“Geometric Modelling” Review Questions

1. What is the difference between “model space” and “display space”?

Answer: –
Model space: 3D memory space within
which model geometry is created and
stored.
Display space: 2D memory space
within which display geometry is stored.
(also called “screen buffer”)

2. What is a “right-handed” coordinate system? What are the directions of positive

rotation about the principle axes?
Answer:

3. What is the difference between a Global coordinate system and a Local

coordinate system?

Answer:
CAD systems use Absolute (Global) coordinates for storing data. Many also provide for
the specification of temporary Local (or User-Defined)
Coordinate Systems, Used to simplify input. Data input is specified relative to temporary
system and then transformed to absolute reference internally

4. Why are Local coordinate systems used?

Answer:
For relative placement of entities. Also some geometries such as conics are coordinates
dependant.

5. What is the most common format for coordinates?

Answer:
Cartesian Coordinate system.

6. What are the three general transformations performed on model entities?

Describe them.

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Answer:
Translation, Rotation, Scaling (dilation)

7. What is the relationship between the screen display and the model database, that
is, how is screen display developed from model database information?

Answer:
The CAD database is a mathematical representation of the object being modeled. To be
displayed on the modeling system monitor, (a 2D medium) the database information
must undergo transformation. The system will allow the user to set view orientation with
respect to various view plane orientations. This permits display of images such as: – a
pictorial image of the model (example: isometric).– principle views (example: top, front)
Concept is analogous to that of a set of camera orientations

8. What is a “screen buffer”?

Answer:
Model Display is accomplished by mapping 3D positions to a 2D viewing plane (the
screen). Same projection techniques used in engineering graphics The X x Y matrix of
mapped points is stored in a memory device referred to as the screen buffer. Projection
is based upon used line-of sight.

9. What do the use of display windows and viewports permit?

Answer:
Computer systems permit the user to open multiple windows displaying the same
component. Windows may be set to different display orientations. Viewports are
essentially “windows” arranged in a “tiled” format The single display window is divided
into number of viewports. The user specifies of multiple viewports in factors of 2 (2, 4, 8,
etc.). Different open viewports can have different display configurations.

10. What are model system "layers"? How are they used?

Layers are a tool used to organize the displayed entities of a model. Entities may be
assigned to one (or more) layers. • Layers (and the entities assigned them) may have
unique display characteristics (visible, invisible, non-selectable,

11. What does it mean when we say that software creates an “analogous model” of a
real world object?

Answer:
Analogous implies similar, but different. Therefore, 3D models are very similar to the
“real world” objects they are representing but not necessarily identical.
Creation of an analogous model means representing a real world object with curves
(wireframe)

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 12. Solid models involve a more detailed database than other types of modeling
systems. What two broad categories of data are stored for a solid model?

Answer:
1. Geometric data (dimensional information). 2. Topology (refers to the
connectivity of the elements which make up the model.

13. What does it mean when we say a curve (or other entity) is explicitly defined in
the database? Implicitly defined?

Answer:
explicitly (evaluated data)
Complete mathematical entity definitions are stored in the database
– or implicitly (unevaluated data)
• Definitions not stored, but rather computed as needed. For example, the curve defined
by intersection of two surfaces or an edge computed for display, then discarded when
not needed (recomputed at next display)

14. What does it mean when we say a database is unevaluated?

Answer:

See answer to Q13

15. What is the advantage of storing application* specific secondary models? Can
you think of any disadvantages? (think storage) * such as FEA, CNC

Answer:

Systems typically maintain multiple data representations. The data used by fundamental
modeling operations is the primary model. Other representations (which may or may not
be solid) are referred to as secondary models. Secondary models derived from primary
model for use is specific applications:
– display, analysis (FEA), manufacturing, documentation (drawings), data exchange.
Secondary models are maintained to reduce regeneration times when models are

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required. Some modelers maintain a log of steps performed. This log may be considered
a secondary model.

16. Does a wireframe modeler have a high level of interpretive uniqueness? Why or
why not?

Answer:

Concept of singularity between model and database is called uniqueness. Two types of
uniqueness may be considered.
– Interpretation: Can the database represent more than one object.
– Expression: Can more than one database represent the same object?

17. What is an example of an invalid model or feature? Try to think of some

validity checks (as far as topology) for a modeler (for example, two adjacent
surfaces must share an edge). Try to make a list of 3 or 4 more.

Answer:

Validity means whether or not the model represents an object which can exist in the real
world. Many solid modeling systems include checks of model validity in their
architecture. Validity checks often involve topological checks.

18. What is meant by "non-manifold geometry"? What are examples of non-

manifold geometry? Sketch a few.

Answer:

Mathematically manifold geometry means every point on a surface has “neighborhood”

(infinitesimal sphere) around it that can be deformed onto a ocally planar surface. More
simply: manifold geometry rules out objects which are not physically realizable such as
those with features joined along a single edge or vertex.

“Wireframe Modelling” Review Questions

19. Where does the name “wireframe” derive from?

Answer:
Name is taken from the model appearance. Only the edges of a geometry are displayed.

20. Contrast the idea of a 3D wireframe with 2D CAD. What type of geometric
entities (lines, etc) does each use? What is different, if anything? What is
additional? (hint: think of the database)

Answer:

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methods typically very straightforward. Uuses the same commands and techniques as
2D construction. Entities are the same as those for 2D graphics, with inclusion of some
extended database information, (Z-coordinate data)

21. What information is typically stored for a wireframe model? Create a list of
information that could be retrieved by direct manipulation of the database. For
example, can you find the distance between any two vertices (or nodes) of the
model? The length of any edge? The volume?

Answer:

The information available from a model database, and hence its usefulness, is
dependent upon the data stored.
Examples of information available from wireframe database. Distance and length
calculations. Distance between vertices, length of edges. Basic entity connectivity .
Which vertices delimit an edge. Which edges share vertices. Which edges form a loop
(or face). A basic visual representation of the object being modeled.

22. Many modeling packages make use of the wireframe representation. For what
function?

Answer:

Geometry display by modeling systems. Visualization of motion (simple animations).

Modeling of geometries such as projected profiles and revolutions. 2D drafting.
Wireframe models of limited value for manufacturing and analysis. Manufacturing:
profile geometry only, 2D operations such as turning, profile milling. Analysis: can be
used as input into FEA packages, especially in the case of truss and frame geometries.

23. Why is the wireframe representation used? Again, can you relate this reason to
the data stored?

Answer:

Very small data storage and fast access to the model.

24. What is meant when a wireframe model is referred to as “ambiguous”?

Answer:

Complex models difficult to interpret. does not allow for use of photorealistic rendering
tools .Some software capable of hidden line removal on limited basis.

25. What are the limitations of the wireframe representation? Again, relate to data
stored.

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Answer:

No ability to determine computationally information such as the line of intersect between

two faces of intersecting models. Limited ability for checking interference between
mating parts (typically visual only).

26. Why would the line form Y = mX + b difficult to use internally in a modeler?
To determine this, ask yourself the following: how long is the line? How do we
typically specify a line in a CAD package? What are the endpoints of this line?
(Can we tell?), what if the line is moved, what would that do to the defining
equation?

Answer:

27. What is the difference between an approximation curve and an interpolation

curve.

Answer:

Complex curves are typically represented by a series of simpler curves (each defined by
a single equation) pieced together at their endpoints (piecewise construction). Simpler
curves may be linear or polynomial. Equations for simpler curves based upon control
points (data pts. used to define the curve)
General curve shape may be generated using methods of:
– Interpolation (also known as Curve fitting). curve will pass though control points
– Approximation curve will pass near control points may interpolate the start and end
points

28. Are most complex curves in CAD single curves or assemblages of segments?
Does the user typically have to define each segment or is this done internally?

Answer:

Assemblage of segments (Bspline curves) and the segments are defined by the order of
the curve.

29. What is Bezier Curve?

Answer:

Bezier curve employs control points (set of vertices that approximate the curve). curves
do not pass directly through points (except possibly at start and end) intermediate points
affect shape as if exerting a “pull” on the curve. allow user to to set shape by “pulling” out
curve using control point location

30. What is a B-spline curve?

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Answer:

B-spline curve is a multi-segmented Bezier curve with capabilities of local modification.

31. What does the term “piecewise” (as in piecewise linear, piecewise polynomial)
mean?

Answer:

In piecewise linear curve curve defined by multiple segments, in this case linear.
In piecwise polynomial segments defined by polynomial functions, segments join at
KNOTS. Most common polynomial used is cubic (3rd order). Segment shape controlled
by two or more adjacent control points.

32. What are control points? Knots?

Answer:

Locations where segments join referred to as knots. Knots may or may not coincide with
control points in interpolating curves, typically they DO NOT coincide.

33. What are the three conditions of continuity possible at the knot points?

Answer:

1– point continuity (no slope or curvature restriction). 2- tangent continuity (same

slope at knot). 3– curvature continuity (same slope and curvature at knot)

34. What tools does the user typically have to control curve shape?

Answer:

Repositioning of control points

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 35. What makes the NURB curve representation desirable for CAD use?

Answer:

very popular due to their flexibility in curve generation. same mathematical form may be
used to represent entire family of curves including: – Bezier – B-Spline – conics

“Solid Modelling” Review Questions

36. Name 3 general classes of solid modeling techniques.

Answer:

Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG), Boundary Representation (B-Rep) and Cell

Decomposition (Spatial enumeration )

37. Show how a CSG primitive BLOCK of specific dimensions, and with one
corner at Global coordinate location (0,0,0), may be defined half spaces.

Answer:

Box Primitive defined by bounding half-spaces. User defined input is corner location
(origin) and Width, Height and Depth values (W, H, D)

38. Repeat for a cylinder with axis coincident with the Global Z-axis.

Answer:

Cylinder Primitive. User inputs are location (origin), Radius and Height.

39. What are the three Boolean operators used by CSG modeling systems? Describe
each.

Answer:

Union. • the sum of all points in each of two defined sets (logical “or”) also referred to as
Add, Combine, Join, or Merge
Difference the points in a source set minus the points common to a second set. (logical
“not”), sets must share common volume, also referred to as subtraction, Remove, or Cut
Intersection those points common to each of two defined sets (logical “and”) sets must
share common volume • also referred to as Common, or Conjoin

40. What is meant by stating that CSG models are unevaluated models? What data
is directly stored for the CSG scheme? What if other information is needed?

Answer:

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CSG representation is unevaluated – Faces, edges, vertices not defined in explicit
(mathematical) form.
Data structure does not define model shape explicitly but rather implies the geometric
shape through a procedural description. example: object is not defined as a set of
edges & faces but by the instruction: union primitive 1 with primitive 2 This procedural
data is stored in a data structure referred to as a CSG tree.
Display data not actively stored. The edges, faces, and vertices of the model are implied
rather being explicitly defined in the data structure. Vertices, edges, etc. are defined as
needed. The unevaluated format of CSG representation does not store a display model.
A boundary evaluation must be performed to determine the edges of the
model in order for a model display to be created

41. Describe the CSG tree. What is stored? What is at the nodes? The leaves? How
many branches at each node? Why this number of branches?

Answer:

Model data for CSG model is stored in a tree format – CSG tree stores the procedural
description of the model in a binary tree format.
– The outer leaf nodes of tree represent the primitives.
– The interior nodes represent the Boolean operations performed.
– 2 branches at each node, because of Boolean operations

42. Can all CSG models be considered valid? Is there any criterion which must
apply?

Answer:

Validity – provided primitives themselves are valid, combinations of primitives will be

valid
• Uniqueness - CSG Models are not unique. More than one procedure (and hence
database) can be used to arrive at the same geometry. Therefore, CSG representation
not unique (expressive). The following illustrates this concept in a simple 2D example

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 43. In you own words, completely describe the CSG system. What is the basic
technique of CSG? What limitations exist?

Answer:

44. Explain how a “decomposition” style modeler decomposes the 3D point set into
an electronic model definition.

Answer:
3D space decomposed into a set of identical cells. – Most commonly used geometry for
cells is the cube. Cells are located by their centers, within a fixed 3-dimensional grid
(XYZ space). Cells are referred to as volume elements or “voxels”.

45. What is the Octree method of spatial enumeration? Describe the technique.
What problems with standard spatial enumeration does the Octree address?
Where is the name “octree” derived from?

Answer:

Spatial Enumeration Variation : Representation scheme that alleviates some of the

storage requirements of spatial enumeration. Most common is the Octree
representation. Fundamental idea is that of “divide and conquer”. – More easily
understood by examining the 2D variant first (quadtrees)
Quadtrees Quadtree is a tree data structure of storage used for 2 dimensional cellular
decomposition. Quadtree is derived by successively sub-dividing a 2D plane in
quadrants. Each quadrant fully occupied, partially occupied or empty.
Octrees represent the 3 dimensional extension of the quadtree concept. Expand
quadtree (2D) to 3D space. Spatial volumes are sub-divided into a set of eight cells or
octants. Storage tree now has eight branches at each node.

46. A B-Rep model is a “boundary representation”. Explain the “boundaries” used

to specify the solid point set in this model type.

Answer:
System must validate topology of created solids. • A B-Rep representation has to fulfill
certain conditions to disallow self-intersecting and open objects. – A sample of these
conditions would include: • The set of faces forms a complete skin of the solid with no
missing parts. • Faces are connected to form a closed solid manifold geometry. Each
edge should adjoin exactly two faces and have a vertex at each end. • At least three
edges must meet at each vertex. • Faces must not interpenetrate. • The boundaries of
faces do not intersect themselves. • Faces must only intersect at common edges or
vertices.

47. Which way will the surface normals typically point? How is direction
established?

Answer:

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 48. What is a “tweaking” operation? Can you think of an example? Would you expect
the computer response time for a tweaking operation to be faster or slower than
that of a conventional operation? Why?

Answer:

49. What are the common techniques for the creation of B-Rep geometry?

Answer:

50. Define translational sweep. What other names can this have? Define rotational
sweep. What other names can this have?

Answer:

51. What concerns should the user have when defining the shape profile curve and
the path curve for sweeping operations (especially general sweeps)?

Answer:

Editing by Tweaking Operations • Other operations, which do not affect the number of
vertices, edges, and loops, and hence need not obey Euler’s Law may be included. •
These allow the geometry to be “tweaked” by moving theses vertices, edges and loops
“small” distances.

52. Describe the operation of "lofting".

Answer:

Defined by 2 or more cross-section curves (profiles or section curves) • Spline curves

fitted to corresponding points on each profile to define the boundaries of the loft’s faces

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 53. If a system includes commands for the creation of basic shapes such as blocks
and cylinders and commands with names like "union" and "subtraction" does
the underlying modeling scheme have to be CSG?

Answer:

No, this also can be applied to B-Rep method

54. What is the difference between explicit and implicit data storage?

Answer:

See answer to question 40

55. Explain how the CSG is unevaluated but the B-Rep system is evaluated. Does
the B-Rep system store a tree structure? Why does the B-Rep system have an
advantage in the creation of display?

Answer:

56. Which format will typically have a larger domain, B-Rep or CSG?

Answer:

57. What would you say about the domain of a Brep modeler which advertised itself
as supporting NURB curve representation? Why?

Answer:
“Data Extract” Review Questions

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 58. Most solid modeling systems permit a certain level of data extraction. What
types of information may typically be extracted directly from solid model files.

Answer:

Most solid modelers permit information to be extracted directly from the model database.
• Mass property data
• Graphic profile data – 2D drawings – annotation

59. What is the relationship between the concept of a solid model file specifying the
relative distribution of solid volume in space and the determination of mass
property information such as Center of Gravity, and Mass Moment of Inertia?
What additional information is required in addition to the model geometry?

Answer:

60. Explain the statement that “solid modeling systems use generic units internally
and specific units are only applied when output is required”. What types of
output might this refer to?

Answer:

Solid modeling systems use generic units internally

Units are user specified either at creation of model or at point of output

61. How are numerical methods used to calculate mass property data for a solid
model? How does this compare to the techniques used in your engineering
mechanics course?

Answer:

62. What controls the accuracy of mass property determination?

Answer:

Usefulness of MP data dependent on accuracy of model definition.

• MP Calculation may be based upon exact mathematical definition or faceted
representations.
• Accuracy may vary by volume calculation technique employed.

63. Why is the extraction of 2D drawing data still of importance to industry?

Answer:

Documentation of solid model differs with company and application.

• Many companies still use traditional 2D working drawings for product manufacture.

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• Also require documentation for: – presentation, manuals, advertising

64. What types of view standards are typically supported?

Answer:
65. What levels of associatively can exist between the solid model and the extracted
2D drawings? Explain each level. What are the advantages of bi-directional
associatively? What are the dangers?

Answer:

Systems may have associative connectivity to between extracted drawings and model
– non-associative
– uni-directional (model to graphic)
– bi-directional (model to graphic and back)
May not be expedient to modify model from 2D extractions.
• Design group access must be controlled.

“Surface Modelling” Review Questions

66. What makes a computer defined surface an analogy of a “real world” surface?
In other words, what technique is used to mathematically simulate a “real
world” surface?

Answer:

An area bounded by an identifiable perimeter.

• In Computer Graphics, is an area within which every position is defined by
mathematical methods.
• Surface may be:
– Planar
– Cylindrical/conic
– Sculptured or freeform in shape

67. What information is stored for surface model which does not exist in a
wireframe model?

Answer:

The value of v parameter

68. What information can we obtain from the surface model that we could not
obtain from the wireframe?

Answer:

Ability to query database for surface information.– possible to determine if a point lies
off, on or on the boundary of a surface

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often referred to as a “membership test” • data may be used for functions such as –
rendering, manufacturing, surface area determination calculation of intersections
between line of sight vectors and surface geometry. • This allows for the “depth sorting”
of features – This is, which surfaces (or parts of surfaces) are visible from a particular
line of sight

69. What are the common types of surface meshes? Name each and specify the
defining geometry used to define each type of mesh. Try to determine what user
inputs a software system would require for each. What prompts might be used?

Answer:

surface of revolution • tabulated cylinder • ruled surface • general sweep • sculptured (Coons’ Patch)

70. For each mesh type, attempt to identify a real world object (or part of an object)
which could be modeled with that technique.

Answer:

71. What is “lofting”? Describe in your own words.

Answer:

A set of cross-sections curves are established.

• The system will interpolate the cross sections to define a smooth surface geometry.

72. What is meant by a "self intersecting surface"?

Answer:
When a surface patch cuts itself a self intersecting surface is produced. This happen
when the construction curves are selected from incorrect ends.

73. What potential continuity problems exist with surface models? (think about
adjacent surfaces) Why is this a problem in construction a viable model? How
could it affect information derived from the model, for example, total surface
area?

Answer:
Possibility exists for discontinuities at the intersections of adjacent surfaces. – no
guarantee of continuity between adjacent surfaces. • Model representation in this case is
simply a collection of surfaces with no connectivity (topological) information.

“Parametric/Variational/Feature-based” Review Questions

74. What deficiencies exist in the geometric modelling systems which only support
explicit model definitions?

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Answer:
Deficiencies exist in use of conventional modeling systems for engineering design. Prior
to 1988, systems produced only “dumb” models (no imbedded information beyond shape
definition). Systems permitted only a single level of design abstraction (one specific
geometry). Requires strictly dimensioned entities with complete dimensional
specification
Models explicitly describe shape. User must ensure that model represents design intent
because no intent is “embedded” within the model definition.

75. How is this a hindrance to using the modeler as a design tool? Why is it used
more as a design documentation tool?

Answer:
A design tool must permit variational/parametric design. Therefore, an explicit geometric
modeling system deals with geometry on a low definition level and only functions as a
documentation tool with the model created at the END of the design sequence.

76. What do we mean when we refer to the feature-based interface? How is this
distinguished from the solid modelling “engine”?

Answer:

Explicit geometric modelers do not capture the design intent. Higher level modeler
interface is needed which would allow the system to function as a true design tool.
Higher level interface would permit specification of entities in terms of geometric and
dimensional constraints. This permits definition of features directly by user, with
appropriate geometric shape created within solid modeling engine (a toolkit of modeling
subroutines called by software)

77. What is a “feature”? What are its characteristics? What is an example of a

"feature"?

Answer:
Feature-based modeling is one of the newest developments in solid modeling. It
addresses the design concerns previously noted, and represents an attempt to tighten
the relationship between the model and the manufacturing processes required to
produce the component.
The geometry is defined in terms of real world “features” as opposed to abstract
geometric entities.
For example: – work with holes as opposed to cylinders; – cuts and extrusions rather
than blocks and wedges.

78. What three general types of features will we see in a modelling package?

Answer:

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Features may be divided into 3 general categories: – shape features, hard-coded
features, and reference features.

79. How are shape features typically constructed?

Answer:

Passages: - subtracted volumes that intersect the preexisting shape at both ends
Depressions: - subtracted volumes that intersect the preexisting shape at one end
Voids: - subtracted volumes completely enclosed by material
Protrusions: - added volumes that intersect the preexisting shape at one end
Connector: - added volumes that intersect the preexisting shape at both ends

80. What are reference features?

Answer:
Reference Features are not geometric features and are used for orientation and location
of features within model
• Examples are: – datum planes, – datum axes, and “sketch planes”.

81. Many of the feature-based systems popular today are also “constraint-based”.
What does this term mean?

Answer:
Most current professional level feature based modelers use constraint-based techniques
to help define features (through the creation of profiles).
The 2D profile geometry is not explicitly defined, but rather driven by the constraints.
Constraints are stored internally as equations and they are solved to resolve the sketch
geometry.
Equations may be solved sequentially – referred to as “parametric system”. In this case
results of each previous solution used in next.
Equations may be solved simultaneously – referred to as “variational system”
Many systems use a combination of both techniques

82. What is the basic sequence of construction?

Answer:
1. Create sketch, 2. Apply geometric/dimensional constrains, 3. Create
solid through sweeping and lofting techniques, 4. Insert “hard-coded”, shape and
reference features (also special “user-defined” features)

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 83. What are profile geometries (sketches) typically used for in a constraint-based
modeling system?

Answer:
Sketches are 2D input entities (lines, arcs, splines) and the sketch geometry used for
feature construction

84. What does it mean to “constrain” a profile geometry (sketch)?

Answer:
Creation of dimensional constraints (dimensional relationships in sketches), dimensional
relationships between features and all geometric constraints (e.g. equal length lines,
concentric circles, etc).

85. What two general categories of constraints do most systems support?

Answer:
1. Dimensional constraints
2. Geometrical constraints

86. List as many examples of a geometric constraint as you can think of.

Answer:

87. What is meant by a “constraint engine”? What functions does it fulfill?

Answer:

Constraint engine is a toolkit which provides for creation and modification of:
– dimensional relationships in sketches
– dimensional relationships between features
– all geometric constraints
Provides for resolution of constraint equations

88. What is meant by a “solid modeling engine”?

Answer:
Solid modeling engine is a toolkit of modeling subroutines to create solid models.

89. What functions do the feature manager and the assembly manager perform?

Answer:
The feature Manager allows insertion of “hard-coded” shape and reference features
(also special “user-defined” features). It supports feature editing processes and supports:

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 • feature suppression (from display and editing),
• control of feature construction order
• control of feature references (parent/child)
• flags violation of feature intent (e.g. a blind hole becomes a
through hole because of a transaction subsequent to its
insertion)

90. What is meant by the term “parent/child” relationship as it pertains to geometric

modeling? How are they established? What effect do they have upon editing
operations?

Answer:
Parent/Child relationship dependency exists between created feature (child) and parent:
e.g. -other features used to locate it, – insertion features
(sketch plane), – source features (patterns and part families).
Dependency means process of editing parent feature requires considering child features
of that parent.

91. We often say that a constraint-based system is “order-based”. What order does
this refer to and how does this effect model construction. Can the order be
changed (in most systems)?

Answer:
Constraint-based systems are order dependent, that means parent/child relations are
based upon order of creation. They are only able to reference previously defined
features, may be able to “re-order” model in feature manager.

92. What are desirable features to look for in the constraint engine of a constraint-
based modeler?

Answer:
• Dimension types recognised (angular,linear, etc.)
• Types and level of geometric constraints (concentric, collinear, etc.)
• Freedom to postpone dimensioning (work with under constrained geometry)
• Dealing with “parent/child” relationships
• External compatibility (importation/exportation)
• Configuration of variables – symbolic name associated with value,
• Parameter associated with unrelated geometry, etc.
• User may choose whether implied constraint apply to all or part of the geometry
• Incorrect constraints automatically flagged (in fully constrained approach)
• Ability to undo or abort constraint operation
• Over or under constrained situation allowed temporarily
• Implied constraints may be overridden
• Large number of hard-coded features
• Feature editing which permits complete re-definition at later time
• Feature re-ordering capability

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• Patterning and instancing of features

93. What are relational dimensions (relations between dimensions)? What is their
value in design using constraint-based systems?

Answer:
– Dimensional relationships in sketches, – Dimensional relationships between features.
– It makes a system parametric and variational.

“Rendering” Review Questions

94. What is the difference between a vector and a raster scan display device? How
does the raster scan create a display?

Answer:

In a vector display images represented on the screen by a series of lines or vectors

mapped onto the screen. Electron beam maps traces each line from endpoint to
endpoint on CRT’s phosphorous coating.
In a raster scan image generated by illuminating points in the raster (a set of horizontal
lines of pixels). The electron gun “scans” each line, top to bottom and back, mapping an
array of illumination points (bitmaps). Image “map” stored in memory referred to frame
buffer.

95. Which characteristics of a raster scan display device make the construction of
rendered displays possible?

Answer:
Discrete nature of pixels permits area fills, also intensity of each pixel in rectangular
screen array may be controlled.

96. What is the “aliasing” effect present in raster scan display? How is it overcome
(anti-aliasing)?

Answer:
Pixels produce inclined lines and curves using horizontal elements (staircasing effect
“aliasing”).
Variable intensity allows for “antialiasing” techniques to reduce staircasing effect, that is
by changing the intensity for adjacent pixels to produce a “blurring”, this serves to hide
the jagged effect.

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 97. What is the definition of shading? What information is required for the creation
of a shaded output?

Answer:
Output of a shading routine is the determination of a light intensity level for a point ( or a
series of points) on a display.
To find this intensity value:
– an incident ray is considered to be cast from a light source upon the surface
– characteristics of the ray’s reflection are determined.
In most cases this requires intensity calculations for many surfaces.

98. What types of light sources are typically available in software packages? How
do they differ? Is a typical real world object illuminated by a single light
source? How do we simulate real world conditions with lighting sources?

Answer:
There are three types of illumination(light sources)
– Point, directed, ambient

99. What is “ambient” light? What is it meant to simulate?

Answer:
Ambient light is distributed uniformly in all directions, regardless of location.
Assumed to produce constant illumination of all surfaces, regardless of their orientation.

100. What is a “point light”? A directed light? A spotlight? For each, describe the
concept and the controls needed to use the light in a rendering “scene”.

Answer:
Point sources:
– Light rays which emanate evenly from a single source.
– Intensity of all rays is equal
– A simple analogy would be that of an incandescent light bulb.

Directed:
– Infinitely distant point source.
– A simple analogy would be a distant sun
– Light rays are parallel and equal in intensity
– Requires specification of a “target”

Spot Light
– A variation of the directed source
– Light rays not parallel but emanate in a cone
– Requires specification of a “target”
– May have control of an inner “hot cone”

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 101. How does the property of surface reflectance affect a shaded output? What are
the basic types of reflectivity a surface may have?

Answer:
Surface Reflectance specifies the relationship between the light sources and the
surfaces to be illuminated and shaded.
Reflection characteristics may be diffuse, specular of some combination of both effects.

102. What is specular reflectance? What will be its appearance characteristics?

Answer:
In Specular reflection light is reflected in one direction only. Produces a shiny mirror-like
effect. Effect is dependent upon viewer location.

103. What is diffuse reflectance? What will be its appearance characteristics?

Answer:
In Diffuse reflection reflected light is scattered equally in all directions. The surface’s
brightness appears the same when viewed from different angles.
Diffuse reflection produces a dull, matte type finish. Diffuse reflectance reveals surface
details.

104. What is light intensity “fall off”?

Answer:
Change of light intensity over the surface.

105. What is the definition of flat shading?

Answer:
Most common (and most basic) form of shading is Flat shading. In a flat shade, the
reflected light intensity is determined for the surface
using the surface normal vector and all points within the surface are assigned this same
intensity.

106. What are the two most common techniques for smooth shading used? How do
they work? Can a polyhedral model be “smooth shaded”?

Answer:
For realistic appearance, smooth shading algorithms are used. The two most frequently
used are Gouroud and Phong shading techniques.
Gouroud Shade Algorithm

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• The intensities determined from the surface normal vectors are interpolated from
surface to surface.
• Each pixel of the surface is assigned an intensity based upon this interpolation.
Phong Shade Algorithm
• Rather than an interpolation of the light intensities, the surface normal vectors are
interpolated from surface to surface.
• Each pixel location within the surface is assigned an interpolated surface normal
direction which is used for the intensity determination of that point.

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