formed in the Earth's
mantle, however, the olivine is about 90% forsterite endmember, and for that olivine to react completely to
serpentine, magnesium must be transported out of the reacting volume.

Serpentinitization of a mass of peridotite usually destroys all previous textural evidence because the serpentine
minerals are weak and behave in a very ductile fashion. However, some masses of serpentinite are less severely
deformed, as evidenced by the apparent preservation of textures inherited from the peridotite, and the
serpentinites may have behaved in a rigid fashion.

Carbon sequestration
Serpentinite, along with olivine, its precursor, has been proposed as an efficient reagent for carbon sequestration
using the magnesite reaction, mentioned hereabove, or a variation where serpentine is reacted with carbon
dioxide and hydrogen to form magnesite, magnetite, and silica. The ideal composition of olivine or serpentinite
for this process is thus highly magnesian, to favor the production of magnesite and the fixation of carbon.

Bleistein or Ofenstein
A lamelled variety of serpentinite is found in South Tyrol and is locally called Bleistein (Leadstone) or
Ofenstein (Ovenstone).[citation needed] It was used primarily for building wood burning indoor heating stoves as it
has the capacity of storing and dispersing heat very well along the veins.[citation needed]

Serpentinization on Mars
The presence of traces of methane in the atmosphere of Mars has been hypothesized to be possible evidence for
life on Mars. Serpentinization has been proposed as an alternative non-biological source for the observed
methane traces. [2] [3]

See also
 • Schikorr reaction, involving also the formation of magnetite and hydrogen by a very similar mechanism

3 Fe(OH)2 → Fe3O4 + H2 + 2 H2O

ferrous hydroxide → magnetite + hydrogen + water

• Hydration of belite in cement (analogous to forsterite hydration)

• Cement chemist notation, also useful for silicate and oxide reactions in mineralogy
• Chrysotile dehydration
• Lost City (hydrothermal field)
• Olivine
• Hydrothermal and metasomatism
• Metamorphism
• Nephrite
• Carbon sequestration
• Talc carbonate
• Soapstone
• Life on Mars

External links
• ZECA Corporation serpentinite carbon sequestration process

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Serpentinite

References
• Serpentinization: The Heat Engine at Lost City and Sponge of the Oceanic Crust
• H2-rich fluids from serpentinization: Geochemical and biotic implications

1. ^ California Government Code § 425.2; see http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?

section=gov&group=00001-01000&file=420-429.8
2. ^ "Life on Mars?". American Scientist. March-April 2006.
http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/pub/life-on-mars. Retrieved 2009-01-06.
3. ^ "Methane: Evidence Of Life On Mars?". redorbit.com. Thursday, 15 January 2009.
http://www.redorbit.com/news/space/1623762/methane_evidence_of_life_on_mars_update/index.html.
Retrieved 2009-01-06.

Schikorr reaction From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

iron(II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2, the start-reagent of the Schikorr reaction.

Magnified crystals of iron(II,III) oxide (Fe3O4), the end-product of the Schikorr reaction along with hydrogen
gas.

The Schikorr reaction formally describes the conversion of the iron(II) hydroxide (Fe(OH)2) into iron(II,III)
oxide (Fe3O4).

The bases of this transformation reaction were first studied by Gerhard Schikorr, a German specialist of iron
corrosion, in his early works (~1928-1933) on iron(II) and iron(III) hydroxides. The global reaction that
Schikorr proposed to explain his observations onto the iron hydroxides conversion, and which later received his
name, can be written as follows:

3 Fe(OH)2 → Fe3O4 + H2 + 2 H2O

Contents
• 1 Reaction mechanism
• 2 Occurrences
• 3 Application fields
• 4 Hydrogen evolution
• 5 Hydrogen embrittlement of steel alloys
• 6 See also
• 7 References

• 8 External links

Reaction mechanism
The Schikorr reaction involves two distinct processes:

• the anaerobic oxidation of two Fe(II) (Fe2+) into Fe(III) (Fe3+) by the protons of water. The reduction of
two water protons is accompanied by the production of molecular hydrogen (H2), and;
• the loss of two water molecules from the iron(II) and iron(III) hydroxides giving rise to its dehydration
and to the formation of a thermodynamically more stable phase iron(II,III) oxide.

The global reaction can thus be decomposed in half redox reactions as follows:

2 (Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–) (oxidation of 2 iron(II) ions)

 2 (H2O + e– → ½ H2 + OH–) (reduction of 2 water protons)

to give:

2 Fe2+ + 2 H2O → 2 Fe3+ + H2 + 2 OH–

Adding to this reaction one intact iron(II) ion for each two oxidized iron(II) ions leads to:

3 Fe2+ + 2 H2O → Fe2+ + 2 Fe3+ + H2 + 2 OH–

Electroneutrality requires the iron cations on both sides of the equation to be counter-balanced by 6 hydroxyl
anions (OH–):

3 Fe2+ + 6 OH– + 2 H2O → Fe2+ + 2 Fe3+ + H2 + 8 OH–

3 Fe(OH)2 + 2 H2O → Fe(OH)2 + 2 Fe(OH)3 + H2

For completing the main reaction, two companion reactions have still to be taken into account:

The autoprotolysis of the hydroxyl anions; a proton exchange between two OH–, like in a classical acid-base
reaction:

OH– + OH– → O2– + H2O

acid 1 + base 2 → base 1 + acid 2, or also,
2 OH– → O2– + H2O

it is then possible to reorganize the global reaction as:

3 Fe(OH)2 + 2 H2O → (FeO + H2O) + (Fe2O3 + 3 H2O) + H2

3 Fe(OH)2 + 2 H2O → FeO + Fe2O3 + 4 H2O + H2
3 Fe(OH)2 → FeO + Fe2O3 + 2 H2O + H2

Considering then the formation reaction of iron(II,III) oxide:

Fe(II)O + Fe(III)2O3 → Fe3O4

it is possible to write the balanced global reaction:

3 Fe(OH)2 → (FeO·Fe2O3) + 2 H2O + H2

in its final form, known as the Schikorr reaction:

3 Fe(OH)2 → Fe3O4 + 2 H2O + H2

Occurrences
The Schikorr reaction can occur in the process of anaerobic corrosion of iron and carbon steel in various
conditions.

Anaerobic corrosion of metallic iron to give iron(II) hydroxide and hydrogen:

3 (Fe + 2 H2O → Fe(OH)2 + H2)

followed by the Schikorr reaction:

3 Fe(OH)2 → Fe3O4 + 2 H2O + H2

give the following global reaction:

3 Fe + 6 H2O → Fe3O4 + 2 H2O + 4 H2

3 Fe + 4 H2O → Fe3O4 + 4 H2

At low temperature, the anaerobic corrosion of iron can give rise to the formation of "green rust"(fougerite) an
unstable layered double hydroxide (LDH). In function of the geochemical conditions prevailing in the
environment of the corroding steel, iron(II) hydroxide and green rust can progressively transform in iron(II,III)
oxide, or if bicarbonate ions are present in solution, they can also evolve towards more stable carbonate phases
such as iron carbonate (FeCO3), or iron(II) hydroxycarbonate (Fe2(OH)2(CO3), chukanovite) isomorphic to
copper(II) hydroxycarbonate (Cu2(OH)2(CO3), malachite) in the copper system.

Application fields
Anaerobic oxidation of iron and steel commonly finds place in oxygen-depleted environments, such as in
permanently water-saturated soils, peat bogs or wetlands in which archaeological iron artefacts are often found.

Anaerobic oxidation of carbon steel of canisters and overpacks is also expected to occur in deep geological
formations in which high-level radioactive waste (HLW) and spent fuels (SF) should be ultimately disposed.
Nowadays, in the frame of the corrosion studies related to HLW disposal, anaerobic corrosion of steel is
receiving a renewed and continued attention. Indeed, it is essential to understand this process to guarantee the
total containment of HLW waste in an engineered barrier during the first centuries or millennia when the
radiotoxicity of the waste is high and when it emits a significant quantity of heat.

The question is also relevant for the corrosion of the reinforcement bars (rebars) in concrete (Aligizaki et al.,
2000). This deals then with the service life of concrete structures, amongst others the near-surface vaults
intended for hosting low-level radioactive waste.

Hydrogen evolution
The slow but continuous production of hydrogen in deep low-permeability argillaceous formations could
represent a problem for the long-term disposal of radioactive waste (Ortiz et al., 2001; Nagra, 2008; recent
Nagra NTB reports). Indeed, a gas pressure build-up could occur if the rate of hydrogen production by the
anaerobic corrosion of carbon-steel and by the subsequent transformation of green rust into magnetite should
exceed the rate of diffusion of dissolved H2 in the pore water of the formation. The question is presently the
object of many studies (King, 2008; King and Kolar, 2009; Nagra Technical Reports 2000 – 2009) in the
countries (Belgium, Switzerland, France, Canada) envisaging the option of disposal in clay formation.

Hydrogen embrittlement of steel alloys

When nascent hydrogen is produced by anaerobic corrosion of iron by the protons of water, the atomic
hydrogen can diffuse into the metal crystal lattice because of the existing concentration gradient. After
diffusion, hydrogen atoms can recombine into molecular hydrogen giving rise to the formation of high-pressure
micro-bubbles of H2 in the metallic lattice. The trends to expansion of H2 bubbles and the resulting tensile stress
can generate cracks in the metallic alloys sensitive to this effect also known as hydrogen embrittlement. Several
recent studies (Turnbull, 2009; King, 2008; King and Kolar, 2009) address this question in the frame of the
radioactive waste disposal in Switzerland and Canada.

See also
• Anaerobic corrosion of steel
• Anoxic waters
• Iron hydroxides, and their rare mineral analogue in nature: amakinite, (Fe,Mg)(OH)2
• Fougerite
• Iron(II) oxide
• Redox reaction
• Serpentinisation reaction, involving also the transformation of olivine into magnetite, quartz and
hydrogen:

3 Fe2SiO4 + 2 H2O → 2 Fe3O4 + 3 SiO2 + 3 H2

References
Aligizaki, Kalliopi K.; Mario R. de Rooij, Digby D. Macdonald (2000-12). "Analysis of iron oxides
accumulating at the interface between aggregates and cement paste". Cement and Concrete Research 30 (12):
1941–1945. doi:10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00392-6. ISSN 0008-8846.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6TWG-44DT6KD-D/2/2394a9578f9b6d1a063a4aec05d46ce5.
Retrieved 2010-08-01.

Ardizzone, S.; L. Formaro (1983-02). "Temperature induced phase transformation of metastable Fe(OH)3 in the
presence of ferrous ions". Materials Chemistry and Physics 8 (2): 125–133. doi:10.1016/0254-0584(83)90046-
9. ISSN 0254-0584.

Beverskog, B.; I. Puigdomenech (1996-12). "Revised Pourbaix diagrams for iron at 25-300 °C". Corrosion
Science 38 (12): 2121–2135. doi:10.1016/S0010-938X(96)00067-4. ISSN 0010-938X.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6TWS-3VSNG79-6/2/94cd01f8cff318412011d838c7d7bbb8.
Retrieved 2010-08-01.

King, Fraser (2008). "Corrosion of carbon steel under anaerobic conditions in a repository for SF and HLW in
Opalinus Clay. Nagra Technical Report NTB 08-12.".
http://www.nagra.ch/g3.cms/s_page/83220/s_name/shopproductdetail1/s_element/142590/s_level/10190/s_prod
uct/20812/searchkey/Corrosion. Retrieved 2010-08-01.

King, F.; M. Kolar (2009). Theory manual for the steel corrosion model version 1.0. NWMO TR-2009-07
March 2009.

Landolt, D.; A. Davenport, J. Payer, D. Shoesmith (2009). "A review of materials and corrosion issues
regarding canisters for disposal of spent fuel and high-level waste in Opalinus Clay. Nagra Technical Report
NTB 09-02.".
http://www.nagra.ch/g3.cms/s_page/83220/s_name/shopproductdetail1/s_element/142590/s_level/10190/s_prod
uct/20902/searchkey/Corrosion. Retrieved 2010-08-01.

Nagra (2008). "Effects of post-disposal gas generation in a repository for low- and intermediate-level waste
sited in the Opalinus Clay of Northern Switzerland. Nagra Technical Report NTB 08-07".
http://www.nagra.ch/g3.cms/s_page/83220/s_name/shopproductdetail1/s_element/142590/s_level/10190/s_prod
uct/20807/searchkey/Corrosion. Retrieved 2010-08-01.
Odziemkowski, M. S.; T. T. Schuhmacher, R. W. Gillham, E. J. Reardon. "Mechanism of oxide film formation
on iron in simulating groundwater solutions: Raman spectroscopic studies". Corrosion Science 40 (2-3): 371–
389. doi:10.1016/S0010-938X(97)00141-8. ISSN 0010-938X.

Ortiz, L.; G. Volckaert, D. Mallants (2002-05). "Gas generation and migration in Boom Clay, a potential host
rock formation for nuclear waste storage". Engineering Geology 64 (2-3): 287–296. doi:10.1016/S0013-
7952(01)00107-7. ISSN 0013-7952.

Regazzoni, A. E.; G. A. Urrutia, M. A. Blesa, A. J. G. Maroto (1981). "Some observations on the composition
and morphology of synthetic magnetites obtained by different routes". Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear
Chemistry 43 (7): 1489–1493. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(81)80322-3. ISSN 0022-1902.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B758S-48M3K71-1V2/2/637bf8f35370dccefc43992cf5783961.
Retrieved 2010-08-01.

Deiss, E.; G. Schikorr (1928). "Über das ferrohydroxyd (eisen-2-hydroxyd)". Zeitschrift für Anorganische und
Allgemeine Chemie 172 (1): 32–42. doi:10.1002/zaac.19281720103.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/zaac.19281720103. Retrieved 2010-08-01.

Schikorr, Gerhard (1933). "The iron (II) hydroxide and a ferromagnetic iron (III) hydroxide". Zeitschrift für
Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie 212 (1): 33–39.

Schikorr, Gerhard (1933). "Über eisen(II)-hydroxyd und ein ferromagnetisches eisen(III)-hydroxyd". Zeitschrift
für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie 212 (1): 33–39. doi:10.1002/zaac.19332120105.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/zaac.19332120105. Retrieved 2010-08-01.

Schikorr, Gerhard (1963). "Über den mechanismus des atmosphärischen rostens des eisens". Werkstoffe und
Korrosion 14 (2): 69–80. doi:10.1002/maco.19630140203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/maco.19630140203.
Retrieved 2010-08-01.

Smart, N.R.; D.J. Blackwood, L. Werme (2002). "Anaerobic corrosion of carbon steel and cast iron in artificial
groundwaters: Part 1, Electrochemical aspects". http://www.onepetro.org/mslib/servlet/onepetropreview?
id=NACE-02070547&soc=NACE&speAppNameCookie=ONEPETRO. Retrieved 2010-08-01.

Turnbull, Alan (2009). "A review of the possible effects of hydrogen on lifetime of carbon steel nuclear waste
canisters. Nagra Technical Report NTB 09-04.".
http://www.nagra.ch/g3.cms/s_page/83220/s_name/shopproductdetail1/s_element/142590/s_level/10190/s_prod
uct/20904/searchkey/Corrosion. Retrieved 2010-08-01.

Webb, S.L.; G. Bohnsack. "The kinetics of the Schikorr reaction on steel surfaces at low temperatures".
http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?
requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=890664CO&q=Schikorr+reaction&uid=789698683&setcookie=yes.
Retrieved 2010-08-01.

External links
For detailed reports on iron corrosion issues related to high-level waste disposal, see the following links:

• Nagra website
• SKB web site
• NWMO web site
 Serpentinization: The Heat Engine at Lost City and Sponge of the Oceanic Crust

An important characteristic of serpentinization is that the hydration reactions in

the mantle rocks are exothermic – that is, they consume water and produce a
significant amount of heat during the transformation of olivine to serpentine and
magnetite. The amount of heat produced is directly proportional to the amount of
water that is taken up to form the mineral serpentine. In fact, serpentinization
consumes an average of about 300 kilograms (approximately 300 liters or 79 US
gallons) of water per cubic meter of rock that is altered. At the same time, this
process produces about 660,000,000 joules of heat per cubic meter of rock. In
simple terms, the amount of energy produced by serpentinization of one cubic meter of rock (about 35 cubic
feet) is enough to run a 100 watt light bulb for about 76 days!

The geological significance of this heat effect is that serpentinization processes

are capable of raising the rock temperature by about 260°C (550°F), if one
ignores processes that lead to heat transport and cooling of the rock. It is this heat
source that appears to be driving the Lost City hydrothermal system. This is in
strong contrast to other known hydrothermal systems along the mid-ocean ridges,
which are driven by magmatic heat and are characterized by high temperature,
metal-rich fluids that ultimately create spectacular “Black Smoker” sulfide
structures. Some of the questions that we will try to answer with our studies of the Lost City system are: How
fast has serpentinization taken place at the Atlantis Massif? What are the hydrothermal temperatures today and
how hot has this system been in the past? How long can serpentinization sustain hydrothermal activity in the
future?

Category:Serpentinite From Wikimedia Commons, the free media repository

Subcategories
This category has the following 2 subcategories, out of 2 total.

• [+] Serpentinite samples (1 C, 6 F)

• [+] Serpentine (5 C, 21 F)

Media in category "Serpentinite"

The following 24 files are in this category, out of 24 total.
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minera... g
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Serpentinite
Pictures of Metamorphic Rock Types
By Andrew Alden, About.com Guide

See More About:

• serpentinite
• metamorphic rocks

Serpentinite is composed of minerals of the serpentine group. It forms by regional

metamorphism of deep-sea rocks from the oceanic mantle. (more below)
15 of 17

Gallery Index

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Photo (c) 2009 Andrew

Alden, licensed to About.com

Serpentinite is common beneath the oceanic crust, where it forms by the alteration of the mantle
rock peridotite. (See more about serpentinization and its importance in plate tectonics.) But it is
seldom seen on land except in rocks from subduction zones, where oceanic rocks may be
preserved.

Most people call it serpentine (SER-penteen) or serpentine rock, but serpentine is the set of minerals that make
up serpentinite (ser-PENT-inite). It gets its name from its resemblance to snakeskin, with a mottled color, waxy
or resinous luster and curving, polished surfaces. Serpentinite is a sexy rock.

Serpentinite is low in plant nutrients and high in toxic metals. Thus the vegetation on the so-called serpentine
landscape is dramatically different from other plant communities, and serpentine barrens contain many
specialized, endemic species.

Serpentinite can contain chrysotile, the serpentine mineral that crystallizes in long, thin fibers. This is the
mineral commonly known as asbestos.

A big close-up picture of serpentinite is available as a free wallpaper image.

For more photos see the Serpentinite Gallery or the Metamorphic Rocks Gallery.

Other galleries:
Fossils
Geologic Features and Processes
Glaciers and Ice
Landforms
Minerals
Rocks
Geology and Society

Serpentinite Gallery
By Andrew Alden, About.com Guide

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• metamorphic rocks
• serpentinite

Serpentinite (ser-PEN-tinite) is a heavy, greenish metamorphic rock that forms by hydration, or

serpentinization, of deep oceanic rocks. It is found on land only where pieces of oceanic plates
escaped subduction and were accreted against the upper plate.

Unless otherwise indicated, these photos are from California, where serpentinite is widespread (and indeed is
the official state rock).

Images 1-12 of 21
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 Serpenti Serpent Serpent Serpenti
nite from 'Earthquake inite from Idria inite, Ring Mountain nite Vein, Lake
Beach' Ultramafic Body Preserve Berryessa

Bastite,
Serpenti Verd Vermont
Serpentinitized
nite Deformation Antique or Serpentine Serpentinite
Pyroxene
Marble

Serpenti Serpent Light Serpenti

nite Hand Specimen, inite Hand Specimen, and Dark Serpentinite, nite, Feather River
Lake Berryessa Sierra Nevada Sierra Nevada Ultramafic Complex

Learn the Facts About Serpentinite Before It's Removed as California's State Rock

by Brian Romans • August 5th, 2010

Serpentinite from the Klamath Mountains, California (sample courtesy of Hannah Scherer; photo from Brian
Romans)
A bill introduced by California State Senator Gloria Romero in February 2009, the language of which was
completely gutted and then amended in April of this year, would “remove serpentine as the state rock and
lithologic emblem and would leave the state rock unspecified.” Why introduce a bill to the state assembly
devoted to removing the state rock? The primary reason, as stated in the bill, is because “serpentine contains the
deadly mineral chyrsotile asbestos, a known carcinogen, exposure to which increases the risk of cancer
mesothelioma.” Supporters of the bill include cancer awareness groups and other groups representing those
dealing with mesothelioma.

While we are all entitled to our own opinions, we are not entitled to our own facts. In that spirit, I think some
basic geologic facts are in order:

• Firstly, “serpentine” refers to a group of minerals, not a rock. The term “serpentinite” is the proper term for
the rock that is mostly made up of one or more of the serpentine group minerals.

• Serpentinite is a metamorphosed version of rocks that make up oceanic crust after they are incorporated into
subduction zones (plate boundaries where oceanic plates are thrust under continental plates). The recognition
and study of serpentinite in California contributed to the understanding of modern plate tectonic theory.

• Serpentinite has a unique association with California for many reasons including: its association with gold
deposits and the resulting California Gold Rush history, many plants unique to California grow on serpentinite-
rich soils, the fact that serpentinite is thought to promote slow (and less hazardous) ‘creep’ along faults, and
others.

• There is no such mineral as “chrysotile asbestos”; there is a mineral “chrysotile” that crystallizes into a
fibrous material referred to as asbestos but not all varieties of serpentinite contain it.

• The term “asbestos” does not have a unique mineralogical association; it is derived from the term that
describes the fibrous nature.

• Varieties of asbestos from a completely separate group of minerals, called the amphibole group, are
considered to be the most dangerous form.

• The health danger of asbestos is when people breathe the powdered form into their lungs — and not just
once or twice, but chronically over many years.

• Bottom line: walking on, being near, handling, or even eating a piece of serpentinite rock is NOT harmful.

As one blogger put it, the only way a piece of serpentinite might be harmful is if someone hurled a piece at you.
To reiterate, one must inhale the powdered version into their lungs for it to be harmful. The wording of the bill
is such that it’s not surprising there is some confusion and misunderstanding. Some of the mainstream reporting
about this bill has failed to communicate that exposure to the rock serpentinite is distinct from exposure to the
powdered form of a component mineral that might be in the rock. This is an important distinction.

Supporters of this bill argue that having a rock with an association with harmful derivative materials is
inappropriate for a state symbol. One of the more interesting bits of history I’ve learned following this story is
that the original 1965 proclamation of serpentinite as the state rock was motivated by a desire to highlight its
economic and commercial importance as a source of mined asbestos. However, the connection between the
mining process and harmful effects were discovered thereafter and asbestos mining was banned in California in
the 1970s. So, why is the issue coming up now? It’s unclear to me.

The final point I’ll make about this issue, which is something many other geologists have made as well, is that
what’s most important here isn’t to maintain serpentinite as the state rock at all costs. What’s important is that
the proposal deserves a fair and open debate. If the state assembly feels that spending the time and resources to
do that isn’t in California’s best interests at this time, then simply table the bill and deal with it at a later date.

PDF of Senate Bill No. 624

Much of the information presented in this post comes from the educating and advocacy about this issue by
geoscience educator Garry Hayes at his blog Geotripper, Bay Area science writer Andrew Alden at
geology.about.com, and environmental historian Jon Christensen from the Bill Lane Center for the American
West at Stanford University.

Serpentinite
A rock composed almost entirely of serpentine minerals. Also known as serpentine rock. The glossy, glazed
luster and green-black color are characteristic of serpentinite.

A common rock composed of serpentine minerals; usually formed through the hydration of ultramafic rocks,
dunites, and peridotites in a process known as serpentinization. The result is the formation of hydrated
magnesium-rich minerals, such as antigorite, chrysotile, or lizardite, commonly with magnetite or, less
frequently, brucite.

A nondescript rock with a dark green to yellow-green color, often streaked or shot through with veins of other
colors. Rock tends to be soft (H 3-5), and have a greasy or silky feel, especially on smooth flat surfaces; cut
surfaces have a highly polished- waxed slickness to them. Luster tends to be dull or waxy.

Serpentinite is a rare rock type that is developed only in subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is subducted
under another. It is a rock comprised of one or more serpentine minerals. Minerals in this group are formed by
serpentinization, a hydration and metamorphic transformation of ultramafic rock from the Earth's mantle. The
alteration is particularly important at the sea floor at tectonic plate boundaries. It is the state rock of California,
USA.

Because serpentinite outcrops form small isolated areas of unusual soil chemistry, endemic plants adapted to
these chemical conditions, and the microclimates of a particular outcrop, often evolve there.

The most likely parent rock for serpentinite is the ultramafic igneous rock peridotite. The mafic igneous rocks
basalt and gabbro are also possible precursor rocks for serpentinite. Serpentinite is compose of the mineral
serpentine which forms as the igneous minerals olivine and pyroxene are subjected to rising temperature and
pressure conditions along a subduction plate boundary. Serpentinite can be cut and polished for use as
ornamental stone inside buildings.

The term serpentine is applied to any of a grouping of hydrous magnesium-rich silicate minerals that are
typically gray, green, or white in color. A type of rock that is almost completely composed of serpentine is
known as serpentinite.
Associated with subduction zones, serpentinite is a metamorphic rock that is formed from the action of high
pressure and heat upon hornblende schists or igneous rocks composed chiefly of mafic minerals, such as
peridotite, gabbro, or basalt. The substance is most often found in areas where mountain ranges have formed
due to the sealing off of an ocean basin. For instance, the Coast Ranges in California, where serpentinite is the
official state rock, primarily consist of slices of the ocean’s crust that have been faulted and folded along the
coastline. Relatively weak, mountains containing high levels of serpentinite may suffer from recurrent
landslides and a brisk erosion process.

Due to its derivation from the Earth’s mantle, protrusions of serpentinite are often quite different from the
environment that surrounds them. Indeed, the rock’s low levels of calcium and potassium, as well as its
significant amounts of such potentially harmful substances as chromium and nickel, would seem to make it an
unlikely place for habitation. However, some plant species have been able to successfully adapt to the unusual
characteristics of serpentinite. For example, in Presidio of San Francisco, which is part of the Golden Gate
National Recreation Area, several endangered species of plants have become acclimatized to life on serpentinite
outcrops.

Scientists do not fully understand how serpentinite makes its way from deep in the Earth, where it often forms,
to the surface of the Earth. In the process of formation, serpentinite rock actually becomes less dense (more
buoyant) as water is added. Thus it essentially floats upwards, buoyed up by the denser rock around it.
Serpentinite is also a very plastic and greasy rock that can be easily squeezed into and even lubricate the many
faults at plate boundaries. It then may get dragged or “squirted” to the surface along the faults.

See also: What is Serpentinite? By Carolyn Curtis

Serpentine is not a rock, but a group of minerals, which can include chrysotile asbestos. Serpentinite, the term
that probably makes most sense to use when referring to the rocks and soils at Edgewood, is a type of
metamorphosed sedimentary rock.

The type of metamorphism known as serpentinization can happen in many ways. Many minerals can be
transformed into serpentinite, as, for example, when olivine and orthopyroxene combine, which happens mainly
on land. For other serpentinites, the parent mineral, such as peridotite, a tan, blocky mineral, can crystallize
when it is brought up from the sea floor through the crust of an opposing tectonic plate.

Chemically, serpentinites are at the heavy end of the metal spectrum, containing relatively large amounts of
magnesium and/or iron. Because of these elements, serpentinite is referred to as ultramafic (Mg + Fe).
Serpentinite and peridotite can have a rusty-looking crust because of the oxidation of the iron (magnetite) they
contain; California has many a "Red Hill" and "Red Mountain" as a result.

Origin and Distribution

The parent rock to serpentinite started out on the sea floor, in the lateral grooves between ridges in the deep
trench off the margin of continents. As the sea floor moves up and encounters another plate, the leading edge
goes down under the other plate, which is known as subduction. The lighter components of the sea floor are
scraped up on top of the other plate; on the West Coast, the result became the Franciscan formation. When the
subduction ceases, sedimentary rock forms in the normal way, and lots of ultramafic rock comes to the surface.

Most serpentinite in California’s inner coastal ranges, such as the serpentinite in the Oakland-Berkeley hills,
results from subduction. The layers of younger sedimentary rock that formerly covered this serpentinite have
weathered away, exposing the serpentinite. The coast ranges are a big compression zone; the Sierra is moving
west, pressing the Great Valley rocks. In this situation of moving layers, the slippery and easily mobilized
serpentinite pops up along fault zones. In addition, there is tremendous hydrostatic pressure, so the serpentinite
also rises along thrust lines as well.
Serpentinite and Vegetation

These serpentinite chemical characteristics inhibit plant growth:

• relative lack of the elements plants need to grow, such as calcium, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and
trace elements such as molybdenum
• concentrations of iron, magnesium, and other heavy metals, such as nickel, chromium, and cobalt, that
are toxic to most plants
• lack of water; lack up buildup of organic matter

The crystal structure of serpentine won't allow calcium, so this element comes out in the ground water.
Serpentine seeps are calcareous water, resulting in travertine aprons where native orchids sometimes grow. The
cobbles in stream beds near serpentinite areas can be cemented with this calcium.

Plants have adapted to this lack of calcium in serpentinite soil in various ways: some require little calcium,
others accumulate it. Calcium is highly important for plant growth; plants growing in serpentinite areas tend not
to be tall.

Likewise, some plants adapt to the concentrations of iron and magnesium by accumulating it. The magnesium
in the serpentinite is not buffered because of the lack of calcium there, so it is toxic to most plants.

Studies have shown that toxic metals aren't the problem, but rather the low nutrient levels and dryness of
serpentinite areas. Plant adaptations to low nutrient levels and to aridity look the same.

Despite the superficial aridity of serpentinite areas, water comes out all over serpentinite areas, drained from
adjacent places; however, because serpentinite is so fractured and sheared, the water’s availability is
problematic. Most serpentinite areas can have persistent streams and springs, unlike the surrounding sandstone,
which dries up.

Hydrochloric attack of serpentinites: Mg2+ leaching from serpentinites.

Taubert L.

Romanian Academy--Timisoara Branch, Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, Romania.

Abstract

This paper presents the hydrochloric attack of serpentinites. Romanian serpentinites are part of the Danubian
crystalline complex. These serpentinites contain mineral serpentine (magnesium silicate) and a small amount of
other minerals along with calcium, iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt, chrome and manganese. For processing, the
serpentinite was attacked by hydrochloric acid from two provinces (p.a. and residual hydrochloric acid), using
different experimental conditions: acid concentrations between 15-23 per cent HCl, the temperature range of
70-90 degrees C, with stoichiometric ratio between reactants and with acid excess, the extraction time being up
to 180 min. In optimum conditions, the magnesium extraction is almost total (99.5 per cent). A well-balanced
processing of these serpentinites looks for both the silica residue utilization and the chloride solutions, in order
to separate the prevalent magnesium as well as the valuable microcomponents--nickel and cobalt.