From the House of

Part-A : Basic Principles and Concepts of Photovoltaics

• Why Renewable Energy?

• The Science of Photovoltaics
• How photovoltaic cells work
• Types of photovoltaic cells
• Basic Electrical Terminology
• Factors affecting cell performance
• Performance of various types of PV modules
 What’s wrong with this picture?

• Pollution from burning fossil fuels leads to an increase in

greenhouse gases, acid rain, and the degradation of
public health.

 In 2005, the India.

emitted ,513,609 metric
tons of carbon dioxide,
10,340 metric tons of
sulfur dioxide, and
3,961 metric tons of
nitrogen oxides from its
power plants.
Why Sustainable Energy Matters

• The world’s current energy

system is built around fossil
fuels
• Problems:
• Fossil fuel reserves are
ultimately finite
• Two-thirds of the world'
s proven oil reserves are
locating in the Middle-
East and North Africa
(which can lead to
political and economic
instability)
Why Sustainable Energy Matters

• Detrimental environmental impacts

– Extraction (mining operations)
– Combustion
» Global warming (could lead to significant changes
in the world' s climate system, leading to a rise in
sea level and disruption of agriculture and
ecosystems)
Making the Change to Renewable Energy

• Solar
• Geothermal
• Wind
• Hydroelectric
What is Solar Energy?
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of
ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaic, solar thermal
energy, solar architecture, molten salt power plants and artificial photosynthesis.

It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadl

characterized as either Passive Solar or Active Solar techniques depending on how the
capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power.

Active Solar techniques Passive Solar techniques

• Orienting a building to the Sun

• Solar Photovoltaic Technology
• Concentrated solar power
• Solar water heating
• Selecting materials with favourable
thermal mass or light-dispersing
properties
• Designing spaces that naturally
circulate air.
What is Solar Energy?
The most precise Solar Energy definition: Energy
from the sun.
But what is solar energy really?
There are two types of solar energy:
1. Thermal Energy
2. Electric Energy

Thermal Energy: Thermal Energy is everywhere. It’s

lights up our days. It heats the earth, our bodies and
our homes. It dries our clothes . All for free!
Electric Energy: Electric Energy uses the power of
the sun to produce electricity through solar cells,
otherwise known as Photovoltaics (PV).
 Solar radiation & photovoltaic cells

The surface receives about 47% of the total solar energy that reaches the earth.

Solar Energy per year:

Wsun =1.56 * 1018 kWh

Yearly energy demand

worldwide:
Wdemand =1.11 *1014 kWh
• The Sun provides enough energy in one minute to supply the world's energy needs
for one year
• The amount of solar radiation striking the earth over a three-day period is
equivalent to the energy stored in all fossil energy sources
• The amount of solar radiation striking to earth in a day, that can be use by the whole
7 billion human in 27 years
How photovoltaic cells work

In physics, the photon is an elementary particle, the quantum of the

electromagnetic field and the basic unit of light and all other forms of
electromagnetic radiation. An electron is a negatively charged
subatomic particle.
In electrical conductors, current flow results from the movement of
electrons from atom to atom individually, and from negative to positive
electric poles in general. In semiconductor materials, current also
occurs as a movement of electrons.
The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are
emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from
electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays or visible light (PHOTONS).

A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts sunlight directly

into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.

Assemblies of cells are used to make solar panels, solar modules,

or photovoltaic arrays.
Photovoltaic effect
Photovoltaic effect was reported initially in 1839 by Becquerel, who observed a light-
dependent voltage between electrodes immersed in an electrolyte. Later it was found
that some solid systems, known as semiconductors also exhibit the photovoltaic effect.

Figure: Photovoltaic effect

• When light photons enter a semiconductor crystal, photons possessing energy more
than the required energy to break these bonds will create electron-hole pairs.

• For photovoltaic effect a mechanism is necessary to separate electron-hole pairs

created to ensure a preferred direction of movements of charges so that the current
flow in an external circuit without the application of an external field.
Photovoltaic effect
When N-type side is connected to the P-type side by means of an external circuit,
current flows through the circuit because this reduces the light-induced charge
imbalance in the cell. Negative charge flow out of the electrode on the N-type side,
through a load and perform useful work on that load. The electron then flow into the
P-type side, where they recombine with holes near the electrode. The light energy
which falls on the surface is originally absorbed by the electrons and used up while
the electrons power the external circuit. Thus, equilibrium is maintained.
 Inside a PV Cell

The collection of light-generated carriers does not by itself give rise to power
generation. In order to generate power, a voltage must be generated as well as a
current. Voltage is generated in a solar cell by a process known as the “photovoltaic
effect.” The collection of light-generated carriers by the p-n junction causes a
movement of electrons to the n-type side and holes to the p-type side of the
junction. Under short circuit conditions, the carriers exit the device as light-
generated current.
Inside a PV Cell

Figure : Absence of light

Inside a PV Cell

Figure . Under short circuit condition (Isc)

Inside a PV Cell

Figure : Under Open circuit condition (Ioc)

Electricity Generation Process in Solar Cell
Photovoltaic (PV) Hierarchy

• Cell < Module < Panel < Array

Figure: Solar cell, Solar panel and PV system

Photovoltaic (PV) Module

The Structure of Solar Module

 Cells
The hi-efficiency of mono & poly solar cells ensures
adequate power for panels.
 Glass
Low-iron tempered glass, 3.2mm thickness with higher
reflectivity.
 EVA
Higher transmission rate, antioxidant capacity and
temperature resistance, no expansion or contraction.
 Back film
Increase efficiency of modules slightly and reduce
module’s temperature, aging resistance, corrosion
resistance and airtight.
 Aluminum Frame
Using the framework of the anodized aluminum frame
with high intensity, mechanical shock resistance capacity.
Photovoltaic (PV) Module
Photovoltaic (PV) Module
Photovoltaic (PV) History Timeline
1839 PV Effect first observed by Henri Becquerel in solution

1870 Discovery of PV Effect in Solids

Selenium PV produced with 1-2% efficiency

1880

1940-1950 Single Crystal PV breakthrough: the “Czochraiski Method” (CZ)

1954 PV Cell produced with 6% efficiency

1958 Vanguard Space Satellite uses PV Array to power Radio.

1970’s Energy crisis – Interest in terrestial applications of PV begins

1980’s-1990’s Explosion of PV for Telecom use

Emergence of Grid connected applications as highest

Late 1990’s growth PV sector1111
2019 Present
Advantages & Disadvantages of Solar
Advantages of Solar Cells Disadvantages of Solar Cells
Renewable Energy :The energy can be used High investment - One-time cost of acquiring
both to generate electricity and heat in the a photovoltaic system and have it installed are
house. relatively high.
Economy-Friendly Energy : Solar cells provide a Seasonal energy - Compared to other types of
great opportunity to create savings on your renewable energy, the solar power plant is
electric bill since you do not pay for the energy highly seasonal
that you generate.
Environmentally Friendly Energy : With solar Solar cells on your accommodation - It might
cells occurs almost no pollution. be harder to install solar panels on older
households, as they often have different
designs that can provide shade.
Innovative Energy : Photovoltaics is a popular Interior needs - Not all households that can
topic in green energy and is considered to be a satisfy their requirements and get the
good solution to prevent climate change. optimum out of their solar cells yet. Solar cells
Therefore, this is an innovative market under are very sensitive in terms of their location,
continuous research and development. which means that if there is shade on your lot,
it is difficult to exploit solar installation
optimally.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Solar
Advantages of Solar Cells Disadvantages of Solar Cells
Long Term Energy : PV systems often have a Other Disadvantages:
long life and a good durability. At the same time,  Materials used to make solar panels can
there is often a guarantee of minimum 20 years cause pollution
on your solar panels, guaranteeing you, should  Negative energy balance
there be any complications.  Installation Area
Infinite Energy : When you have the  Weather Dependent
opportunity to extract energy from the sun's  Uses a Lot of Space
rays, this is a source of energy that will never be  Solar Energy Storage Is Expensive
exhausted, therefore there will always be a
source for electricity production.
Other Advantages:
 Cost of going solar has dropped
 It increases fuel independence
 Reduces Carbon Foot prints
 Requires little maintenance
 Can Be Used in Remote Locations
 Comes with money back guarantee
 Long Lasting Solar Cells
Available Cell Technologies

Single-crystal or Polycrystalline or Thin film Perovskite Solar

Mono-crystalline Multi-crystalline (Ex. Amorphous Cell
Silicon Silicon silicon or (4th Generation
Cadmium Solar Cell)
Telluride)
Available Cell Technologies
Monocrystalline Solar Cells
Monocrystalline cells are cut
from a silicon ingot grown
from a single large crystal of
silicon. Since the
Monocrystalline silicon is pure
and defect free, the efficiency
of cell will be higher.
Polycrystalline Solar Cells
Polycrystalline cells are made
by pouring molten silicon into
a square mould and allowing
it to set. Since the silicon
cools at different rates (the
outside sets faster than the
inside) and there is no seed
crystal to ‘grow’ the new
material from the resulting
block contains many crystals.
This gives the name ‘poly- or
multi-crystalline’ and gives
the resulting cells their
multifaceted sparkly
appearance.
Amorphous Solar Cells
Amorphous silicon or thin-film
solar cell is obtained by
depositing silicon film on the
substrate like glass plate. The
layer thickness amounts to less
than 1µm – the thickness of a
human hair for comparison is
50-100 µm. The efficiency of
amorphous cells is much lower
than that of the other two cell
types.
Use : Small solar panels, such as
those in calculators or garden
lamps.
Monocrystalline Silicon Cell

• Most efficient
commercially available
module (14% - 18%)
• Most expensive to
produce
• Circular (square-round)
cell creates wasted space
on module
Polycrystalline Silicon Cell

• Less expensive to make

than single crystalline
modules
• Cells slightly less efficient
than a single crystalline
(14% - 16%)
• Square shape cells fit into
module efficiently using
the entire space
Thin Film Solar Cell

• Most inexpensive
technology to produce
• Metal grid replaced with
transparent oxides
• Efficiency = 10 – 12 %
• Can be deposited on flexible
substrates
• Less susceptible to shading
problems
• Better performance in low
light conditions that with
crystalline modules
Perovskite solar cell

A perovskite solar cell is a type of solar

cell which includes a perovskite
structured compound, most commonly a
hybrid organic-inorganic lead or tin halide-
based material, as the light-harvesting active
layer. Perovskite materials such as methyl
ammonium lead halides and all-inorganic
cesium lead halide, are cheap to produce and
simple to manufacture.

Crystal structure of CH3NH3PbX3perovskites

(X=I, Br and/or Cl).
The methyl ammonium cation (CH3NH3+) is
surrounded by PbX6 octahedra.
What are Perovskite ?

Perovskites are a class of materials that share a similar structure, which

display a myriad of exciting properties like superconductivity, magneto
resistance and more. These easily synthesized materials are considered
the future of solar cells, as their distinctive structure makes them perfect
for enabling low-cost, efficient photovoltaics. They are also predicted to
play a role in next-gen electric vehicle batteries, sensors, lasers and much
more.
Advantages of Perovskite solar cells

 Increase the efficiency

 Lower the cost of Solar Energy
 Low potential material required
 Reduces processing cost
 Conventional Solar Technology
 Extracts upto different wavelength of light
 Flexibility
 Semi-Transparent
Terminology

• Voltage
– Measured in Volts
– Electrical potential
– “Height” of water on one side of a dam compared
to the other side
• Current
– Measured in Amps
– Rate of electron flow
– “Speed” at which water flows through the dam
Terminology

• Resistance
– The opposition of a material to the flow of an
electrical current
– Depends on
• Material
• Cross sectional area
• Length
• Temperature
Terminology

• Watt
– Measure of Power
– Rate of electrical energy
– Not to be confused with
Current!
• Watt-hour (Wh) is a measure of energy
– Unit quantity of electrical energy
(consumption and production)
– Watts x hours = Watt-hours
• 1 Kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 1000 Wh
Types of Current

• DC = Direct Current
– PV panels produce DC
– Batteries store DC
• AC = Alternating
Current
Utility power
Most consumer
appliances use AC
Electric charge
changes direction
Factors affecting cell performance
Current-Voltage (I-V) Curve
Effects of Temperature

• As the PV cell
temperature increases
above 25º C, the
module Vmp decreases
by approximately 0.5%
per degree C
Effects of Shading/Low Insolation

• As insolation
decreases
amperage
decreases while
voltage remains
roughly constant
Shading on Modules
• Depends on orientation of internal module circuitry
relative to the orientation of the shading.
• SHADING can half
or even completely
eliminate the output
of a solar array!
 Dirt & Dust on Module

• Dirt and dust can

accumulate on the solar
module surface, blocking
some of the sunlight and
reducing output. Much of
the area has a dry season.
A typical annual dust
reduction factor to use is
98.0% or 0.98 accounting
for marginal 2-5% loss due
to dirt and dust.
Performance of various types of PV modules

Parameter Crystalline PERC/HJT Thin Film

Types of Poly-crystalline, mono- Poly-crystalline, mono- Amorphous Silicon, CdS,
Materials crystalline silicon crystalline silicon CdTe, CIS/ CIGS, etc
Power 13-21.5% 18-22 % 7-13%
Efficiency
Module Weight Light weight (0.1Kg/W) Slightly heavier Slightly heavy (0.17 Kg/W)

Temperature Highest impact of Lesser impact of Lesser impact of

Effects Temperature variations Temperature variations Temperature variations
Irradiance Used particularly for Better performance with Better performance with
Normal radiations normal and Diffuse Diffuse radiations
radiations as well
Area utilization Higher power generated Higher power generated Less power per unit area

Power Less degradation Less degradation Slightly higher degradation

Degradation
Land Lesser space required Lesser space required with Larger space requirement
Requirement flexible orientations
(approx. 5acres per MW)

Cost Comparable cost per Watt Slightly higher cost per Watt Comparable cost per Watt
Solar Measurement Instruments
Pyranometers
Pyranometers are radiometers designed for
measuring the irradiance on a plane surface,
normally from solar radiation and lamps.
Pyrgeometers
Pyrgeometers are designed for IR (infrared)
radiation measurement, for both atmospheric
and material testing research applications.

Sun Trackers
The Sun trackers are all-weather, reliable and
affordable tracking and positioning
instruments. Either as a dedicated Sun tracker
or as a computer based Positioner.
Solar Measurement Instruments

IR Camera
IR Camera for- PV Hotspot detection, module
temperature measurement

Digital Clamp Multimeter

Measurement for- Voltage, current, resistance,
fault detector, work on both AC and DC

Power Analyser
Complete digital power analyser for almost every types of
power components- Load analyser, Current and voltage
measurement, Frequency Measurement, phase angle
detector, distortion detectors, Fault detector, it works on
CT, PT as well as Bus-bar with high current
Solar Measurement Instruments
Digital Irradiance Meter
Solar Irradiance measurements, digital irradiance
Measurement in Real time

IV Tester
Complete wireless pack for solar analysis- Irradiance
level Measurement, Temperature measurement,
Module performance, IV curve detection, voltage
and current measurement in real time

Solar Data Reciever

Solar Resource assessment station- for long term
Measurement -Irradiance measurement (Both DHI
and GHI), Wind Velocity and direction, Water
precipitation measurement, Relative Humidity
Measurement
Solar Measurement Instruments

Solar Radiation Sensor

It is a reference radiation sensor for solar
module radiation level Measurement

Sun Simulator
This is a artificial 1 sun’s radiation setup for solar
cell/module characterization and testing. This
setup provide ideal condition for standard test
condition (STC): Radiation level 1000w/m2, Air
Mass 1.5m and 25℃ module temperature for
solar cell/module outdoor test

Solar Compass
The solar compass, a surveying instrument that makes
use of the sun's direction, helps in the high latitudes,
especially near the poles
Part-C
1.Materials for Solar cell
2. Solar fabrication Technology
 1. Raw Materials
The basic component of a solar cell is pure silicon, which is not pure in its natural state.
Pure silicon is derived from such silicon dioxides as quartzite gravel (the purest silica) or
crushed quartz. The resulting pure silicon is then doped (treated with) with
phosphorous and boron to produce an excess of electrons and a deficiency of electrons
respectively to make a semiconductor capable of conducting electricity. The silicon disks
are shiny and require an anti-reflective coating, usually titanium dioxide.
2. Manufacturing process
1 Purifying the silicon
The silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed quartz is placed into an electric
arc furnace. A carbon arc is then applied to release the oxygen. The products are carbon
dioxide and molten silicon. This simple process yields silicon with one percent impurity,
useful in many industries but not the solar cell industry.

The 99 percent pure silicon is purified even further using the floating zone technique. A
rod of impure silicon is passed through a heated zone several times in the same
direction. This procedure "drags" the impurities toward one end with each pass. At a
specific point, the silicon is deemed pure, and the impure end is removed.

2 Making single crystal silicon

Solar cells are made from silicon boules, polycrystalline structures that have the atomic
structure of a single crystal. The most commonly used process for creating the boule is
called the Czochralski method. In this process, a seed crystal of silicon is dipped into
melted polycrystalline silicon. As the seed crystal is withdrawn and rotated, a cylindrical
ingot or "boule" of silicon is formed. The ingot withdrawn is unusually pure, because
impurities tend to remain in the liquid.
3 Making Silicon wafers

From the boule, silicon wafers are sliced one at a time using a circular saw whose inner
diameter cuts into the rod, or many at once with a multiwire saw. (A diamond saw
produces cuts that are as wide as the wafer- . 5 millimetre thick.) Only about one-half of
the silicon is lost from the boule to the finished circular wafer—more if the wafer is then
cut to be rectangular or hexagonal. Rectangular or hexagonal wafers are sometimes
used in solar cells because they can be fitted together perfectly, thereby utilizing all
available space on the front surface of the solar cell.

The wafers are then polished to remove saw marks.

(It has recently been found that rougher cells absorb light more effectively, therefore
some manufacturers have chosen not to polish the wafer.)
Process Diagram
4.Silicon wafers Doping

4 Doping

The traditional way of doping (adding impurities to) silicon wafers with
boron and phosphorous is to introduce a small amount of boron during the
Czochralski process in step #3 above. The wafers are then sealed back to
back and placed in a furnace to be heated to slightly below the melting
point of silicon (2,570 degrees Fahrenheit or 1,410 degrees Celsius) in the
presence of phosphorous gas. The phosphorous atoms "burrow" into the
silicon, which is more porous because it is close to becoming a liquid. The
temperature and time given to the process is carefully controlled to ensure
a uniform junction of proper depth.

A more recent way of doping silicon with phosphorous is to use a small

particle accelerator to shoot phosphorous ions into the ingot. By
controlling the speed of the ions, it is possible to control their penetrating
depth. This new process, however, has generally not been accepted by
commercial manufacturers.
5 The anti-reflective coating
Because pure silicon is shiny, it can reflect up to 35 percent of the sunlight.
To reduce the amount of sunlight lost, an anti-reflective coating is put on the
silicon wafer. The most commonly used coatings are titanium dioxide and
silicon oxide, though others are used. The material used for coating is either
heated until its molecules boil off and travel to the silicon and condense, or
the material undergoes sputtering. In this process, a high voltage knocks
molecules off the material and deposits them onto the silicon at the
opposite electrode. Yet another method is to allow the silicon itself to react
with oxygen- or nitrogen-containing gases to form silicon dioxide or silicon
nitride. Commercial solar cell manufacturers use silicon nitride.

6 Encapsulating the cell

The finished solar cells are then encapsulated; that is, sealed into silicon
rubber or ethylene vinyl acetate. The encapsulated solar cells are then placed
into an aluminum frame that has a mylar or tedlar backsheet and a glass or
plastic cover.
Process Flow of Commercial Si Cell Technology

P-type

(a) Starting Wafer

(b) Wafer Cleaning and texturing

N- type
Junction

(c) Diffusion

Junction Removal

(d) Parasitic Junction Removal

Anti-Reflective coating

(e) Anti-Reflective coating deposition

Metal contact

(f) Screen-Printed metallisation

Contact Diffusion

Junction removal and BSF

(g) Contact Firing
Types of Solar Cell Fabrication Technology

Screen Printed Solar Cells

Buried Contact Solar Cells

High Efficiency Solar Cells

Screen Printed Solar Cells Technology

Screen-printed solar cells were first developed in the 1970's. As such, they are the
best established, most mature solar cell fabrication technology, and screen-printed
solar cells currently dominate the market for terrestrial photovoltaic modules. The
key advantage of screen-printing is the relative simplicity of the process.

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1. Phosphorous Diffusion
Screen-printed solar cells typically use a simple homogeneous diffusion to form the emitter
where the doping is the same beneath the metal contacts and between the fingers. To
maintain low contact resistance, a high surface concentration of phosphorous is required
below the screen-printed contact. However, the high surface concentration of phosphorous
produces a "dead layer" that reduces the cell blue response. Newer cell designs can contact
shallower emitters, thus improving the cell blue response. Selective emitters with higher
doping below the metal contacts have also been proposed but none have yet been
introduced into commercial production.

2. Surface Texturing to Reduce Reflection

Wafers cut from a single crystal of silicon (monocrystalline material) are easily textured to
reduce reflection by etching pyramids on the wafer surface with a chemical solution. While
such etching is ideal for monocrystalline CZ wafers, it relies on the correct crystal orientation,
and so is only marginally effective on the randomly orientated grains of multicrystalline
material. Various schemes have been proposed to texture multicrystalline materials by using
one of the following processes:
•mechanical texturing of the wafer surface with cutting tools or lasers;
•isotropic chemical etching based on defects rather than crystal orientation ;
•isotropic chemical etching in combination with a photolithographic mask;
3. Antireflection Coatings and Fire Through Contacts
Antireflection coatings are particularly beneficial for multicrystalline material that cannot be
easily textured. Two common antireflection coatings are titanium dioxide (TiO2) and silicon
nitride (SiNx). The coatings are applied through simple techniques like spraying or chemical
vapour deposition. In addition to the optical benefits, dielectric coatings can also improve the
electrical properties of the cell by surface passivation. By screen-printing over the antireflection
coating with a paste containing cutting agents, the metal contacts can fire though the
antireflection coating and bond to the underlying silicon. This process is very simple and has
the added advantage of contacting shallower emitters.
4. Edge Isolation
There are various techniques for edge isolation such as plasma etching, laser cutting, or masking
the border to prevent a diffusion from occurring around the edge in the first place.

5. Rear Contact
A full aluminium layer printed on the rear on the cell, with subsequent alloying through firing,
produces a back surface field (BSF) and improves the cell bulk through gettering. However, the
aluminium is expensive and a second print of Al/Ag is required for solderable contact. In most
production, the rear contact is simply made using a Al/Ag grid printed in a single step.
The fingers have a spacing of approximately 3 mm. An extra metal contact
strip is soldered to the busbar during encapsulation to lower the cell series
resistance.
Front view of a completed screen-printed solar cell. As the cell is manufactured from
a multicrystalline substrate, the different grain orientations can be clearly seen. The
square shape of a multicrystalline substrate simplifies the packing of cells into a
module.
 Buried Contact Solar Cells Technology

The buried contact solar cell is a high efficiency commercial solar cell technology based on a
plated metal contact inside a laser-formed groove. The buried contact technology overcomes
many of the disadvantages associated with screen-printed contacts and this allows buried
contact solar cell to have performance up to 25% better than commercial screen-printed solar
cells. A schematic of a buried contact solar cell is shown in the figure below.

Cross-section of Laser
Grooved, Buried
Contact Solar Cell.
The production sequence for laser grooved buried contact solar cells is shown below.

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 High Efficiency Solar Cells Technology

High efficiency cells cost considerably more to produce than standard silicon cells and
are typically used in solar cars or space applications.
Some of the techniques and design features used in the laboratory fabrication of
silicon solar cells, to produce the highest possible efficiencies include:
1. Closely spaced metal lines, to minimise emitter lateral resistive power losses;
2. Very fine metal lines, typically less than 20 µm wide, to minimise shading
losses;
3. Polished or lapped surfaces to allow top metal grid patterning via
photolithography;
4. Small area devices and good metal conductivities, to minimise resistive losses
in the metal grid;
5. Low metal contact areas and heavy doping at the surface of the silicon
beneath the metal contact to minimise recombination;
6. Use of elaborate metallization schemes, such as titanium/palladium/silver,
that give very low contact resistances;
7. Good rear surface passivation, to reduce recombination;
8. Use of anti-reflection coatings, which can reduce surface reflection from 30%
to well below 10%.
 Honda dream, the winning car in the 1996 World Solar Challenge. The
custom made cells for the car are greater than 20% efficient. (Photograph
PVSRC)
A number of cell designs exist which incorporate advanced laboratory features. Two
approaches that have been used by niche markets such as solar cars are the PERL
cells produced at University of New South Wales, and the rear-contact cells
developed at Stanford University and SunPower.
Solar Module Testing Methodologies

List of Tests Under IEC – 61215/BIS AS PER INTERNATIONAL STANDARD

IEC – 61215/BIS

1. Visual Inspection 10. Hot-Spot Endurance Test

2. STC Performance Measurement 11. UV Preconditioning Test

3. Insulation Test 12. Thermal Cycling Test

4. Measurement of Temperature 13. Humidity Freeze Test
Coefficients

5. NOCT Measurement 14. Damp Heat Test

6. Performance at NOCT 15. Wet Leakage Current Test

7. Performance at Low Irradiance 16. Robustness of Terminations Test

8. Out-Door Exposure Test 17. Mechanical Load Test

9. Bypass Diode Thermal Test 18. Hail Impact Test

1. Visual Inspection
Objective: To detect any visual defects
in the module.
The visual inspection test facility
comprises of the following:
a) Arrangement to inspect the
module under an illumination of
1000 lux.
b) A microscope to carefully inspect
band record the cracked/broken
cells, faulty interconnections or
joints, tacky surfaces of plastic
materials, cells touching one
another or the frame and any other
conditions which may affect the
performance.
 2. STC Performance Measurement

Objective: To determine how the performance of the module varies with

load at Standard Test Conditions(1000 Wm-2, 250C cell temperature, with
the IEC 60904-3 reference solar spectral irradiance distribution).

Flash lamp of the Endeas Quicksun solar simulator

Equipment

1. Quick Sun 700A Sun Simulator

2. Spire 240A
3. Autosys InvSun:
3. Insulation Test
Objective: To determine whether the module is sufficiently well insulated
between current-carrying parts and the frame or the outside world.

The Equipment:

High Voltage Insulation Tester (Associated Research Inc., USA)

Model: 2956 AA
Input: 230 VAC 50/60 Hz , 5 A
Output: 0-5000 VDC
Meg. Ohms: 2-10000 at 500 VDC to 2-100000 at 5000 VDC
4. Measurement of Temperature Coefficients

Objective: The purpose is to determine the temperature coefficients of

current (α), voltage(β), and peak power (δ) from module measurements.

Equipment:
The Temperature coefficients can be measured by using the environmental
chamber and sun simulator .
 5. NOCT Measurement
Objective: NOCT is defined as the equilibrium mean solar cell junction
temperature within an open-rack mounted module in the following standard
reference environment (SRE):
Tilt angle: 450 from the horizontal
Total irradiance: 800 Wm-2
Ambient temperature: 200C
Wind speed: 1 ms-1
Electrical load: nil(open circuit)

The Equipment:
Out door test bed for mounting the module , pyranometer, ambient
temperature sensor, cell temperature sensor, data acquisition system and
wind speed sensor.
 6. Performance at NOCT
Objective: To determine how the performance of the module varies with
load at NOCT (800 Wm-2, 250C cell temperature, with the IEC 60904-3
reference solar spectral irradiance distribution).

The Equipment:
Performance at NOCT is evaluated by using the environmental chamber and
sun simulators.
7. Performance at Low Irradiance

Objective: To determine how the electrical performance of the module

varies with load at 250C and an irradiance of 200 Wm-2 in accordance with IEC
60904-1.

The Equipment:
The Performance at low irradiance is evaluated by using the available sun
simulator by setting the intensity at 200Wm-2.
 8. Out Door Exposure Test
Objective: To make preliminary assessment of the ability of the module to
withstand exposure to outdoor conditions and to reveal any synergistic
degradation effects which may not be detected by laboratory tests.

The Equipment:
Out door test bed, for mounting of the module , pyranometer, Temperature
sensor, data acquisition system and arrangement to operate the module near
the maximum power point.
 9. Bypass Diode Thermal Test

Objective: To assess the adequacy of the thermal design and relative long
–term reliability of the by-pass diodes used to limit the detrimental effects of
module hot-spot susceptibility.

Equipment:
• Environmental chamber for heating the module to a temperature of 750C ±
50C.
• Temperature probe for measuring and recording the temperature of the
module to an accuracy of ±10C.
• Power supply for applying a current equal to 1.25 times the STC short-
circuit current of the module under test and means for monitoring the flow of
current through the module, throughout the test.
10. Hot-Spot Endurance Test

Objective: To determine the ability of the module to withstand hot-spot

heating effects, for example solder melting or deterioration of the
encapsulation. This defect could be provoked by cracked or mismatched cells,
interconnect failures, partial shadowing or soiling.

Equipment:
Set of opaque covers for test cell shadowing in 5% increments and sun
simulator
11. UV Preconditioning Test
Objective: To precondition the module with ultra-violet (UV) radiation
before the thermal cycle/humidity freeze tests to identify those materials and
adhesive bonds that are susceptible to UV degradation.
Equipment:
• UV exposure system to control the
temperature of the module while it is
irradiated by UV light (280-385 nm , at 60
0C ± 5 0C).

• Temperature probes for measuring and

recording the temperature of the module .
• UV radiometer for measuring the
irradiation of the UV light produced by the
UV light source at the test plane of the
module.
12. Thermal Cycling Test

Objective: To determine the ability of the

module to withstand thermal mismatch,
fatigue and other stresses caused by repeated
changes of temperature.

Equipment:
• Environmental chambers with automatic
temperature control .
• Power supply for applying a current equal
to the STC peak power current of the
module(s) under test and monitoring the
flow of current through each module during
the test.
13. Humidity Freeze Test

Objective: To determine the ability of the module

to withstand the effects of high temperature and
humidity followed by sub-zero temperatures.

Equipment:
• Environmental chambers with automatic
temperature control and humidity .
• Multimeter to monitor the continuity of the
internal circuit of each module during test.
14. Damp Heat Test
Objective: To determine the ability of the module to withstand the
effects of long term penetration of humidity.

Equipment:
Environmental chamber with humidity and temperature control.
15. Wet Leakage Current Test
Objective: To evaluate the insulation of the module under wet
operating conditions and verify that moisture from rain, fog, dew, or
melted snow does not enter the active parts of the module circuitry,
where it might cause corrosion, a ground fault or a safety hazard.

Equipment:
• A water container for wetting the module
• Spray equipment for keeping the module wet during test
• Insulation tester to measure the insulation resistance.
16. Robustness of Terminations Test

Objective: To determine that the terminations and attachment of the

terminations to the body of the module will withstand such stresses as are
likely to be applied during normal assembly or handling operations.

Equipment: A set of weights along with hanging arrangement .

17. Mechanical Load Test
Objective: The purpose of this test is to determine the ability of the module
to withstand wind, snow, static or ice loads.

Equipment:
Mechanical load tester which
enables the modules to be
mounted front-side up or front-
side down. The test base shall
enable the module to deflect
freely during the load
application.
Instrumentation to monitor the
electrical continuity of the
module during the test.
18. Hail impact Test
The hail impact test is a mechanical test that verifies that a solar panel is capable
of withstanding the impact of hailstones at a temperature of ~ 4°C. The hail
impact test is an important solar panel quality and safety test as in many parts of
the world, hail can cause major damage to solar panels.
Part-B: PV System Configuration & Components

• Selecting Solar Panels

• Inverters types & configurations
• Balance of system (BOS) components
• Standard system configurations
 Stand-alone system
 Grid-tied systems
 Hybrid systems
Selection of Solar Modules

Identify load
Suitable and
requirement or
shaded free area
power plant size
for power plant
Load Space

PV Technology
Certification selection
Technology
Most important thing Selection according
to choose for Cost to location, climate
performance, quality & power required
and safety Selection of project according
to project cost modules are
accounted 50% cost on hole
projects
Solar Power Generating System
Images
Inverter
Electronics
It convert dc electricity into
ac to run common
appliances and equipment.
They can be hybrid or
regular.
Images
Mounting Structures
Physical
Structure
Mounting structures hold
the solar modules
securely in place. Ground,
roof and pole mounting
versions are available.
Batteries
Combiner Box/
Junction Box
Batteries store the energy
generated by the solar The combiner box’s
modules. These are special role is to bring the
output of several
batteries with higher DOD. solar strings together
Interconnects
Wiring
Proper connections must
Proper wiring must be specified for every
be specified for every segment of the system
segment of the to assure best
system to assure best performance.
performance
PV System Components: Inverters

Inverters or DC-AC converters are used in grid connected systems to

convert the DC electricity originating from the PV modules into AC
electricity that can be fed into the electricity grid.

Central Inverter
 Simplest architecture
 Many strings are connected in parallel forming a PV array,
which is connected to one central inverter
 The inverter performs maximum power point tracking and
power conversion.
 Less conversion loss
 High efficiency
 Lowest per watt cost
 Ideal for large scale (MW) plants
String Inverters

 A number of PV modules that are

connected in series form a PV string with
a power rating of up to 5 kWp
 Suitable for Rooftop power plants.
 Best for House, Industrial and office
building
 Can install without designated support
structure or increased safety
requirements.
 Less shading losses due to no string are
connected in parallel.
 Ideal for kW to MW scale rooftop/ground
mounted plants
 Per watt cost slightly higher than central
inverters
 Less plant shutdown chances
Module Integrated or module oriented inverters

 A very different architecture is that of the module

integrated Inverters.
 These inverters operate directly at one or several PV
modules and have power ratings of several hundreds
of watts.
 Two stage power conversion: first
it boost the DC voltage and then
convert in to AC output
 Plug and play characteristics
 Low investment cost
 Less losses and higher power
output
 Maximum efficiency
 High flexibility
Criteria for Selecting a Grid-Connected Inverter

The following factors should be considered for a grid-connected inverter:

Power Quality – Inverters for grid-connected systems produce better than utility-quality power.
For grid-connection, the inverter must have the words “Utility-Interactive” printed directly on the
listing label.

Voltage Input – The inverter’s DC voltage input window must match the nominal voltage of the
solar array, usually 235V to 600V for systems without batteries and 12, 24 or 48 volts for battery-
based systems.

AC Power Output – Grid-connected systems are sized according to the power output of the PV
array, rather than the load requirements of the building. This is because any power requirements
above what a grid-connected PV system can provide is automatically drawn from the grid.

Surge Capacity – The starting surge of equipment such as motors is not a consideration in sizing
grid-connected inverters. When starting, a motor may draw as much as seven times its rated
wattage. For grid-connected systems, this start-up surge is automatically drawn from the grid.
Frequency and Voltage Regulation – Better quality inverters will produce near constant output
voltage and frequency.
Efficiency – Modern inverters commonly used in residential and small commercial systems have
peak efficiencies of 92 percent to 94 percent, as rated by their manufacturers. Actual field
conditions usually result in overall efficiencies of about 88 percent to 92 percent. Inverters for
battery-based systems have slightly lower efficiencies.
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) – Modern non-battery based inverters include maximum
power point tracking. MPPT automatically adjusts system voltage such that the PV array operates
at its maximum power point. For battery-based systems, this feature has recently been
incorporated into better charge controllers.
Inverter-Chargers – For battery-based systems, inverters are available with a factory integrated
charge controller, referred to as inverter-chargers. Be sure to select an inverter-charger that is
rated for grid-connection, however. In the event of a grid power outage, use of an inverter-charger
that is not set up for grid-connection would result in overcharging and damaging the batteries,
known as “cooking the batteries.”
Automatic Load Shedding – For battery-based systems, the inverter can automatically shed any
unnecessary loads in the event of a utility power outage. Solar loads, i.e. the loads that will be kept
powered up during the outage, are connected to a separate electrical sub-panel. A battery-based
system must be designed to power these critical loads.
PV System Components: BOS

Balance of System Components:

Structure Details
DC cables and AC cables
Array junction box / DC combiner box
Over current protection device/circuit breakers
System protection
Energy meters
System monitoring
Marking and signage
Energy storage (Battery) Types
Their characteristics
Battery design parameters
PV System Components: Mounting structure

The mounting structure is the supporting structure that holds the solar
panels or arrays of solar panels to the ground. Mounting structures are
usually made of steel, which is galvanised for protection against
corrosion. Lightweight structures could also be made from Aluminium.

Mounting structures
types
Rooftop mounted
Ground mounted structures
structures

Pole mount Foundation mount

Foundation mount Ballasted footing mount

Ballasted footing mount

Ground Mounting structures

Ground mounted
structures

Pole mount Foundation mount Ballasted footing mount

Pole mounts-driven Foundation mounts- Fixed concrete or steel bases that

directly into the to concrete slabs or use weight to secure the
ground or embedded poured footings solar panel system in
in concrete. position and do not require
ground penetration.
Ground Mounting structures variants by sun’s path
Ground mounted
structures
Fixed Tilt Seasonal Manual Tilt
Fixed Tilt Solar Racking It can freely adjust tilt angle
System is applicable to and clearance for different
install the usual framed seasons. Providing as much
module to tilt a certain as a 5-10% increase in
angle with the ground yield. Module inclination
angle can be 10°, 25°, 40°
or customized degree
Tilt solar tracker system
It’s a automatic tracking
system which can be
single or dual to
improve generation and
optimally use the land it
thus becomes
imperative to install
trackers.
 Comparison of Tracker system over Fixed Tilt System

Rajasthan
 Fixed- 1.772 MU/Yr
 Tracker-1.995 MU/Yr
 % increase-16%

Madhya Pradesh
 Fixed- 1.692 MU/Yr
 Tracker-1.996 MU/Yr
 % increase-17.2%
kWh

Andhra Pradesh
 Fixed- 1.622 MU/Yr
 Tracker-1.965
MU/Yr
 % increase-21%

Tamil Nadu
 Fixed- 1.592 MU/Yr
 Tracker-1.925
Generation are for MU/Yr
Daily power generation comparison for fixed and single axis tracker 1.1MWp Solar plant  % increase-20.9%
 Rooftop mounted structures

Foundation Mount Ballasted footing mount

Foundation mounts- concrete or steel bases that use weight to

attached to the roof and
Fixed to concrete slabs or
poured footings
secure the panel system in position and do not
require through penetration. This mounting
method allows for easy decommissioning or
relocation of solar system with no adverse
effect on the roof structure
 PV Mounting structures

Factors to be considered when selecting structures

• Wind loading(CFD analysis)
• Tracking if required
• Weight of the modules
• Site location(Coastal area, corrosive atmosphere)
• Orientation and ground clearance
• Cost

104
Specifications

IV. Structure:

• Fixed / Manual / Motorized tilt angle

• GI or Anodized Aluminum Structure with tilt angle in Deg

towards south

• Suitable to withstand wind speed Kmph

• Panels are clamped to the structure, with proper air gap

maintained between adjacent panels to ensure proper
ventilation, expansion & contraction purpose during
seasons.

• The hardware (screws, washers etc.) are of Stainless Steel

SS 304 material.
 Array Mounting Structure – Design & Materials

Corrosion
Aspects to be considered while Thermal Aspects Wind
Mounting to be
designing array mounting Expansion / To be rated for
made from
structure Contraction of maximum expected
corrosion resistant
modules / Structure wind speeds
materials

Support structures and module

mounting arrangements should comply Material Mechanical Loads
with Accumulation on on PV Structures
 Applicable building codes regulations PV Array To comply with
Snow, ice, others related standards
and
 Standards and module manufacturer’s
mounting requirements IEC 62548
Array Mounting Structure – Flat RCC Roof
Roof top PV mounting structures
Roof top PV mounting structures
MW Scale PV mounting structures

110
MW Scale PV mounting structures
Array Mounting Structure – Flat RCC Roof

112
Array Mounting Structure – Installation on Slant Roof

113
Array Mounting Structure – Installation on Slant Roof

114
Manual Tilt Aluminium Structure

115
Roof top PV mounting structures
Installation of Isolators

Solar PV Rooftop DC Inverter AC Isolator

1 Isolator 2

 A double-pole, load-breaking,  A manual switch lockable in

DC rated isolating (disconnect) OFF position is required to be
switch should be installed on installed between inverter and
the DC side of the inverter grid connection point

 It should be rated appropriately  The switch is to be located at a

for the voltage and current of height of at least 2.44 m above
the PV system the ground level

117
Key Balance of System (BoS) Components

DC cables and AC cables

Array Junction Box / DC combiner box
Over current protection device / circuit breaker

Balance of Disconnection devices

System (BoS) Plugs, sockets, and connectors
Components Lightning protection device

Earthing and bonding arrangement

Energy meters
System monitoring
Marking and signage

118
DC Cables

Use of DC cables:
 String cables connecting the
modules in series and to the
array junction box
 Array cables connecting the
array junction box to the
SPVRT array
DC isolator
 DC inverter cables connecting
the SPVRT array DC isolator to
the inverter
For a system with battery storage:
 Connecting battery to inverter
 Battery interconnection

119
Array Junction Box / DC Combiner Box

SPVRT strings are

connected in a
junction / combiner
box which also
contains overcurrent
protection devices
SPVRT array and
SPVRT string combiner
boxes shall be at least  Shall be capable of being reached
IP 54 compliant in for inspection, maintenance or
accordance with IEC repairs
60529, and shall be UV
resistant.  There should be segregation
between positive and negative
conductors within combiner
boxes to minimize the risks of
DC arcs
121
Over Current Protection Device / Circuit Breakers

 Requirement of OCPD in SPVRT array shall

be determined as per section 6.3 of
IEC62548

 String OCP shall be located at the string in

the sub-array or array cables in the string
combiner box

 Sub-array OCPD shall be installed in the

sub-array cables in the array combiner box

 Array OCPD shall be installed at the array

cables in the application circuit or the
inverter

124
Disconnection Devices

Circuit Breakers used for

overcurrent protection in
SPVRT array shall be
 Certified to IEC 60898 or IEC
60947-2 (IS 13947)
 Not polarity sensitive
 Rated to interrupt full load and
prospective fault current
 Rated for overcurrent as per IEC
62548 section 6.3.5.

All circuit breakers used,

need to be rated for DC

125
Plugs, Sockets & Connectors

Be rated for DC use  Be rated for outdoor

Have a voltage and use, be UV-resistant and
current rating as per be of an IP rating suitable
section 7 of IEC-62548 for the location
Require a deliberate  Plugs and socket outlets
force to disconnect normally used for the
If accessible by connection of household
untrained people then equipment to low
shall be of the locking voltage AC power, shall
type where two not be used in SPVRT
independent actions arrays.
are required to
disconnect
Lightning Protection System

 The need for a lightning protection system

shall be assessed and installed in
accordance with IEC 62305-2, IEC 62305-3
or IS2309

 If a lightning protection system (LPS) is

already installed on the building, the SPVRT
system should be integrated into the LPS as
appropriate in accordance with
IEC 62305-3.

 In the case where no lightning system is

required on a building or in a case of a free-
standing array, overvoltage protection may
still be required to protect the array and the
inverter and all parts of the installation.

127
Earthing Standards

 IS:3043 : 1966, 1987 reaffirmed 2006 Code of Practice for Earthing

 Indian Electricity rules, 1956 (as amended up to 2000)
 IS:2309 1989 (reaffirmed 2005) Protection of Buildings and allied Structures against lightning –
Code of Practice
 IS:2689 : 1989 (reaffirmed March 2010) Guide for Control of Undesirable static Electricity
 Manual on Earthing of AC Power Systems - CBIP Publication No.302 : 2007 and 311
 BS:7430 : 1998, Code of Practice for Earthing (formerly CP 1013: 1965) British Standard
Institution London 1992
 BS: 6651 : 1992, Protection of Structures against Lightning
 IEEE:80 : 2000 (Revision of IEEE Std. 80: 1986) Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding
 IEEE:142 : 2007 (Revision of IEEE Std. 142: 1991) Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power
System
 IEEE:I100 : 2005 (Revision of IEEE Std. 1100 : 1999) Powering and Grounding Electronic
Equipment

128
Types of Earthing

Plate
Earthing

Types Pipe /
Mat
Earthing
of Rod
Earthing Earthing

Strip
Earthing

130
Plate Earthing

Plate earthing: Standard 1.2

m X 1.2 m
Generally only 0.6 m X 0.6 m
is used

References
IS 3043:1987 Clause 9.2.1
page 19
IEEE 80:2000 Clause 14.2 (50)
page 64

131
Pipe / Rod Earthing

Pipe / rod earthing:

Standard 3 m long

References
IS 3043:1987
Clause 9.2.2 page
20

132
 Strip Earthing & Mat Earthing

Strip Earthing
Reference – IS 3043:1987 Clause 9.2.3 page 21

Mat Earthing
It is the combination of strip & rod earthing
Reference
IEEE 80:2000 Clause 14.1 (50) page 64 (Laurent & Newmann)
IEEE 80:2000 Clause 14.2 (51) page 65 (Sverak)

133
Earthing & Bonding Arrangement

The following options for earthing or bonding of parts

of a SPVRT array exist:

Functional
earthing of
conductive
non-current
carrying parts

 Earthing for
lightning
protection

134
MC 4 Connectors

135
System Monitoring

Most inverters are equipped with

data module and communication
system which sends daily energy
generation
An independent energy
generation and performance
monitoring system can also be
installed
When required, a residual current
monitoring and earth fault alarm
system shall be installed

136
Cable Management at Solar PV Rooftop Array

Virtually no exposed
Lidded Cable Tray Labeled every 2 m
cable
Cable Management at Solar PV Rooftop Array

Roof penetrations Use black UV rated

under solar PV corrugated tubing
rooftop module
Appropriately labeled

Use fit for purpose

equipment
Use SS cable ties
 Marking & Signage

Equipment marking
Requirements for signs
Identification of a SPVRT
installation
Labeling of SPVRT array and
SPVRT string combiner boxes
Labeling of disconnection devices
Documentation as per IEC 62446
PV System Components: Battery

Types of batteries commonly used in PV systems are:

• Lead-acid batteries • Alkaline batteries
- Flooded (a.k.a. Liquid vented) - Nickel-cadmium
- Sealed (a.k.a. Valve-Regulated Lead Acid) - Nickel-iron
 Battery parameters

Voltage: The voltage at that the battery is rated is the nominal voltage at which
the battery is supposed to operate. The so called solar batteries or lead acid grid
plate batteries are usually rated at 12 V, 24 V or 48 V.
Capacity- The term capacity refers to the amount of charge that the battery can
deliver at the rated voltage. The capacity is directly proportional to the amount of
electrode material in the battery.
C-rate- The C-rate is used, which is a measure of the rate of discharge of the
battery relative to its capacity. It is defined as the multiple of the current over the
discharge current that the battery can sustain over one hour.

Battery efficiency- For designing PV systems it is very important to know the

efficiency of the storage system. For storage systems, usually the round-trip efficiency
is used, which is given as the ratio of total storage system input to the total storage
system output,
𝑬𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜼 𝑬𝒇𝒇 𝒃𝒂𝒕 = × 100%
𝑬𝒊𝒏
State of charge and depth of discharge (DOD)- At another important battery parameter is
the State of Charge (SoC), which is defined as the percentage of the battery capacity
𝑬
available for discharge, 𝑺𝒐𝑪 = 𝑬 𝒃𝒂𝒕𝑽
𝒃𝒂𝒕
Thus, a 10 Ah rated battery that has been drained by 2 Ah is said to have a SoC of 80%.
Also the Depth of Discharge (DoD) is an important parameter. It is defined as the
percentage of the battery capacity that has been discharged,

𝑪𝒃𝒂𝒕 𝑽−𝑬𝒃𝒂𝒕
𝑫𝒐𝑫 = 𝑪𝒃𝒂𝒕 𝑽

For example, a 10 Ah battery that has been drained by 2 Ah has a DoD of 20%. The SoC
and the DoD are complimentary to each other.
Battery Sizing
Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)
PV System Components: Other Componets
Combiner Box: Wires from individual PV modules or
strings are run to the combiner box, typically located
on the roof. These wires may be single conductor
pigtails with connectors that are pre-wired onto the
PV modules. The output of the combiner box is one
larger two wire conductor in conduit. A combiner box
typically includes a safety fuse or breaker for each
string and may include a surge protector.

Surge protectors help to protect your system from

power surges that may occur if the PV system or
nearby power lines are struck by lightning. A power
surge is an increase in voltage significantly above the
design voltage.
Connectors and Wiring: panels need to be connected to
each other, and to inverters. Connectors attach solar
components together to produce a successful flow of
electricity.
 Standard system configurations
 Stand-alone system  Grid-tied systems  Hybrid systems

Electrical Aspects Electrical Aspects

Mounting Solar Module Array

Structure

Land Parameters Space Battery Charge Controllers

Interconnects Wires Interface Inverters

Off-Grid Solar System
Off Grid Systems: Introduction
The Off-Grid or Stand-Alone PV System
incorporates large amounts of battery storage to
provide power for a certain number of days (and
nights) in a row when sun is not available

The array of solar panels must be large enough to

power all energy needs at the site and recharge
the batteries at the same time

Most Off-Grid systems benefit from the

installation of more than one renewable energy
generator and may include Wind and/or Hydro

Most common applications of Off Grid in India can

be seen in rural areas especially places lke Gramin
banks, schools, hospitals etc
Off Grid Systems: Direct on Load
PV Direct systems are usually very simple systems
where the photovoltaic panel is connected directly
to a motor or pump which matches the voltage and
amperage output of the panel

When the sun shines and the PV panel produces

electricity, the device runs--when the sun is not
available, the device stops

This system is often used for livestock where a well-

pump lifts water out of the ground to a watering
trough in remote locations

Other applications include solar powered fans,

irrigation systems and small day-time garden
waterfalls or fountains.
Off Grid Systems: Standalone Battery System
These PV Systems are those where the panel is
connected to the battery bank via a charge
controller

This charge controller helps in charging the

battery bank to the optimum level and also
prevents it from discharging

When the sun shines and the PV panel

produces electricity it charges the battery

This charge could then be used to run a DC load

directly or an AC load via an inverter

Since to prevent the place from not losing out

on electricity during cloudy days and when the
battery back up has run out , it is advisable.
Other applications include solar powered fans,
irrigation systems and small day-time garden
waterfalls or fountains.
 Off Grid Systems: Hybrid System
 The PCU in this system takes
 These are similar to the
traditional off grid systems
with one difference: the
battery bank is charged by the
solar array as well
 During the day, the battery is
priority of charging through
solar as compared to
conventional grid charging thus
effectively reducing utility bills
for the customer
We use the inverter for the
bidirectional working. Otherwise
the battery can be charged directly
through main post a step down
transformer and rectifier
charged by the sun. In case the
charging current provided by
the panel is not sufficient, the
battery then is charged by the
grid.
On-Grid Solar Systems
 On Grid Systems: Introduction
 These are similar to the traditional
off grid systems with one difference:
the scale of operation is such that
the electricity produced goes
directly to the grid ie utility scale
production
 The inverter converts the DC to
AC and sends it across to the
Grid. Individual homes can
directly use this electricity from
the grid or also take it directly
from the power plant
 In India, there are RPO
that discoms and
electricity boards have to
fulfill thus the impetus on
MW utility power plants
On Grid Systems: System for Rooftop Installations

At night, the owner Grid-connected systems must

In grid-
draws on the meet utility requirements. For
connected or In many cases,
previously established example, inverters must not
grid-tied system surplus
electricity grid. An emit noise that can interfere Grid-connected
Rooftop systems, energy
addition benefit of the with equipment reception. systems can be
solar energy is generated
grid-tied system is that Inverters must also switch off applied to
used during the during the day
the solar system does in cases of grid failure. Finally, residential
day by the can be
not need to be sized to they must retain acceptable installations
system owner on exported back
meet peak loads— levels of harmonic distortion,
3 phase 440 V to the grid.
overages can be drawn such as voltage quality and
line
from the grid. current output waveforms.
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GreenomicsWorld organizes webinars
and prepares research reports for the clients in order to help them in reaching their
intended audience the right and only way. GreenomicsWorld also organizes events &
conferences to let industry leaders connect with the intended people.

GreenomicsWorld finds the right strategic business partner for Companies who are
looking entry into new markets.
GreenomicsWorld through various media and events helps professionals to convene,
interact and learn best industrial practices.

Visit Our Offices

OUR PARTNERS
Bhubaneswar Office: #687/2428,
Jaydev Vihar, Odisha(India) 751015

US Office: #1177, Summer St.

Stamford, CT-06905, USA

Email Us
info@greenomicsworld.com

Connect @ 7440009200
Visit Our Website
www.greenomicsworld.com
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