Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
ith permission.
‘,- i’-
/ / ‘. .
Bruce Andersop 1
with Michael Riordan .
Copyright 0 1987. 1976 by R.A.K. Publishing Co.
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.
Acknowledgements
The first edition of this book. titled The SO/~J~-
HCJIW Book. was based on
Bruce Anderson’s master’s thesis. “Solar Energy and Shelter Design”. for
the School of Architecture at M.I.T. His manuscript was revised for book
publication by Michael Riordan. This edition was produced by the staff of
Cheshire Books under the direction of Linda Goodman. Illustrations were by
Edward A. Wong.
Revisions to bring the book up to date for the second edition were done by
Jennifer Adams, a designer with The Write Design and former engineering
editor of Solur Age magazine (now Progrrssiw Builder). Additional illustra-
tions were prepared by ANCO of Boston.
Publication of both editions has been tinanced through the efforts of Richard
Katzenberg.
...
111
Foreword
iv
Solar and Heat Basics 2
Measurement of Heat and Solar Energy 3
Solar Heating Methods 4
Other Solar Applications 5
Solar Position 9
Insolation I I
Diffuse and Reflected Radiation I3
Limitations of Insolation Data I5
eat
Conduction Heat Loss 17
Convection Heat Loss 21
Radiation Heat Flow 23
Heat Load Calculations 24
Seasonal and Design Heat Loads 26
3
Orientation and Shape 29
Color 31
Absorptance. Reflectance, and Emittance 32
Contents
Air Quality 36
Wind Control 36
Air and Vapor Barriers 37
Windows 38
High-performance Glazing 40
Insulation 4 1
5 ain Systems
Glazing 47
Shading 48
Sizing Overhangs 49
Sun Path Diagrams 50
Use of Sun Path Diagrams 52
6 e ouse as a
emperature Swings
Heat Storage Capacities 56
Building with Thermal Mass 56
Storing Heat in a Concrete Slab 57
Sizing Mass 58
7 irect Gain Syste
Thermosiphoning Air Panels 60
TAP Variations 61
Mass Walls 62
Mass Wall Variations 63
Wail. Window, and Roof Collectors 64
Sunspaces 65
Passive Versus Active Systems 68
Batch Heaters 71
Thermosiphoning Water Heaters 73
Phase-change Systems 74
Freeze Protection 75
9 Active Solar
Recirculation 76
Draindown 79
Drainback 79
Antifreeze 82
PV-Powered 82
One-Tank vs. Two-Tank Systems 84
Installation Checklist 84
vi
Contents
art ive
Cooling 89
Heat Transfer Fluids 89
Air System Designs 92
Liquid System Designs 93
Swimming Pool Heating 94
Controls 95
Performance and Cost 96
Solar Cooling 96
Absorption Cooling Principles 97
late Collectors
Tube Sizing and Flow Patterns 99
Tips on Corrosion Prevention 100
Absorber Plates 100
Absorber Coatings and Cover Plates IO1
Insulation IO3
Other Factors I04
late Collectors 1
Absorbers IO5
Air Flow and Heat Transfer I06
Absorber Coatings and Cover Plates I07
Other Design Factors 107
er Collector es 109
Parabolic Collectors I
Compound Parabolic Concentrator 109
Evacuated-tube Collectors I IO
ante and Size 11
Collector Heat Losses I 14
Energy Flows in a Collector I I5
lnsoiation i I6
Collector Orientation and Tilt I I7
Sizing the Collector I I9
Estimating Collector Performance I22
Comparing Collectors 123
Estimating Collector Size 124
Storage an
Tanks of Water I29
Rock Beds I30
Phase-change Materials I32
Insulation 133
Storage Size I33
Estimating Storage Size 134
Heat Distribution I35
vii
Contents
...
VIII
NON* in II~LL~.~ with (1 south crsptw. the SIOI’S Teotihuacan. the size of ancient Rome, was laid
my pcnetrcue into thr porticwrs in winter, hut out on a grid facing I5 degrees west of south.
in .wt~itm~r th ptrth of the siiti is right over 0141 Early New England houses had masonry filled
liiwls cirid uhow tlw Ao/l so tlicrt thw is shde. wails and compact layouts to minimize heat loss
!fl tlwn. this is th hcst ~wm,qtmw, iii’ shtld during frigid winter months. The kitchen. with
hilt1 t/w sorrtli sick IvjGr- to grt the hkter siui its constantly burning wood stove. was located
trncl th tiortlr sitlt* Irmw to X;c~pout the ~wltl on the north side of the house to permit the
brid.s. other rooms to occupy the prime southern ex-
Socrates. as quoted by posure. Only in the present century, with abun-
Xenophon in Mmonrhilict dant supplies of cheap fossil fuels available. has
the sun been ignored in building design.
‘fhc &sign of human shelter has oftrn retlcctcd Serious technical investigations into the use
an undcrst;inding of the sun’s power. Primitive of the sun to heat homes began in 1939. when
shcltcrs in tropical arcas have broad thatched the Massachusetts institute of Technology built
roofs that provide shade from tire scorching its tirst solar house. For the first time, solur
midday sun and ktxp out frequent rains. The d1ec~tor.s placed on the roof gathered sunlight
open wails of these structures allow cooling for interior heating. By 1960. more than a dozen
hrrczcs to carry away accumulated heat and structures had been built to use modem methods
moisture. in the American southwest. Pueblo of harnessing the sun’s energy.
Indians built thick adobe wails and roofs that During the 1970s. following the Arab oil em-
kept the interiors cool during the day by ab- bargo, thousands of solar homes were built.
sorbing the sun’s rays. By the time the cold Hundreds of manufacturers produced solar coi-
desert night rolled around. the absorbed heat Icctors. and the sun’s energy was used to heat
hxl penetrated the living quurtcrs to warm the domestic water as well. But the steep rise in
inhabitants. Communal buildings faced south or crude oil prices also triggered conservation on
southeast to absorb as much of the winter sun a scale that dramatically cut worldwide oil con-
as possible. sumption, forcing crude oil prices back down.
Even the shelters of more advanced civiii- Widespread popular interest in energy subsided
zations have been designed to take advantage momentarily. but did leave behind a legacy of
of the sun. The entire Meso-American city of real progress in the uses of renewable energy.
1
NEAR MD10
ULfRAVIOLET “S’OLE INF~RJCD WAVES
I I I J
SHORT ---L-v--
WAVELWtj-P4 MAJOR PORTION OFTHE DEGRADED llM+iz+H
SPECTRUM OF ENERqIES ClEAT WEUtjY
FROM THE SUN THAT RZACYI FLD)urlN(.j Fr@bl
THE utR7H’s SURFACE. THE EARTW
EMCK INTO spx.&
SOLAR AND HEAT BASICS The amount of solar energy reaching the earth’s
surface is enormous. it frequently exceeds 2OO
Most of the solar energy reaching us comes in Btu per hour on a square foot of surface, enough
the form of visible light and ir$urd rays. These to power a 60-watt light bulb if ail the solar
two forms of radiation differ only in their wave- energy could be converted to electricity. But
Icngths. When they strike an object. part of the the technology of solar electricity is in its in-
radiation is absorbed and transformed into an fancy; we are fortunate if we can convert even
equivalent amount of heat cncrgy. Heat is sim- I5 percent. On the other hand. efficiencies of
ply rhc motion of atoms and moiccuies in an 60 percent are not unreasonable for the con-
object. it is stored in the material itself or COU- version of solar energy into heat for a house.
hcwl to surrounding matcriais. vVrarmingthem The energy failing on a house during the winter
in turn. Heat can also be carried off by air and is generdiiy several times what is needed inside.
water Ilowing past these warm materials. in what so the sun can provide a substantial fraction of
is called cornwtion heat flow. its annual needs.
That a material can be heated by the sun is Glass is the “miracle” substance that makes
obvious to anyone who has walked barefoot solar heating possible. Glass transmits visible
over a sun-baked pavement. What may not be light but not thermal radiation. You can prove
so obvious is that the puvemcnt also rdiutes this to yourself by sitting in front of a blazing
some of the heat energy away in the form of tire. Your face becomes unbearably hot if you
infrared rays. You can feci this t/wrnru/ rculicr- sit too close. But what happens if you place a
tion by ;JUtting your hand near an iron poker pane of glass in front of your face’? You can
after it has been heated in a tireplace. it is this still SPCthe tire but your face is not nearly as
radiation of energy back into space that keeps hot as hefore. The iongwave infrared rays car-
the earth from overheating and frying us to a rying most of the tire’s radiant energy are ab-
crisp. sorbed by the glass, while the shortwave visible
2
Introduction
rays penetrate to your eyes. In the same way, sorbed by a dark surface. The heat produced
once sunlight passes through a window and is cannot escape readily because thermal radiation
transformed into heat energy inside, this energy and warm air currents are trapped by the glaz-
cannot be radiated directly back outside. This ing. The accumulated solar heat i; then trans-
phenomenon, known as the greenhouse effect. ported to the living quarters or stored.
is responsible for the hot, stuffy air in the car There i> often an overabucdance of solar en-
you left in the sun after the doors locked and ergy wheu it is not needed, and none at all when
the windows rolled up. Other transparent ma- it is most in demand. Some means is required
terials. particularly plastics, also absorb this to store the collected solar heat for use at night
thermal radiation. but none quite so well as or during extended periods of cloudiness. Any
glass. material absorbs heat as its temperature rises
The basic principles of solar collection for and releases heat as its temperature falls. The
home heating and cooling are embodied in the objects inside a house-the walls, ceilings,
greenhouse. The sun’s rays pass through the floors, and even furniture-can serve as heat
glass or transparent plastic glazing and are ab- storage devices.
There ure two btrsic tyes of Irtl~(l.stIrt’ItIl’Ilt used energy mu! change ,fi-om one jbrm to another,
to describe hrtrt ~~~~rr~~~-ttr,,lpercItlcr’e and blct it ne\ler d;.~trppeurs. Thus rc*ecun describe
ylrtrntit~. Temperuttcre is (I meii.s~ux~of the (II*- the amolrnt oj’ .solur energv striking u surj&e
cv-qye ~~ibrtrtionul energy of molec~rles. For ex- in terms of un equi~vdrnt umount of heat. We
iimple. the m0lri~44le.sin rcvrter at 40°c’ (degrees meusiire the sokur energy striking a siuji~ce in
C~ivitigrade) ure \*ihrating more rupid~~ than u given time period in trnits of Bttr!ft’lhr or cull
molcv~~rlesin \~*uter at 10°C’. Hetrt cltctrntity is cm’lmin. Olitside the eurth’s atmosphere. jbr
d~vermint~d both b! lio~r~rirpid~~ mc)leclr~rs are lwrnlplt~, solur energy strikes at the u~~eruge
\*ibratiri!: irnd b,vhow munv m0L~crrle.vthere arc. rute c:f 429 Btlc!f?lhr or I .Y4 ctrllcm~lmin.
For cJ.\-ample.it takes . mLi Iarjyr qiuintity o/‘ The radiunt energy reuching us from the sun
heat to rtrise a .swimmin!: pool to 40°C’ than to hus u distribution of wavelengths (or colors).
raise ti kettle of water to 40°C’. e1’en thoirgh the We describe these wu\*elengths in units of mi-
tc’mperatrrre is the sume in both. crons. or millionths of u meter. The wavelength
In the Engli.sh sytem of I?te~i.siiri’t~i~‘~lt.the distribution of solur energy striking the earth’s
lrnit of’ heat ylurntitv is the British Thermal Unit, atmosphere and reaching the grotrnd is shown
or Btrr. the tmirnint of heat needed to raise one in the accompanying chart.
powtd of I\vlter OIUJ&qree Ftrhrenheit (OF). In Abolct half of the solar radiation reaching
the metric. .sF.stem,the irnit of hetrt cliiuntit~ is the grattnd fulls in the visible range, 0.4 to 0.7
the (ulorie. or id, the crmount of heat reqitired microns. Most of the radiution in the ultrarGlet
to rtrise one gram of‘ water one degri*e C’rnti- runge, rcpithwur*riengths below 0.4 microns. is
grade. One Btir is eqrri~~trlcnt to ul;oirt 2.52 cul. ubsorbed in the lcpper atmosphere. A substan-
It take.s the same ytwntit~ r!f heat. 100 Btlr or tiul portion of the infrared radiation. with wave-
,75.200 1~11.to heat 100 p~nd.s of lcyrter 1°F us lengths greater than 0.7 microns, reaches the
it dr~e.sto heut IO pounds oj’ ,tv&r 10°F. eurth’s surface. A warm body emits e\*en longer
Herrt is one form of energv und sunlight is wave infrared rudiution. Since glass transmits
~urt,tlter-rudiiult energy. An important chur- very little radiation at these longer wave-
trcteri.stic of‘ energ! is that it is ne1yr lost- lengths. it traps this thermal radiation.
3
The New Solar Home Book
HOT AIR
m HOUSE
COOL AIf2
F&m tfiX5E
4
Introduction
7
After centuries of observation. ancient astron- greater distance to travel through the atmos-
omeis could accurately predict the sun’s motion phere in winter, and they strike the earth’s sur-
across the sky. Stonehenge was probably a gi- face at a more glancing angle. The amount of
gantic “computer” that recorded the move- solar radiation eventually striking a horizontal
ments of the sun and moon in stone. From their surface is less during the winter, and the weather
earthbound viewpoint. early peoples reckoned is colder.
that the sun gave them night and day by moving This tilt of the earth’s axis results in the sea-
in a path around the earth. But today, thanks to sons of the year. If the axis were perpendicular
the work of the sixteenth-century Polish astron- to the orbital plane, there would be no notice-
omer Copernicus, we know that the earth travels able change of seasons. Each day the sun would
in an orbit around the sun and that the rotation follow the same path across the sky. and the
of the earth, not the motion of the sun, gives weather would be uniformly dull. Likewise, if
us the cycles of night and day. the earth did not rotate on its axis, the sun would
The earth actually follows an elliptical tegg- creep slowly across the sky. and a single day
shaped) path around the sun. As it travels this would last a whole year. The diurnal (daily) and
orbit. its distance from the sun changes seasonal cycles that we take for granted are a
slightly-it is closest in winter and most distant direct result of this rotation of the earth about
in summer. The amount of solar radiation strik- a tilted axis.
ing the earth’s atmosphere is consequently most
intense in winter. Then why are winters so SOLAR POSITION
dreadfully cold’?
This seeming paKIdOX is readily explained. Most people have probably noticed that the sun
The earth’s axis is tilted relative to the plane of is higher in the sky in summer than in winter.
its orbit, as shown in the first diagram. The Some also realize that it rises south of due east
north pole is tilted torwrd the sun in summer in winter and north of due east in summer. Each
and a~u~fiont the sun in winter. This angle is day the sun travels in a circular path across the
called the der’linutiotl angle. From our view- sky. reaching its highest point at noon. As win-
point here on earth. this tilt means that the sun ter proceeds into spring and summer. this cir-
is higher in the sky in summer, and lower in cular path moves higher in the sky. The sun
winter. Consequently. the sun’s rays have a rises earlier in the day and sets later.
TIME OF DAY
--Q
SUMMER
SOLSTICE
6 EOUINOX
SEW 23 E
ER
The earth’s elliptical path around the sun. The tilt of the SOLSTICE
earth’s axis results in the seasons of the year. The dec-
lination angles on June 22 and Dec. 22 are +23.5 and The sun’s daily path across the sky. The
-23.5, respectively. The declination angles on Mar. 21 sun is higher in the sky in summer than
and Sept. 23 are both 0. in winter due to the tilt of the earth’s axis.
IO
Solar Phenomena
AM PM Jan 21 Feb 21 Mar 21 Apr21 May 21 Jun 21 Jul21 Aug21 Sep21 0ct21 Nov21 Dec21
16.X 24.3 32.x 41.3 46.8 48.8 47.2 41.8 32.8 24.5 17.0 14.0
44.0 49.7 57.3 h7.2 76.0 80.2 76.7 67.9 57.3 49.8 44.1 41.9
23.x 37.1 41.6 51.3 57.5 59.8 57.9 51.7 41.6 -3’-. 4 24.0 20.7
30.‘) 35.4 41.9 51.4 60.9 h5.X 61.7 52. I 41.9 35.6 31.0 29.4
2x.4 37.3 47.7 58.7 66.2 69.2 66.7 59.3 47.7 37.6 28.6 25.0
16.0 I X.6 ‘2.h 29.2 37.1 41.9 37.9 ‘9.7 22.6 18.7 16.1 IS.2
30.0 39.2 so.0 hl.6 70.0 73.5 70.6 62.3 SO.0 39.s 30.2 26.6
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Notes: Top number in each group is altitude angle. measured from the horizon. Second number is azimuth angle.
measured from true south. Angles given in degrees. and solar times used.
is the solar altitude (8) and the angle between Why do you need to know these solar po-
your arms in the final position is the solar azi- sitions? A knowledge of the sun’s position helps
muth (4). Much better accuracy can be obtained you detemline the orientation of a house and
with better instruments. but the measurement placement of windows to collect the most winter
process is essentially the same. sunlight. This knowledge is also helpful in po-
The solar altitude and azimuth can be cal- sitioning shading devices and vegetation to block
culated for any day. time, and latitude. For 40”N the summer sun. Often the available solar ra-
latitude (Philadelphia, for example) the values diation data only applies to horizontal or south-
of 0 and d, are given at each hour for the 21~1 facing surfaces, and exact solar positions are
day of each month in the accompanying table. needed to convert these data into values that are
Note that 4 is always zero at solar noon and valid for other surfaces.
the 8 varies from 26.6” at noon on December
21 to 73.5” at noon on June 21. You can find
INSOLATION
similar data for latitudes 24”N. 32”N. 48”N.
56”N. and 64”N in the table titled “Clear Day Arriving at a quantitative description of the solar
Insolation Data” in the appendix. This appen- radiation striking a surface, or the ittsolutiot~
dix also shows you how to calculate these angles (not to be confused with insulation). is a dif-
directly for any day. time. and latitude. ficult task. Most of this difficulty arises from
II
The New Solar Home Book
m
WEAN DAILY SOL
the many variables that affect the amount of Although insolation data has been recorded
solar radiation striking a particular spot. Length at about 80 weather stations across the country,
of day. cloudiness, humidity, elevation above much of it is inaccurate and incomplete. The
sea level. and surrounding obstacles all affect information is usually provided in units of lung-
the insolation. Compounding this difficulty is 1eF.sstriking a horizontal surface over a period
the fact that the total solar radia!ion striking a of time, usually a day. A langley is one calorie
surface is the sum of three contributions: the of radiant energy per square centimeter, and one
dircc? radiation from the sun, the d@me ru- langley is equivalent to 3.69 Btu per square
dinrim from the entire sky, and the rejected foot, the more familiar English measure. An
rudiurion from surrounding terrain, buildings, example of the information available is the map
and vegetation. Fortunately, however, we do of “Mean Daily Solar Radiation, Annual” pre-
not need exact insolation data for most low- sented here. You can find monthly maps of the
temperature applications of solar energy. mean daily solar radiation in the appendix. These
12
Solar Phenomena
The total solar radiation srriking a surface is cloudy days. Even in a complerely cloudy month
rhe sum of three components: the direct solar (P = 0). we would still be receiving 30 percent
rudiurion (It)),).rhe diffuse sky radiation (Id), and (F = 0.30) of the clear day insolarion, ac-
the rudiurion rejlecred from surroundings (I,). cording to these equations. This is perhaps a
The direct component consists of rays coming bit high, but the coefJicients have been selected
srruighr from the sun-casting srrong shadows to produce accurate results under normal con-
on a cleur duy. if ail our days were ciear, we ditions, not blackours.
could simply use the Clear Duy lnsolarion Dura, For example, calculate rhe average daily in-
add u small percentage for ground reflection. solation striking a horizonral roof in Philadel-
and huve a very good esritnare of rhe total in- phia during rhe tnonths of June and Junuuty.
solution on our wails. roofs, and collec’rors. But Using thejrst equation and P = 65 (June) and
ail of us cun’t live in Phoenix or Albuquerque, 49 (January) from before, we ger for June:
so we musf learn to deal with cloudy weather.
As ir pusses through rhe urmosphere, suniighr F = 0.30 + 0.65(65/100) = 0.72
is stuttered b! uir molecules. dust. clouds. ozone, For January:
and water vupor. Coming uniformly from rhe
entire sky. this scutrered rudiurion makes rhe F = 0.30 + 0.65(49/100) = 0.62
sky blur on clear du!s und grey on hazy days. Therefore, rhe average daily insolarion is. for
Although this diffuse rudiution umounrs to be- June:
I,r*eett 10 uttd 100 percenr of rite rudiurion
I,, = 0.72(2618) = 1907 Btulft’
reaching the earth’s surfuce, iirde is known about
irs strength and variubiiie. For Januury:
The Cieur Day Insoiurion Catu aren’f much I, = 0.62(948) = 588 Brulfrz
help on a cloudy du!. But frequently we otti>
need to know rhe uveruge daily insoiarion o\ler These nutnbers may be cotnpured wirh rhe 1721
(I period of u monrh. In such a case we can use Brulft’ and 464 Brulf? cuicuiared earlier. If we
rhr ttuttiihl! maps of the percent of possible include dt@se radiation during cloudy weuarher.
.~utt.shitii~lo help us eslittiate rhis a\‘erage. If P our results are IO to 20 percent higher than
is the percenragr of possible sunshine for the before.
ttiotiih anti iocatioti in question. then we cotn- The di’use and rejected radiation striking u
putt a firctor F uccording to surjace uiso depend upon the orientation of the
sut-jke. Under rhe sutne sky condirions, a hor-
F = 0.30 + 0.65( P/100) izonral roof (which “sees” the entire shy) re-
ceives abour twice the diffiise radiation hirring
The ttwttber.s 0.30 and 0.6s are coejicirnt.s rhar a vertical wail (which “sees” only one half the
acWai!\. \vrt? wifh clittiate. locafioti. and sur- sk?). Tilted surfaces receive some average of
fit(*e orientation. But their \~ariation is not loo these two. Ground rejlection depends a ior upon
severe. und we cut1 use these uwruge w1ue.s rhe shape and te.rxtut-eof the surroundings and
for r.stittitrriti,~ average daily insolation. If I,, is rhe altitude of rhe sun. Snow rejects much tnore
the Clear Da! Itt.soiatiott (whole day roral) on sunlighr than green grass, and more reflection
u piutii~ .surfitce. then \\qr cottipirre rhe ii\*erage occurs when the sun is lower in rhe sky. During
daii! it~soiatioti (I,,) according to the winter, us much us 30 percenr of rhe hori-
:otttui clear duy insolation mu! be reflected up
I,, = Ffl,,) onto the surfttce of a south facing wall. But a
These f~trtttu1u.s estitnate rhe d@t;ilr.seradiation roof recei\*es no rejected radiarion in any seu-
that still strikes !!tc surj~~ceon cioucl~ and part!\ son, becuuse it fucrs the .sh~, not rhe ground.
13
The New Solar Home Book
data apply only to horizontal surfaces, and can reprinted in the appendix. The values of the
be misleading. Complicated trigonometric con- daily insolation from the 40”N latitude table are
versions, which involve assumptions about the included here as an example. These tables list
ratio of direct to diffuse radiation, are necessary the average clmr duy insolurion on horizontal
to apply these data to vertical or tilted surfaces. and normal (perpendicular to the sun) surfaces,
The trigonometric conversions are also dis- and on five south-facing surfaces tilted at dif-
cussed the the appendix. ferent angles (including vertical). The insola-
The weather bureau also provides informa- tion figures quoted include a diffuse contribution
tion about the percentage of possible sunshine, for an “average” clear sky, but do not include
defined as the percentage ot time the sun “casts any contl-ibution for reflections from the sur-
a shadow .” An example of these data is the rounding terrain.
map shown here titled “Mean Percentage of Hourly and daily insolation data are given in
Possible Sunshine, Annual.” In the appendix the appendix for the 2lst day of each month.
you will tind monthly maps that are more useful You can readily interpolate between these num-
for calculations of insolation. By themselves, bers to get values of the insolation for other
these maps tell us little about the amount of days, times, latitudes, and south-facing orien-
solar radiation falling on a surface, but when tations. Trigonometric conversions of these data
coupled with the “Clear Day Insolation Data,” to other surface orientations are explained there.
they make a powerful design tool. When multiplied by the appropriate “per-
Clear Day Insolation tables, prepared by the centage of possible sunshine,” these data pro-
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating. and vide an estimate of the hourly and daily insolation
Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). pro- on a variety of surface orientations. You will
vide hourly and daily insolation (and solar po- note, for example, that the total clear day in-
sitions) for a variety of latitudes. Tables for solation on a vertical south-facing wall in Phil-
24”N. 32”N. 40”N. 48’N, and 36”N latitude are adelphia (40”N) is 610 Btulft’ on June 21 and
14
Solar Phenomena
1726 Btu/ft’ on January 2 I -almost three times other times. In reality, up to 20 percent of the
greater! Multiplied by the percentage of pos- clear day insolation may still be hitting the sur-
sible sunshine for this locale (about 65% in June face during periods of total cloudiness. During
and 49% in January). the total insolation be- hazy periods when the sun still casts a shadow,
comes 396 Btu/ft’ in June and 846 Btu/ft’ in only 50 percent of the clear day insolation may
January, or still a factor of two greater. On the be striking the surface. More accurate calcu-
other hand. the clear day insolation on a hori- lations, in which the diffuse and direct com-
zontal roof is 2648 Btu/ft’ in June and only 948 ponents of solar radiation are treated separately.
Btulft’ in January. or almost a factor of four are provided in the appendix.
smaller. Clearly, the roof is taking the heat in Another problem is the variability of weather
summer and the south walls are getting it in conditions with location and time of day. The
winter. weather maps provide only area-wide averages
of the percent of possible sunshine. The actual
value in your exact building location could be
LIMITATIONS OF INSOLATION DATA very different from your county average. On
the other hand, the cloudiness in some areas,
You must be careful to note the limitations of particularly coastal areas. can occur at specific
the Clear Day Insolation table. These data are times of the day, rather than being distributed
based upon “average” clear day conditions. but at random over the entire day. There may be a
“average” can vary with locale. Many loca- morning fog when the sun is low on the horizon.
tions are IO percent clearer, such as deserts and and a clear sky from mid-morning on, but this
mountains. and others. such as industrial and would be recorded as 75 percent of possible
humid areas, are not as clear as the “average.” sunshine. while 90 percent of the total clear day
Reflected sunlight from vegetation and ground insolation was actually recorded that day.
cover is not included in the values given in the You may need more detailed information than
tables. Another IS to 30 percent more sunlight is available from national weather maps. Oc-
may he retlected onto a surface than the alnount casionally. friendlier-than-usual personnel will
listed. In the winter. even more radiation will assist you at the local weather station. but you
be reflected onto south-facing walls because the will almost always be referred to the National
sun is lower in the sky and snow may be cov- Weather Records Center in Asheville, North
ering the ground. Carolina. This center collects, stores, and dis-
Other difficulties arise from the subjective tributes weather data from around the country.
evaluations ot “percentage of possible sun- and makes it available in many forms. You should
shine.” In the method of calculating average first obtain their “Selective Guide to Climate
insolation described above. an assumption was Data Sources,” to give you an overview of the
made that the sun is shining full blast during types of data available. You may obtain a copy
the “sunshine” period and not at all during from the Superintendent of Documents there.
15
Heat energy is simply the motion of the atoms The actual mechanisms of heat flow are nu-
and molecules in a substance-their twirling, merous, and so are the methods of resisting
vibrating. and banging against each other. It is them. Therefore. we will review briefly the three
this motion that brings different atoms and mol- basic methods of heat flow-conduction, con-
ecules together in our bodily Huids. allowing vection and radiation.
the chemical reactions that sustain us. This is As children, we all learned about heat con-
why our bodies need warmth. Seventeenth-cen- duction intuitively by touching the handle of a
tury natural philosphers thought heat was a hot skillet. When an iron skillet sits on a hot
fluid--“phlogiston” they called it-that was stove for a while, heat from the burner flows
released by tire and flowed from hot bodies to through the metal of the skillet to the handle.
cold. They were correct about this last obser- But the rate of flow to the handle of an iron
vation, for heat always flows from warm areas skillet is much slower than if the skillet were
to colder ones. made of copper. The heat flow through copper
The rate of heat flow is proportional to the is quicker because it has a greater conductance
temperature difference between the source of (less resistance to heat flow) than cast iron. It
the heat and the object or space to which it is also takes less heat to warm copper than iron.
flowing. Heat flows out of a house at a faster and therefore less time to heat the metal between
rate on a cold day than on a mild one. It there the burner and the handle. These principles are
is no internal source of heat, such as a furnace basic to the concept of conduction heat flow.
or wood stove, the temperature inside the house Convection is heat flow through the move-
approaches that of the outdoor air. Heat always ment of fluids-liquids or gases. In a kettle of
Hows in a direction that will equalize temper- water on a stove. the heated water at the bottom
atures. rises and mixes with the cooler water above.
While the rate of heat How is proportional to spreading the heat and warming the entire vol-
the temperature difference, the quantity of heat ume of water far more quickly than could have
actually flowing depends on how much resist- been done by heat conduction alone. A house
ance there is to the flow. Since we can do little with a warm air furnace is heated in much the
about the temperature difference between inside same way. Air is heated in the firebox and rises
and outside, most of our effort goes into in- up to the living spaces. Since the house air is
creasing a building’s resistance to heat Row. cooler than the hot furnace air, the heat is trans-
16
Heat Flow Calculations
ferred from the hot furnace air to the cooler heat loss through the exterior skin of the house
room air and then to the surfaces in the rooms. (roofs. walls. and floors) is perhaps the easiest
Heated fluids can move by natural convection to estimate. Fortunately. this is the thief that
or forced convection. As a fluid is warmed. it can pilfer the most heat from our homes.
expands and becomes less dense. making it
buoyant in the surrounding cooler fluid. it risei
and the cooler fluid that flows in to replace it CONDUCTION HEAT LOSS
is heated in turn. The warmed fluid moves to a
cooler place where its heat is absorbed. Thus The ability of a material to oermit the How of
the fluid cools down. becomes heavier and sinks. heat is called its thermal conductivity or con-
This movement is known as ttaturtrl cotnwtim ductance. The cmduc’tcurw (C) of a slab of ma-
or thermosiphoni,I!:. When we want more con- terial is the quantity of heat that will pass through
trol over the heat flow. we use a pump or a one square foot of that slab per hour with a 1°F
blower to move the heated Huid. This is called temperature difference maintained between its
jbrca! conwctiot~ two surfaces. Conductance is measured in units
Note that convection works hand-in-hand with of Btu per hour per square foot per degree Fahr-
conduction. Heat from a warm surface is con- enheit. or Btu/thr ft’ “F).
ducted to the adjacent fluid before it is carried The total conductance of a slab of material
away by convection, and heat is also conducted decreases as its thickness increases. While IO
from a warm Ruid to a cool surface nearby. The Btu per hour may flow through a l-inch slab of
greater the temperature difference between the polystyrene. only S Btu per hour will flow through
warm and cool surfaces. the greater the heat a Z-inch slab under the same conditions.
how between them.
Thermal radiation is the flow of heat energy
through an open space by electromagnetic waves.
This Row occurs even in the absence of any
material in that space-just as sunlight can leap
across interplanetary voids. Objects that stop
the flow of light also stop thermal radiation.
which is primarily invisible longwave radiation.
Warmer objects constantly radiate their thermal
energy to cooler objects (as long as they can
“see” each other) at a rate proportional to their
temperature difference.
We experience radiative heat flow to our bod-
ies when we stand in front of a fireplace or hot
stove. The same transfer mechanism. although
more subtle and difficult to perceive. is what
makes us feel cold while sitting next to a win-
dow on a winter night. Our warm bodies are
radiating energy to the cold window surface.
and we are chilled.
Of the three basic kinds of heat loss. radiation
is the most difficult to calculate at the scale of
a house. Calculation of convection heat loss
through open doors or cracks and around win-
dow frames is educated guesswork. Conduction The thicker a slab, the less heat it conducts.
17
The New Solar Home Book
18
Heat Flow Calculations
19
The New Solar Home Book
per day) to get the total dqrc~e how.s during to multiply the U-value of each section times
that time span. Now your calculation proceeds the area of each section to get the “UA” for
as in !he earlier example: you multiply the area that section. Add together all the UA’s and then
of each section (A,) by its U-value (II,) and the multiply by 24D to get the total seasonal con-
number of degree hours (24D) to get the sea- ductive heat loss:
sonal heat loss through that section:
Seasonal AH = (UA, + UA, + UA3 . . .
Seasonal 1H, = A, (U,)(ZJ)(D) + U&)(X)(D)
The seasonal conduction heat loss from the en- But to get the total seasonal heat loss, you must
tire house is the sum of seasonal heat losses include the convection heat losses described in
through all the building surfaces. A short cut is the next section.
Rest Flow Calculslrtions
21
The New Solar Home Book
building material with another can be a potential against the infiltration of cold air. This cold air
crack if care isn’t taken during construction. has to be heated to room temperature. In the
This is why. in home construction today, air/ following calculations, we assume that the gen-
vapor barriers of 6-mil polyethylene sheets are eral wall construction is air-tight, and that only
commonly (and carefully) installed around the the infiltration through windows and doors needs
warm side of the building frame. They slow the to be considered.
passage of warm air (and moisture vapor) from The magnitude of air infiltration through cracks
inside to outside. Air barriers. sheets of poly- around doors and windows is somewhat pre-
ethylene fibers that allow vapor, but not air, to dictable. It depends upon wind speeds and upon
pass through, are also installed around the out- the linear footage of cracks around each window
side of many buildings before the siding is in- or door, usually the perimeter of the opening.
stalled. They keep cold air from passing through If the seal between a window frame and the
cracks between materials-cold air that forces wall is not airtight, you must also consider the
warm air out the leeward side of the building. length of this crack. From the table “Air Infil-
In both cases, special care is also taken around tration Through Windows,” you can approxi-
doors and windows. between floors, and around mate the volume of air leakage (Q) per foot of
electrical and plumbing penetrations, to seal crack. With the temperature difference (AT) be-
Average fitted2
weatherstripped 4 I.3 24 36 49
Poorly fitted3
non-weatherstripped 27 hY Ill IS4 IYY
Poorly fitted3
weatherstripped 6 IO 34 51 71
22
eat Flow Calculations
AH,,r = (c)(Q)(LMh)(AT)
23
The New Solar Hame Book
square foot of roof. This radiation can rapidly radiation to these surfaces. A substantial flow
cool your roof surface to temperatures lower of heat radiates to the inside SUrfaceS of win-
than the outside air temperature, thereby in- dows, which are much colder during winter than
creasing the temperature difference across the adjacent walls. This flow warms the inside sur-
roof section and the overall heat flow through face of the glass, and more heat is pumped to
the roof. the outside air because of the greater tempera-
In summer, this radiative heat flow provides ture difference across the glass. Extra glazing,
desirable nocturnal cooling. particularly in arid special glazing, or window insulation can re-
2reas. In the winter, however, this nocturnal duce this flow drastically.
cooling is an undesirable effect. Well-insulated In both examples above, radiation heat flow
roofs are necessary to prevent excessive losses enhances the transfer of heat from warmer to
of heat. cooler regions. Its effects are included in the
If the interior surfaces of walls and windows calculation of conduction heat loss through sur-
are colder than the objects (and people!) inside faces of the house. But don’t ignore radiation
a room, there will be a net flow of thermal heat flow when taking preventive measures.
So fur. you have learned to cukulate the heat R, = 0.68 + 0.91 + 0.17 = 1.76 or
losses through the individual sutj&es and cracks U = 111.76 = 0.57
of u house. To calculate the over& heat loss for the doors.
(or heat load) of u house, ~-ou merely sum the The culculution of the U-values of the floor
losses through all surfaces and trucks. The heat and ceiling is a bit more invol\yd. The hurd-
loud of u house depends on its construction and woodJIoor has three layers-interior hurdwood
insulation and varies with the outside tempcr- finish (R = 0.68). felt (R = 0.06). und wood
uture und wind ve!o<ity . subfroor (R = 0.98)-and essentiull~ still air
To indicute just how bad things cun get, let’s films above and belo#l (R = 0.61 euch). The
use u draj-8, uninsulated. wood-frame house us resistances of all jive layers ut-e udded to give
un e..rample. Assume it’s 40 feet long and 30
ft>et wide. It has uninsulated stud walls and a R, = 2.94, or U = 112.94 = 0.34.
hurdwoodJoor above a ventilated crawl space.
The low-sloped ceiling has acoustical tile but About half the floor area is covered by carpets
is otherwise uninsulated. under a roof of ply- (an additional R = I .23 including the rubber
wood and asphalt shingles. The house has eight pad), and this half has a U-value of 0.24. The
single-pane. double-hung. wood-sash windows total resistance of the ceiling and roof is the
(each 4 feet high by 2.5 feet wide) and two solid sum of the resistances of eight different lavers,
oak doors (each 7 feet by 3 feet). including the acoustical tile (R = 1.19). gyp-
First we need the U-values oj’euch surface. sum board (R = 0.45). rafter air space (R =
From the “Sample Calculations of U-values” 0.80), plywood (R = 0.62), building paper (R
given earlier in this chapter, we know that an = 0.12), asphalt shingles (R = 0.44), and the
uninsulated stud wall has a U-value of 0.27. inside and outside air films (R = 0.62 and
From the appentlir, we get U = I. 13for single- 0.17). These add to R, = 4.41, and the U-value
pune windows, and R = 0.91 fdr one inch of of the ceiling is U = 114.41 = 0.23.
oak. Adding the resistance of the inside and For a 1°F temperature difference between
outside air films. we get: indoor and outdoor air, the conduction heat loss
24
Heat Flow Calculations
through euch surface is the product qf the u.rea crack to get the infiltration heat loss. Onlv win-
of the surface times the U-value of the surface. dows and doors on two sides of the house (that
If the design temperature is .?YF. .for e-rumple, is, four windows and one door) are used to get
we multiply by (65 - 35) to get the design heat total crack lengths. The injltration heat losses
loss through that surface. The conduction heat through all cracks are also summarized in the
losses through all surfaces are summarized in table.
the table. In a 15 mph wind, the conduction heat loss
Infiltration heat losses are culculated using of this house is 1007 Btulhr for a 1°F temper-
Q-values from the table “Air lnjiltration Through ature difference between indoor and outdoor
Windows. ’ ’ Poorly fitted double-hung wood-sash air. Under the same conditions, the infiltration
windows have u Q-value of I I I in a I5 mph loss is 219 Btulhr, or a total heat load of of
wind. Assume that around poorl! fitted doors, 1226 B!ul(hr OF). Over an entire day, the house
the injiltration rate is twice that: 220 fr’lhr for loses 24 (hours) times 1226 (Btu per house) for
each crack foot. Also assume that there is still each 1°F temperature difference, or 29,424 Btu
some injiltration through cracks around windott per degree day. Under design conditions of 35°F
and doorframes as well. with a Q-v&e of II _ and a 15 mph wind, the heat load of this house
These Q-values ure then multiplied by the is 34,813 Btulhr (30. 234 -I- 6,579). The fltr-
heat capa+ of (I cubic foot of air /0.018 Btul nace has to crank out almost 37.000 Btulhr to
(jii’ OF)/ and the total length of each type of keep this house comfy during such times.
25
The New Solar Home Book
SEASONAL AND DESIGN HEAT LOADS Btu per house that the heating system must pro-
duce to keep the building warm during these
The total heat escaping from a house is the sum conditions. The design temperature for Oak-
of the conduction heat loss and the convection land, California, is 35’F, so that
heat loss through air infiltration, because the
effects of radiative heat flow have already been 1250(65 -35) = 37,500 Btu/hr
included in these two contributions. The total is the design heat load that the heating system
conduction heat loss is itself the sum of con- must be able to produce in the above house.
duction losses through all the exterior surfaces, The same house would have design heat loads
including walls. windows, floors, roofs, sky- of 62,500 Btu/hr in Chattanooga, Tennessee,
lights, and doors. The total conduction heat loss where the design temperatureis 15”F, and 98,750
is generally one to four times the total convec- Btu/hr in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, where the
tion heat loss through air infiltration, which in- design temperature is - 14°F. The cost to heat
cludes all convection heat losses through cracks the house in Sioux Falls might persuade the
in walls and around windows and doors. owner to add some insulation!
The ratio of the two losses depends heavily Degree day information allows us to calculate
on the quality of construction. For example, the the amount of heat a house loses in a single
total conduction heat loss from a typical poorly heating season. The greater the number of de-
insulated 1250 square feet house may be 1000 gree days for a particular location, the greater
Btu/(hr “F) temperature difference between the the total heat lost from a house. Typical homes
inside and outside air. while the convection heat lose 15,000 to 40,000 Btu per degree day, but
loss is only 250 Btu/(hr “F). If the temperature energy conservation measures can cut these by
drops to 45°F on a typical winter night, the more than half. Our example house loses
house loses a total of (24)(1250) = 30,000 Btu per degree day, for
example. If there are 2870 degree days, as in
l250(65 - 45) = 25,000 Btu/hr Oakland, California, the total heat loss over an
assuming the indoor temperature is 65°F. entire heating seasonis 86.1 million Btu [(30,000)
The design temperatures introduced earlier (287O)j or about 1230 therms (I therm = 100,000
allow us to estimate the maximum expected heat Btu) of gas burned at 70 percent efficiency 186.I/
loss from a house. The design temperature for (100,000~(0.7>~. In most other regions of the
a locality is the lowest outdoor temperature likely country, where seasonal heat loads are much
to occur during winter. Houses are often rated greater and energy costs higher. energy codes
in their thermal performance by the number of are more stringent.
26
As the position of the heavens with regard to a
given tract on the earth leads naturally to dif-
ferent characteristics, owing to the inclination
of the circle of the zodiac and the course of the
sun, it is obvious that designs for homes ought
similarly to conform to the nature of the country
and the diversities of climate.
Vitruvius,
Ten Books on Architecture
27
The New Solar Home Book
The earth’s heat storage capacity and atmos- wise, you can protect a house from seasonal
pheric greenhouse effect help to moderate tem- temperature variations by berming earth against
peratures on the surface. These temperatures the outside wails or molding the structure of the
fluctuate somewhat, but the earth’s large heat house to the side of a hill.
storage capacity prevents it from cooling off too On sunny winter days, you should be able to
much at night and heating up too much during open a house up to the sun’s heat. At night, you
the day. The atmosphere slows thermal radition should be able to close out the cold and keep
from the earth’s surface, reducing the cooling this heat in. In the summer, you should be able
process. Because of these phenomena, after- to do just the opposite: during the day close it
noon temperatures are warmer than morning, off to the sun, but at night open it up to release
and summer temperatures reach their peak in heat into the cool night air.
July and August. The best way to use the sun for heating is to
A shelter design should reflect similar prin- have the house collect the sun’s energy itself,
ciples. Weather variations from one hour to the without adding a solar collector. To achieve
next or from cold night hours to warm daytime this, a house must be designed as a total solar
hours should not affect a shelter’s internal cii- heating system and meet three basic require-
mate. Ideally. not even the wide extremes of ments:
summer and winter would affect it. There are The house must be a heat trap. It must be
countless examples of indigenous architecture well insulated against heat loss and cold air
based on these criteria. Perhaps the most fa- infiitration. There’s no point in making the house
miliar of these is the heavy adobe-walled homes a solar collector if the house isn’t energy-con-
of the Pueblo Mians. The thick wails of hard- serving. This is done with insulation, weath-
ened clay absorb the sun’s heat during the day erstripping, shutters, and storm windows, or
and prevent it from penetrating the interior of special glazings.
the home. At night. the stored heat continues The house must be a solar collec.tor. it must
its migration into the interior. warming it as the use direct-gain systems to let the sunlight in
temperatures in the desert plummet. The cooi- when it needsheat and keep it out when it doesn’t;
ness of the night air is then stored in the wails it must also let coolness in as needed. These
and keeps the home cool during the hot day. in feats may be accomplished by orienting and
many climates houses made of stone. concrete, designing the house to let the sun penetrate the
or similar heavy materials perform in a like living space during the winter and by using
fashion. shading to keep it out during the summer.
A shelter should moderate extremes of tem- The house must be a heat storehouse. it must
perature that occur both daily and seasonally. store the heat for times when the sun isn’t shin-
Caves, for example. have relatively constant ing. Houses built with heavy materials such as
temperatures and humidities year round. Like- stone and concrete do this best.
The best way of using the sun’s energy to heat should face within 30 degrees of due south (be-
a liouse is to let it penetrate directly through the tween south-southeastand south-southwest), with
roof. walls. and windows. You should attempt due south being preferred. With this orientation,
to maximize your heat gain from insolation dur- the south-facing walls can absorb the most ra-
ing cold periods, and minimize it during hot diation from the low winter sun. while the roofs,
weather. You can do this with the color of your which can reject excess heat most easily, catch
house, its orientation and shape, the placement the brunt of the intense summer sun.
of windows, and the use of shading. In his book Design With Clirnare, however,
Traditionally, solar heat gains have not en- Victor Olgyay cautions against generalizing to
tered into the computation of seasonal heating all building locations. He promotes the use of
supply or demand. Unfortunately, most of the “sol-air temperatures” to determine the optimal
reseachdone on solar gain applied to hot weather orientation. These temperatures recognize that
conditions and to reducing the energy required solar radiation and outdoor air temperatures act
for cooling. But all that changed in the early together to influence the overall heat gain through
1980s. Still. the data that apply to heating are the surfaces of a building. Because the outdoor
difficult to understand and difficult to use in air temperatures are lower in the morning and
building design. This chapter is an attempt to peak in the mid-afternoon, he suggests that a
translate these data into useful design tools. house be oriented somewhat east of due south
to take advantage of the early morning sun when
heat is needed most. In the summer, the prin-
cipal heat gain comes in the afternoon, from
ORIENTATION AND SHAPE the west and southwest, so the house should
face arvu~ from this direction to minimize the
Since solar radiation strikes surfaces oriented in solar heat gain in that season. Depending upon
different directions. with varying intensity, a the relative needs for heating and cooling, as
house will benefit if its walls and roofs are oti- well as upon other factors (such as winds), the
ented to receive this heat in the winter and block optimum orientation will vary for different re-
it in the summer. After much detailed study of gions and building sites. The accompanying
this matter, a number of researchershave reached diagram gives the best orientations for four typical
the same conclusion that primitive peoples have U.S. climate zones, as determined by Olgyay’s
always known: the principal facade of a house sol-air approach.
29
The New Solar Home Book
30
INSOLATION ON WALL (Btu/day)
FACADE ORIENTATIONS
a b C d Total
118 508 1630 508 2764
84 722 II60 722 2668
1 ‘ob dnb ‘Fib : 168 361 2320 361 3210
DOUBLE B II8 1016 1630 1016 3780
c DOUBLE C 236 _ 508 -3260 . 508 . 4512
123 828 1490 265 2706
lo 0 0 dQb Do”BLE; 87
174
123
II80
590
1656
1060
2120
1490
376
I88
530
2703
3072
3799
DOUBLE C 246 828 2980 265 4319
127 1174 II74 127 2602
90 1670 835 I80 2775
I80 835 1670 90 2775
127 2348 II74 254 3903
254 1174 2348 127 3903
265 1490 - 828 123 2706
I88 2120 590 174 3072
376 1060 II80 87 2703
265 2980 828 246 4319
DOUBLE C 530 1490 1656 123 _ 3799
numbers by 100.
adding a second floor, the wall area and the portant when little or no insulation is used, but
total solar insolation would double. it has less effect as the insulation is increased.
This study does not account for the color of Ideally, you should paint your house with a
the walls, the solar impact on the roof. the var- substance that turns black in winter and white
iations in window location and sizes, or the in summer. In warm and hot climates, the ex-
effects of heat loss. A detailed analysis would terior surfaces on which the sun shines during
also include the actual weather conditions. the summer should be light in color. In cool
However. this study does produce relative val- and cold climates, use dark surfaces facing the
ues to help you make preliminary choices. sun to increase the solar heat gain.
Two properties of surface materials. their ub-
COLOR sorptmce (represented by the Greek letter al-
pha, a). and emirrunce (representedby the Greek
The color of the roofs and walls strongly affects letter epsilon, E). can help you estimate their
the amount of heat which penetrates the house, radiative heat transfer qualities. The ubsorp-
since dark colors absorb much more sunlight runce of a surface is a measure of its tendency
than light colors do. Color is particularly im- to absorb sunlight. Emitfurrcr gauges its ability
31
SOLAR HEAT GAIN FACTORS FOR 40° N LATITUDE. WHOLE DAY TOTALS
Btu(ft* day): Values for 21st of each month
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aus Sep Ott Nov Dee
N II8 I62 224 306 406 484 422 322 232 166 I22 98
NNE I23 200 300 400 550 700 550 400 300 200 123 loo
NE I77 225 422 654 813 894 821 656 416 226 I32 103
ENE 265 439 691 91 I 1043 1108 IO41 903 666 431 260 205
E 508 715 961 1115 II73 1200 II63 IO90 920 694 504 430
ESE 828 IO1 I 11x2 1218 1191 II79 1175 l/x8 II31 971 815 748
SE I174 12X5 1318 II99 1068 1007 1047 1163 1266 1234 II51 II04
SSE 1490 1509 1376 1081 848 761 831 1049 1326 1454 1462 1430
s 1630 Ih3 1X-M 978 712 b22 b94 942 1344 I.566 1596 1482
ssw 1490 1509 1370 1081 848 761 831 1049 I326 1454 1462 1430
SW II74 12x5 1318 II99 IO68 1007 1047 II63 12b6 1234 II51 II04
wsw xx IO1 I llX2 1218 1191 1179 117s 118x II31 971 815 748
W sax 71s 9bl I:15 II73 1200 llb3 I090 920 694 504 430
WNW 265 439 691 911 1043 1108 1041 903 666 431 260 205
NW I27 22.5 322 bSX x13 894 831 b56 416 226 I32 IO3
NNW I23 ‘00 300 400 550 700 550 400 300 200 123 100
HOR 706 IO92 1538 I924 2lbb 2242 ‘148 1890 1476 IO70 706 564
Figures in bold type: Month of highest gain for given orientations. SOURCE: ASHRAE, Handbook of
Figures in itdic,: Orientations of highest gairl in given month. Fwtdamcnrals.
Figure3 in buld italic: Both month and orientation of highest gains.
Surdight srriking u sutj~c~e is either uhsorbed urure: E = RJR,,, where R is rudiurion from rhe
or rcjlec*ted. The uhsorptunce ((.u)of’lhe srrrjtice muteriul und R,, is rudiarion from the biack-
is rhr rutio oj’ the sniur energy uhsorbed lo the body. Therefore. a biuckbo<lF has an ernirrunc*e
wlur crqq- srriking that surf~~ce: 01 = i,,il, of 1.
\c*her-r I,, is ubsorbed soiur twr,qy md I is in- The possible vuiues of 0~. p and E lie in a
c.idem soiur energy. A hypothericui “black- rungt~ from 0 to I. Vail4es for a few common
body” bus un ubsorptmc*e oj’ I -ir ubsorbs ail surfuce mureriuis ure listed in die acconipu-
rhe rudiation hirting it. und liquid be tomi!\ nying table. More extensive iistirlgs can be found
Muck lo our eyes. in the appendi.x under “Absorptances artd Emit-
tuncvs oj’ Materials. ’ ’
But cdl reui mb.smx*e.s reflect some portion
The values listed in rhis table (and those i,r
of’ rhe sitniighr hirririR them. e\*en if only ii j&r
the apperldix) will help you compare the re-
percent. The rejiwmnce ( p) of u .su~-j&~eis rhe
sponse oj \wrious materials and surjbces to so-
rufio of soiur energ! rcjiecred fo rhur striking
iur und thermal radiation. For e.wrnpie, Jrat
ir: p = Idl. dirt-e I, is ri~jiei~trti .solur enet-gj
biuck puinr (with OL = 0.96) will absorb 96
tuld I is inc*ide,l1 soiur energy. A I~~porhericui
perwrrr cf the incornirlg sunlight. Bur green paint
biuckbod~ bus u rejiccwnce ~$0. The sun1 of’ (Y
(with 01 = 0.50) will absCrb only 50 percent.
und p j+ oprrqiu~ .surj&.s is uiwu~.s 1.
Both parrs (with emittances c.f 0.88 and 0.90)
Ail wmn 1~odie.sernir thennui rudiufion, .some emit thermal radiation at ubout the same me
betret- rhun orhers. The ernimnce (e) of u mu- $rhey ure ut the sume templ,eratrtre. Thus, black
teriui is the rutio of rhennai energy being ru- paint (\bith u higher \wiue of OLIE)is a better
diurcd by dwr mureriui lo rhe ~hermul energy ubsorber of sunlight and will bccorne horter brhen
rudiuwd by u blwkbody crf Ihut sume temnper- esposrd to the sun.
32
The House as a Solar Heating System
to emit thermal radiation. These properties are stances with a small value of OL,particularly
explained further in the sidebar given here, and those with a small value of o/E, like white paint,
sample values of (Yand E are listed in the table. are good for surfaces that will be exposed to
Also listed in the table are the materials’ re- the hot summer sun (your roof and east and
flectance values (represented by the Greek letter west walls, for example). Those that have a
rho. p). large value of 01, particularly those with large
Substances with large values of CYare good a/r, like black paint, are good for south-facing
absorbers of sunlight; those with large values surfaces, which you want to absorb as much
of E are good emitters of thermal radiation. Sub- winter sunlight as possible.
Absorptancel
Material Absorptance Reflectance Emittance Emittance
33
If you design a house to collect and store solar any one mode is reduced by half. the total heat
heat. you should design the house to hold that loss is reduced by only one sixth. Clearly, you
heat. The escape of heat from ;1 house during should attack all r/tree tttod~~.sof heat loss with
winter is usually called its “heat loss.” In ad- the same vigor if you want to achieve the best
dition. houses also absorb heat through their results.
walls and windows during summer-their “so-
lar heat gain.” Retarding this movement of heat
both into and out of a house is the essence of AIR INFILTRATION
energy conservation in housing design. Fortu-
nately. most efforts to reduce winter heat loss People require some outdoor air for ventilation
also help reduce summer heat gain. and a feeling of freshness. and the penetration
There are three primary ways that heat es- of air through the cracks in the surface of a
capes from a house: ( I ) by conduction through house usually satisfies this need-particularly
walls. roofs, and tloors. (2) by conduction if cigarette smoking is avoided. You should make
through windows and doors. and (3) by con- every effort. however, to reduce such uncon-
vection of air through openings in the exterior trolled air infiltration. As you reduce other heat
surface. Conduction works together with radia- loss factors, the penetration of outdoor air be-
tion and convection-within the walls and floors comes a greater part of the remaining heat loss.
and at the inner and outer wall surfaces-to Air infiltration can account for 20 to 55 per-
produce the overall heat flow. The third mode cent of the total heat loss in existing homes. In
of heat loss includes air infiltration through open those with some insulation, the heat loss from
windows, doors, or vents, through penetrations air infltratation exceeds conduction losses
in the building “envelope.” and through cracks through the walls, ceiling, and floor by up to
in the skin of the house or around windows and 25 percent. Insulating older homes often re-
doors. quires a major overhaul, and tackling infiltration
Depending upon the insulation of the house, problems is the logical place to begin.
the number and placement of windows, and the Measures for reducing infiltration include
movement of air. the ratios of the three modes general “tightening up” of the structure and
to the total can vary widely. If the total heat foundation, caulking and weatherstripping the
loss is divided evenly among these modes. and doors and windows, redesigning fireplace air
34
Conservation First: The House as a
flow. creating foyer or vestibule entrances, in- Fixed windows save the most energy. You
stalling a vapor barrier in or on the walls. and need operable windows for ventilation, but how
creating windbreaks for the entrances and the many do you really need? In an existing house
entire house. some windows can usually be rope-caulked shut
One of the main reasons historically for in- for the winter. Double-hung windows are more
stalling building paper between the plywood of a problem. Your best bet is to rely on storm
sheathing and the exterior siding of houses was windows or insulating shutters to reduce infil-
to reduce air infiltration through cracks in the tration and conduction losses. Be sure to caulk
walls. However. the fragile material did little around the perimeter of storm window frames.
to reduce infiltration after being penetrated by Before you try to stem infiltration between
siding nails. Today’s energy-conserving homes windows or doors and their frames. make sure
have a polyethylene-!iber air barrier wrapped no air is leaking around the ourside edges of
around the sheathing-a continuous sheet that the frames. Caulking will remedy any such
blocks the infiltration of cold air. but not the problems and prevent water seepage during
exfiltration of moisture vapor. Good trim derails driving rainstorms. The caulking compounds with
on a house exterior also reduce air penetration. superior adhesive qualities are generally called
Mortar joints in brick and concrete block fa- sealants. It is worthwhile to obtain high quality
cades should be tight and complete. sealants because caulking is a lot of work, and
inferior compounds can decompose after one
To tighten up your house. start with the ob- winter!
vious defects. Close up cracks and holes in the It you plan to install new windows, you should
foundation. and replace missing or broken shin- be careful in selecting them. Operable windows
gles and siding. Hardened. cracked caulking on should be chosen for their tight fit when
the outside of the house should be removed and closed-not only when first installed, but also
replaced with fresh caulking. Be sure to retit after being used hundreds of times over a period
obviously ill-lilting doors and windows. And of decades. Pivoted and sliding windows are
plug up interior air leaks around moulding. the loosest. and casement and awning windows
baseboards. and holes in the ceiling or Hoor. are among the closest fitting.
More important than cracks in the wall surfaces, One obvious energy conservation step is to
however. are those around the windows and close a fireplace when not in use. If the tireplace
doors. Different types of windows vary greatly is old and doesn’t have a damper. install one.
in their relative air intiltration heat losses. but You can get more heat from a fireplace by using
weatherstripping improves the performance of a C-shaped tubular grate to cradle the burning
any window, particularly in high u inds. be- wood. Cold air is drawn into the tubes at the
cause it checks infiltration where the edges of bottom. warmed and delivered back into the
doors and windows meet ior don’t quite meet!) room from the top by thermosiphoning. Fire-
their frames. place insert packages are available with built-
Weatherstripping is readily rlvailable at the in vents. and glass doors that block room air
local hardware store. Different types are re- from rising up the chimney. Another way to
quired for different applications. For example, extract more heat is to install vents in the Rue
gasket compression-type weatherstripping (with that reclaim heat from hot air rising up the chim-
a fabric face. peel-off back. and adhesive coat- ney. You should also provide a fresh intake air
ing) is best :;uiied for hinged door and casement inlet for the fireplace or woodstove to draw air
and awning type windows. For sliding win- directly from the basement or outdoors. Oth-
dows. the spring bronze or felt-hair weather- erwise, the fire will continue to draw warm air
stripping is more appropriate. Forget about the from the rooms. effectively cooling the same
cheap. spongy stuff. Its effectiveness deterio- living space you want to heat by causing cold
rates rapidly and so does its appearance. air to be pulled in from the outside.
35
The New Solar Home Book
AIR QUALITY
Better energy-conserving building techniques
and infiltration control can mean less fresh air
passing through the house. Houses with less
than 0.5 air changes per hour can have excessive
levels of carbon dioxide and moisture from oc-
cupants and cooking; formaldehyde from ply-
wood, furniture, carpets, and tobacco smoke;
radon from soils and groundwater; and com-
bustion gases from kerosene heater, wood-
stoves. gas appliances. and furnaces. Controlling
indoor air pollution at each source is the best
remedy. Choose building materials and fumi-
ture without urea-formaldehyde glues or foams.
Vent combustion appliances and provide sep-
arate outside combustion air. Install fans (on
timers) in kitchens and bathrooms. Seal cracks
and openings around penetrations to the base-
ment. These will take care of the problem in
the average home.
In superinsulated houses with air-infiltration
rates less than 0.5 air changes per hour. an air-
to-air heat exchanger may be necessary. Heat
exchangers remove the heat from stale exhaust Proper orientation and vegetation shields protect a
air and transfer it to fresh intake air. Air-to-air house from the wind.
heat exchangers can be centrally located or wall-
mounted like an air-conditioner. Central heat winds. He also notes that the effectiveness of
exchangerscan provide fresh air to all the rooms. a belt of sheltering trees increases at higher wind
In average construction, an exhaust-only fan velocities. With good wind protection on three
may suffice. As it exhausts air. the negative sides, fuel savings can be as great as 30 percent.
pressure it createsinside the building draws clean Buildings should be oriented away from pre-
air in through tiny cracks around windows and vailing winter winds or screened by natural veg-
between floors. but does nothing to recover heat etation to block heat-pilfering air flows around
from the exhausted air. In houses where indoor windows and doors. Vegetation should be dense
air pollution is controlled at each source, oc- and eventually reach as high as the house. The
casional opening of a window may be all that’s distance from the house to the wind-break,
necessary. measured from the home’s leeward side, should
not exceed five times the building height. Local
agricultural extension services can suggest the
WIND CONTROL trees and shrubs best suited to your climate and
the appropriate planting distance from the house.
Wind is the arch-culprit in the moment-to-mo- Man-made windscreens, such as baffles, can
ment variation of the amount of air that pene- also be very effective.
trates a house. Olgyay reports in Design With Winter winds blow, whistle, and wail from
Chafe that a 20 mph wind doubles the heat ihe north and west in most locales. Entrances
loss of a house normally exposed to 5 mph should not be located on these sides, and the
36
Conservation First: The House as a
number of windows (the smaller the better!) from basements and crawlspaces. Just as heat
should be kept to a minimum. Wind directions flows from areas of greater to lower tempera-
do vary, however, with locality and season. tures (hot to cold). vapor migrates (or diffuses)
Monthly maps of the “Surface Wind Roses,” from areas of greater to lower vapor pressures.
in the Climatic Atlas of the United States. can It also travels in the air that infiltrates through
be most helpful in the layout of windows and cracks in walls, ceilings, and floors. Almost all
doors. These maps give the average wind ve- of the moisture is carried by infiltration. Less
locity at many weather stations and show the than two percent moves by diffusion in a home
percentage of each month that the wind blows with a typical vapor barrier and an infiltration
in various directions. But remember that wind rate of one air change per hour.
direction and speed depend very much on local Moisture in the warm air will condense in
terrain. the wall and ceiling cavities if it meets a cold
Plenty of cold outside air flows into a house surface. If enough of the moisture vapor con-
every time you open a door, particularly if the denses, it can saturate the insulation. reducing
door is on the windward side. However, a foyer its R-value and eventually causing rot and de-
or vestibule entrance can reduce this problem cay. Vapor flow due to diffusion can be pre-
by creating an “air lock” effect. If a door opens vented with the use of a vapcr barrier, such as
into a hallway. another door can be positioned polyethylene film or aluminum foil. Infiltration
about four feet into that hallway to make a foyer. and exfiltration. which force moisture vapor
If your entrance has no hallway. you can build through the building cracks and accounts for as
two walls out from either side of the door, add much as 50 percent of the heat loss in a well-
a roof. and install a second door. This addition insulated home. can be slowed with a reason-
can be simple and inexpensive-you needn’t ably tight uir barrier.
insulate the vestibule walls, just weatherstrip The following guidelines will help control
both doors. And be sure that the new door opens condensation in homes:
outwards for rapid exit in case of fire!
It may come as a surprise that air can infiltrate 0 Avoid trapping moisture within a cavity. Use
the walls themselves. Wind pressure forces air materials in the outer skin that are at least live
through the tiny cracks in the wall materials. A times as permeable as the inner skin. Seal all
good vapor barrier will keep that cold air from cracks and joints. The air barrier should be as
reaching the living spaces while fulfilling its tight as possible.
primary purpose, that of maintaining comfort- . There should be at least twice as much in-
able indoor humidity. For older homes with no sulation outside the vapor barrier as inside. In
such vapor barrier, installing one is only prac- high-moisture areas, the vapor barrier should be
tical if the inside surface of the walls is being on the warm side of all the insulation.
removed for extensive rehabilitation or remod- g Avoid any gaps in the insulation that could
eling. If your home needs a vapor barrier but cause cold spots and result in condensation.
you have no intention of ripping your walls
apart. certain paints with low permeabilities are Condensation on double-glazing may indi-
sold as vapor barriers. cate that you have problems in walls and ceil-
ings that have inadequate vapor barriers. To
prevent moisture infiltration from crawlspaces.
AIR AND VAPOR BARRIERS vent them in all seasons except the dead of
winter. Place a continuous 6-mil polyethylene
The daily activites of a family of four can pro- moisture barrier across the floor of the crawl-
duce two to three gallons of water vapor per space. and provide a tight vapor barrier above
day. Water vapor also flows into the buildin the floor insulation. If winter humidity levels
37
The New Solar Home Book
inside the living space are kept below 40 per- trols. the more important the vapor barrier
cent. the potential for damage in wall and ceil- becomes. Vupor barriers-large thin sheets of
ing cavities will be limited. transparent polyethylene around the inside of
Besides chimneys and flues. sources of in- the building envelope-limit moisture migra-
tiltration that carry cold air in and moisture out tion. If you seal it very carefully at every seam
are walls and basement (60 percent), windows and at window. door, plumbing, mechanical,
and doors (20 percent). and ceilings (30 per- and electrical penetrations, it will also serve as
cent). Air enters through joints in materials in an air barrier. Installing two separate barriers,
the building envelope and holes in the vapor one air and one vapor, may be only slightly
barrier. To limit infiltration, use high-quality more expensive than installing one very tight
caulking to seal gaps between surfaces that do vapor barrier, and they offer a greater defense
not move, such as where windows and framing, and are easier to install. An alternative to the
trim and siding. or sill and foundation meet. very tight polyethylene vapor barrier is caulking
Weatherstrip all doors and windows. Air between the frame and the subfloor, and be-
barriers-high density polyethylene fiber films tween the gypsum wallboard and the framing,
stretched around the outside of the building and then painting the interior walls with a vapor
frame-are also used to reduce infiltration. They barrier paint.
allow moisture vapor to pass. but testing shows
they can reduce infiltration from 35 to 47 per- WINDOWS
cent in the average home.
As the infiltration rate is reduced below 0.5 The conduction heat losses through the surfaces
air changes per hour. the relative humidity in- of a house also increase with wind velocity.
creases rapidly. The tighter the infiltration con- The lower the R-value of a surface. the more
38
Conservation First: The ouse as a Heat Trap
b
CONDUCT/ON
INFILTRATIOW
SfNGLE GLASS
Wfli STORM W/NDsw
you need to protect it from wind. A single-pane Various types of window and wall construc-
window or skylight needs much more wind pro- tions differ widely in the amount of heat they
tection than a well-insulated wall, because the transmit. Under the same indoor and outdoor
air film clinging to its exterior surface contrib- air conditions, a single pane of glass will con-
utes more to its overall thermal resistance. As duct I I5 Btu. double glass will conduct 60 Btu.
the air film thickness decreaseswith the increase and a well-insulated wall will conduct only 4
in the air velocity striking it. the effective in- Btu. You will lose the same quantity of heat
sulating value of the Mm decreases. The de- through a well-insulated wall 30 feet long and
crease is large for doors and windows but almost 8 feet high as through a single glass window 2
negligible for well-insulated walls. feet wide and 4 feet high! A single-pane window
The New Solar Home Book
loses heat about 20 times as quickly as a well- the place of three layers of glass or two layers
insulated wall of the same total area. There are of glass with night insulation. These special
a number of ways you can cut these losses, with windows are made to reduce heat loss. Their
high-performance glazings. storm windows. and main advantage is that they cut heating bills
window insulation. over a 24-hour period.
In existing buildings, a storm window almost There are only two approaches to improving
halves conduction heat loss for single-pane win- the performance of a window: design it to trans-
dows and also reduces air infiltration. A two- mit more light (i.e., heat) into the house, or
window sash (the standard single-pane window manufacture it to lose less heat out. For years,
in combination with a storm window) can be low-iron glass was the solution to the first. Mul-
superior to a single-sash insulating glass (be- tiple glazings and window insulation solved the
cause of the larger insulating air space) as long second.
as it is sealed well around the perimeter. A In the 1970s. a vacuum-coated polyester film
standard window of double glazing in conjunc- called Heat Mirro@ was introduced. Sus-
tion with a storm window is even better. pended between two panes of glass, the film
Iru;ulating curtains are made of tightly woven allows less heat to escape by creating two in-
material lined with loose stuffing, a blanket- sulating air spaces. But in addition, the coating
type insulating materiai. or o!her heavy mate- itself is very selective in the wavelengths of
rial. They are fitted at the top and bottom and radiation it transmits. Visible and near-infrared
travel in tracks at the sides to create a tight seal light pass through easily. But once changed to
yet permit opening during times of winter sun. heat, the energy has a hard time passing back
These curtains create a dead air space. With a out because Heat Mirro@’ reflects long-wave
rehecting layer on the outer surface, such in- radiation (heat) back in. When placed between
sulating curtains can also be used to reduce solar two layers of glass, it makes a lighter window
heat gains in summer. than one made with three panes of glass (also
Another option is to insulate the windows cheaper to install). and has an R-value greater
with insulating shutters. Depending upon its than 4.0.
thermal resistance. an insulating shutter can re- Glass manufacturers took this vacuum-de-
duce conduction heat loss through a window by posited metal oxide “sputtering” process a step
a factor ranging from two to ten. Shutters also further in the early 1980s and developed a proc-
reduce radiative heat transfer from warm bodies ess to “soft” coat glass. The coating is placed
to the cold window glass and, depending upon on an inner surface of an insulated glass unit.
construction. can practically eliminate air leak- By being inside the sealed air space between
age. But window insulation can be very expen- the two layers of glass, the low-emissivity coat-
sive. and it is not effective unless it is properly ing is protected from moisture, which can de-
used more than 75 percent of the time. If its stroy it. These soft-coated windows have R-
use cannot be guaranteed when operated man- values greater than 2.0. (See table, “Glazing
ually, it should either have automatic controls Properties.“) That is slightly less than triple-
that respond to light levels. or it should be passed glazed units, but the small difference is made
up in favor of a special glazing. which works up in lower costs and lighter weight.
24 hours a day without help. In the mid-1980s. glass manufacturers de-
veloped a way to make a tougher coating that
needs no special handling or protection. As the
HIGH-PERFORMANCE GLAZING glass comes off the float line, the metal-oxide
coating is sprayed onto the hot glass and be-
High-performance glazings are making their mark comes an integral “hard” coat as the glass
in new home construction, and may soon take cools. This pyrolitic process produces windows
40
Conservation First: The House as a Heat Trap
GLAZIMG PROPERTIES
41
The New Solar Home Book
most difficult for many of us to accept). The PERCENT FUEL SAVINGS WITH NIGHT
heat loss through walls and windows is pro- THERMOSTAT SETBACK FROM 75O F
portional to the difference between indoor and (g-hour setback: IO pm to 6 am)
outdoor temperatures. Reducing this difference
can definitely reduce your heat loss. You can Setback
do this without undue discomfort by wearing an
extra sweater, or by using more blankets while City 5OF 7.5OF lOoF
sleeping. The accompanying table shows that
lowering the thermostat at night does save en-
Atlanta II 13 IS
ergy. A nightly 10°F setback reduces energy
Boston 7 9 II
consumption by at least 10 percent in every city Buffalo 6 8 IO
listed. Chicago 7 9 11
Well-insulated buildings also foster more Cincinnati 8 IO 12
uniform distribution of air temperatures. The Cleveland 8 IO I2
air adjacent to cold. uninsulated walls cools, Dallas II 13 15
Denver 7 9 II
becomes more dense, and falls to the floor, dis- Des Moines 7 9 II
placing the warm air. These “ghost” drafts are Detroit 7 9 II
considerably reduced in well-insulated houses. Kansas City 8 IO 12
You can reduce the U-value of an exterior sur- Los Angeles 12 14 16
face, and consequently its heat loss. by adding Louisville 9 II 13
Milwaukee 6 8 10
more insulation. However, your investment for
Minneapolis 8 IO 12
insulation will quickly reach the point of di- New York City 8 IO 12
minishing return. For example, by adding two Omaha 7 9 II
inches of polystyrene board insulation to the Philadelphia 8 IO 12
exterior of a concrete wall, you can reduce its Pittsburg 7 9 II
U-value from 0.66 to 0.11, an 83 percent de- Portland 9 I1 13
Salt Lake City 7 9 II
crease in heat loss. Adding another two inches San Francisco IO 12 14
of polystyrene lowers the U-value to 0.06, an St. Louis 8 IO 12
additional savings of only 7.5 percent. Your Seattle 8 IO I2
money may be better spent on extra window Washington. DC 9 11 13
glazing and weatherstripping, depending on your
SOURCE: Minneapolis-Honeywell Data.
climate.
R-VALUES OF COMMON INSULATORS
The placemenr of insulation is also impor-
tant. First, you should insulate roofs and the
R-Values upper portions of walls. Warm air collects at
the ceilings of rooms, producing a greater tem-
Insulation For one Inside 2 x 4 Inside 2 x 6 perature difference there between indoor and
Material inch stud wall* stud wall*
outdoor air.
Six inches of fiberglass batt insulation (R-
Verrmculite 2.5 Il.9 16.9 19) for roofs and 3.5 inches (R-l 1) for walls
Mineral wool 3.0 13.7 19.7 were once the standards in cold climates. These
Fiberglass 3.5 IS.5 22.4 standards are being quickly accepted in mild
Polystyrene 4.0 17.2 ‘5 -J
Cellulose fiber
climates and greatly upgraded to R-38 and R-
4.5 18.9 -- .-
27.9
Urethane 6.5 x.9 38.9 19 in cold ones. In extreme cold. builders are
Polyisocyanurate 7.0 27.7 41.7 installing R-60 roofs and R-25 to R-40 walls.
Phenolic foam x.3 _3’-.- ’ 48.8 These are the “superinsulated” buildings. Rigid
board insulation installed outside the framing
* Includes insulating value of siding, sheathing, and
air films. but not the effects of direct conduction
through framing versus insulation.
SOURCE: E. Eccli, LOW-Cosr Enerp-/Z&Cm Shclrcr.
FOIL-FAc6D / AIR / VAPOR /
FlBERtpII BATTS SPMQ BARRIER
RlqlD BOARD
of conventional stud walls gives even better R- Cellulose fiber or polystyrene beads can be
values because it slows the heat loss through blown into wood frame walls. although holes
the uninsulated wood frame, which can repre- will have to be bored in the interior wall be-
sent 15 to 25 percent of the total wall area. tween studs and above and below the timbreak.
Construction details for adding such insulation Later somone will have to patch the holes, pro-
are shown in the diagrams. viding you with an opportunity to use a vapor
Attic insulation is the most crucial because barrier paint. The other alternative-installing
substantial amounts of heat are lost in winter blanket or batt insulation-requires ripping out
and gained in summer. An R-valut af 20 to 30 the interior walls. This makes sense only if the
can be obtained by applying thick blanket. batt, walls need replacing.
loose-till. or poured insulation on the ceiling
For masonry walls, one method is to blow
framing or directly on top of existing insulation.
loose-fill or foam insulation into the existing air
If the attic roof is too low. you can have a
spaces. This approach is possible if the plate
contractor install blown insulation. If neither is
for the ceiling rafters doesn’t cover the concrete
possible, wait until re-roofing time and add rigid
block cores or the cavity wall construction. Rigid
board insulation.
board insulation can also be placed on the out-
The insulation of an existing stud wall is
side of a masonry wall and replastered or COV-
limited by the wall thickness. The only insu-
ered with siding.
lating materials that approach or exceed the de-
sired resistance of I9 in a standard 2 x 4 stud Insulate floors and foundations last. Tacking
wall are cellulose tiber or urethane. Mineral foil-backed insulation supported by wire mesh
wool and fiberglass insulation won’t do it (see to the underside of the floor (leaving a half inch
table). Trying to compress these insulators to air space) can provide a high resistance. If there
increase their resistance will have the opposite isn’t enough room to get under the house, seal
effect after a point-compression reduces the the foundation but leave a few ventilation open-
air spaces needed to slow the Row of heat. If ings. For basements being used as living space,
you are fortunate enough to have 2 x 4 studs, insulate the foundation walls all the way to the
you have many choices. floor (interior) or footing (exterior).
43
Once the house is insulated well to retain solar plained earlier. Glass readily transmits the short-
or auxilary heat, it can be designed to act as a wave visible radiation, but does not transmit the
solar collector. Although the color, orientation, long-wave thermal radiation emitted after the
and shape of the house are important, the most light changes to heat when it hits an interior
significant factors in capturing the sun’s energy surface. Almost all this thermal radiation is ab-
are size and placement of windows. Openings sorbed in the glass and a substantial part of it
in shelters are the origin of present-day win- is returned through radiation and convection to
dows: they were used for the passageof people the interior space.
and possessions. and for natural ventilation and Experimental houses were built in the 1930s
lighting. These openings aiso allowed people to and 1940s with the major parts of south-facing
escape from indoor drudgeries by gazing off walls made entirely of glass. The most extensive
into sylvan surroundings. But the openings also work with these “solar houses” was done by
had their discomforts and inconveniences. An- F. W. Hutchinson at Purdue University. In 1945,
imals and insects had free access, the inside under a grant from Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass
temperature was difficult to regulate. and hu- Company, he built two nearly identical houses.
midity and air cleanliness could not be con- They were thermally and structurally the same,
trolled. except that one house had a larger south-facing
Although glass has been dated as early as window area. Based on the performance of these
2300 BC. its use in windows did not occur until two houses, Hutchinson reported that “the
about the time of Christ. And only in the present available solar gain for double windows in south
century have the production and use of glass walls in most cities in the, U.S. is more than
panes larger than eight or twelve inches on a sufficient to offset the excess transmission loss
side become possible. As the technology and through the glass. ”
economics improve, glass is replacing the tra- Hutchinson also conclnded that more than
aitional masonry or wood exterior wall. But the twice as much solar energy is transmitted through
design problems accompanying this substitution south-facing windows in winter than in sum-
have often been ignored or underrated. mer. If the windows are shaded in summer. the
Besides reducing the amount of electricity difference is even greater. For a fixed latitude,
needed for lighting. glass exposed to sunlight the solar intensity does not vary strongly with
captures heat through the greenhouse effect ex- the outside air temperature, but heat loss does.
44
Direct Gain Systems
Denver. CO 70 3x.9 .57.- 21.7 Salt Lake City. UT 59 40.0 0.0 IS.9
Detroit. Ml 43 3.5.x I-t.1 44.0 San Francisco, CA 62 54.2 17.3 75.7
Eupenc. OR 44 so.2 2.7 13.2 Seattle, WA 34 46.3 -7.3 5.2
Harrishurp. PA so 43.b -1.5 12.5 Topeka. KS 61 42.3 3.x I x.4
Consequently. the use of glass has greater po- There are a number of reasons that the quan-
tential for reducing winter heating demand in tity of solar energy that gets through a south
mild than in cold climates.
climates window on a sunny day in winter is more than
The table of “Solar Benefit Values” gives that received through that same window on a
us plenty of evidence for this potential. Many sunny day in summer.
of the cities :<tudied showed net energy gains I. There are more hours when the sun shines
through single glass (a negative number rep- directly on a south window in winter than in
resents a net loss). and all 48 cities studied summer. At 40”N latitude, for example. there
showed net gains through double glass. The are I4 hours of possible sunshine on July 2 I.
losses through single glass in some cities should but the sun remains north of east until X:00 a.m.
be compared to the heat loss through a typical and goes to north of west at 4:00 p.m.. so that
wall that the glass replaces. direct sunshine occurs for only eight hours on
4s
The New Solar Home Book
SUUMER WINTER
r,, f W’F T,” = 7PF row -25°F r,, = 1O.F
247
>
lRANSMISSIt?N
AND REFLECTX%V
/67
107
89
17
213
2Y7 2Y7
the south wall. But on January 2 I, the sun is 3. Since the sun is closer to the southern
shining on the south wall for the full ten hours horizon during the winter. the rays strike the
that it is above the horizon. windows closer to perpendicular than they do
2. The intensity of sunlight hitting a surface in the summer when the sun is higher in the
perpendicular to the sun’s rays is about the same sky. This means less is reflected and more is
in summer and winter. The extra distance that transmitted. At 40”N latitude, 200 Btu strike a
the rays must travel through the atmosphere in square foot of vertical window surface during
the winter is offset by the sun’s closer proximity an average hour on a sunny winter day, whereas
to the earth in that season. 100 Btu is typical for an average summer hour.
46
Direct Gain Systems
47
The New Solar Home Book
PERCENTAGE HEAT GAIN THROUGH CLEAR. the sun rather than the climatic seasons. The
HEAT-ABSORBING AND REFLECTIVE GLASS middle of the summer for the sun is June 21,
but the hottest times occur from the end of July
Summer Winter
:o the middle of August. A fixed overhang de-
Glass Type
signed for optin-;a1shading on August 10 causes
the same shadow on May I. The overhang de-
Single Glazing signed for optimal shanding on September 2 I.
Clear 97 68 when the weather is still somewhat warm and
Heat-absorbing1 86 41 solar heat gain is unwelcome, causes the same
Reflective? 58 19 shading situation on March 2 1, when the weather
is cooler and solar heat gain is most welcome.
Double Glazing
Clear outside & inside 83 6R
Clear outside/
hear-absorbing inside 74 5’
Clear outside/
reflective inside so 42
Heat-absorbing outside/
clear inside 42 28
Reflective outside/
heat-absorbing inside 31 I7
SHADING L&X&M&3? 21
48
Direct Gain Systems
Sizing Overhanps
Overhangs can be effective shades fur large The ruble lists the declination angles for the
south-facing vertical window areus. How much 2 1st day of mch month. Irt this cusp:
shade you want and when you want it depends
A = 90 - L + D = 90 - 40 + 23 = 73
on the home’s heating and cooling load. You
can size an overhang by choosing what months
B = 90 - 40 + 0 = 50
you want shade and how much of the window
you want shoded (e.g., all or half the window).
0 = Hl(tan A - tan B)
The depth of the overhang (0) und how high it
= 4litun 73 - fun 50) = I .92
is sepuruted from the window (S) ure found with
simple trigonomet~:
S = D fun B = 1.92 run 50 = 2.29
0 = Hl(tun A - ton B) In rhis cuse, the o\*erhung would need to be
S = D fun B ulmosf m*o feet deep md irs lower edge would
he owr hrtJ.ftW trbow the window. If yr could
where H is the height of the shudow (meusured
uccepr jdl shcrdc m Jwle 2lst. !xt no shade
dobrn fkom rhe bottom of rile or*erhunSg). A is
on December 2 Isr (u?ld I~PWCsome shtrdiq on
the summer noon projle ungle, und B is the
September 2 1st). the o\~erhun,q could be shul-
winier noon projile uncle.
lower and t~loser- w the rap of he window:
The profile ungle is d#iculr to envision. The
jigure .show.s thur it is the ungle benveen rhe A = 90 - 40 + 23 = 7-Z
horkon und the sun’s ruy. in u ,*erktrl plune
perpendiicxlur lo Ihe \raindo,c*. The noon profile B = 90 - 40 - 23 ‘= 27
ungle is equul Irt (90 - L + D). where L is
the lutirude of rile site und D is the declinurion 0 = Jl(tm1 73 - mn 27)
of rhr .SlOl. = I .45 fl (deep)
Ler’s .wy .wu liwd ut JWN Iurirrrdt~, und FOII
HWlttYl fltll .duldt~ oil u fourlfimt high ,~*indo,c~ s = I .JS 27
fill1
on Jurrd 21.~1und no shude on September ,‘lSY. = 0.74 .fi (8 irr) ubo,*e the window.
Decemkr A
-23
January/Navemkr -20
FcbruaryKktoher -IO
March/September 0
April/August +I I.h
May/July +20
June +23
The New Solar Home Book
Vegetation, which follows the climatic sea- Mini-blinds between glass panes can be expen-
sons quite closely. can provide better shading sive. Interior shading devices, such as roller
year round. On March 21, for example, there shades and draperies, give the least effective
are no leaves on most plants, and sunlight will shading but offer versatile operation by the peo-
pass readily (except through oak trees, which ple inside. And they do keep direct sunlight
do not lose their leaves until late fall). On Sep- from bleaching the colors of walls, furniture,
tember 21. however. the leaves are still full, and floors. (The high-performance glazings are
providing the necessary shading. Placement of also effective in reducing this bleaching effect
deciduous trees directly in front of south-facing because they block more ultraviolet light than
windows can provide shade from the intense ordinary glass. The table lists the ultraviolet
midday summer sun. But watch out for trees transmittance of different glazings. )
with dense. thick branches that still shade even East- and west-facing glass is extremely dif-
without their leaves. Even better is an over- ficult to shade because the sun is low in the sky
hanging trellis with a climbing vine that sheds both early morning and late afternoon. Over-
its leaves in winter. Unfortunately, stalks re- hangs do not prevent the penetration of the sun
main and produce considerable shading in the during the summer much more than they do
winter as well. so the vines must be cut back during the winter. Vertical louvers or extensions
in the fall. are probably the best means of shading such
Movable shading devices are even more ame- glass, but you might consider reflecting and heat-
nable to human comfort needs than fixed ov- absorbing glass or high-performance glazings.
erhangs or vegetation. but they have their own For this purpose, you should be familiar with
problems. Movable shading devices on the out- the values of the shading coefJicient of the var-
sides of buildings are difficult to maintain and ious glasses. A single layer of clear, double-
can deteriorate rapidly. Awnings are perhaps strength glass has a shading coefficient of I.
the simplest and most reliable movable shading The shading coefficient for any other glazing
devices. but their aesthetic appeal is limited. system, in combination with shading devices,
The requirement for frequent human interven- is the ratio of the solar heat gain through that
tion is often seen as a drawback. Operable shad- system to the solar heat gain through the double-
ing placed between two layer% of glass is not strength glass. Solar heat gain through a glazing
ah effective as an exterior device, but it is still system is the product of its shading coefficient
more effective than an interior shading device. times the solar heat gain factors. The solar heat
factors for 40”N latitude were listed earlier. The
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundanlenrals has a
UV-TRANSMITTANCE complete list for other latitudes.
<iking Type
Condition Coefficient
using tables, or can be calculated directly from vertical fins determine a “radial” one. These
formulas. Another method for determining solar shading masks are constructed with the help of
altitude and azimuth for the 2lst day of each the shading mask protractor proGded here. These
month is the use of sutl path dia,qratns. A dif- masks can then be superimposed upon the ap-
ferent diagram is required for each latitude. al- propriate sun path diagram for your latitude to
though interpolation between graphs is reasonably determine the amount of shading on a window.
accurate. Diagrams for latitudes from 24”N to Those parts of the diagram that are covered by
52”N are provided in the appendix. The 40”N the shading mask indicate the months of the
diagram is reprinted here as an example. year (and the times of day) when the window
You can also use sun path diagrams to de- will be in shade.
termme the effects of shading devices. There
are two basic categories of shading-a hori- Sun path diagrams and the shading mask pro-
zontal overhang above the window or vertical tractor can also be used to design shading de-
fins to the sides. As shown in the diagram, the vices. If you specify the times of year that shading
shading angles a and b of these two basic ob- is needed and plot these on the appropriate sun
structions are the two important variables avail- path diagram, you have determined the shading
able to the designer. The broader the overhang mask for your desired condition. The shading
or fin. the larger the corresponding angle. angles a and b can be read from this mask using
Each basic shading device determines a spe- the shading mask protractor. From these angles
cific shading musk. A horizontal overhang de- you can then figure the dimensions of the ap-
termines a “segmental” shading mask while propriate shading devices.
51
The New Solar Home Book
A sun parh diagram is a projection of rhe s& solar azimuth is read from the radial lines-in
vault, just as a world map is a projection of the this case ir’s 80 degrees west of true south. If
globe. The paths of the sun across the sky are you wust your judgement, you can also use these
recorded as lines superimposed on a grid that diagrams TOgive you the solar positions on days
represents rhe solar angles. Sun path diagrams other than (he 2 1st of each month.
can be used to determine these angles for an? The shading mask protractor provided here
dure and time. Diflerenr sun path diagrams are will help you TOconstrucl masksfor any shading
needed for different latiludes. situation. First derermine the shading angle of
As an esample. find rhe solar alrirude and rhe horizontal overhang or verficaljns, as shown
azimurh angles at 4.00 p.m. on April 2i in in the figure. For a horizontal overhang, find
Philadelphia (JO’%). First locale the April the arc corresponding to angle ’ ‘a” in the lower
line--the durk line running left to right and half of the.shading mask protractor. All the area
numbered *‘IV” for the fourth month-and [he above rhar arc is rhe segmental shading mask
-1:OOp.m. line--&e dark line running verlical!\ for that overhang. For vertical jins. find the
und numbered ’ ‘4. ” The interseclion of these radial lines corresponding to rhe shading angle
lines indicates the solar posirion ul thut time “b” in the upper half of the shar!ing mask pro-
and day. Solur alrinrde is read from the con- tractor. All The area below these lines is rhe
cenrric circles-in (his case it’s 30 degrees. The radial shading mask for (hose jins.
,I,,. r-4
. . _.--. .
.
v(. . -* . 2:,- ~.. _. . , ;o-
‘. ,. ,:.. ;L:
. ;<I*
.‘/,. (1,. sI. $0.
40-r-4LATITUDE eHAOlN0 MABK PROTRACTOR
52
irect Gain Systems
SEGMENTAL MASK
RADIAL MASK
53
A vital question in a solar-heated house is where If it is cold outside when thfe sun sets, the
to store the heat. When the house is used as the house begins losing heat through its exterior
solar collector. it needs a method of “soaking skin, even if it is well insulate,d. To maintain
up” or storing heat so it doesn’t become too comfortable temperatures, this heat must be re-
hot when the sun is shining, and retains some placed. In houses which have not stored much
of this heat to use when it isn’t. Probably the solar heat during the day, auxiliary heating de-
most efficient heat storage container is the ma- vices must provide this heat.
terial of the house itself-the walls, floors, and If the interiors are massiveenough, however.
roofs. All materials absorb and store heat as and the solar energy has been allowed to pen-
they are warmed. For example, water or stone etrate and warm them during the day, the house
will absorb more heat for a fixed temperature can be heated by the sun, even at night. As the
rise than straw or wood. Heavy materials can inside air cools, the warmed rmaterials replace
store large quantities of heat without becoming this lost heat. keeping the rooms warm and cozy.
too hot. When temperatures around them drop, Depending upon the heat storage capacities of
the stored heat is released and the materials the inside materials. the amount of solar energy
themselves cool down. penetrating into the house, and the heat loss of
This heat storage cupuci~ of various mate- the house, temperatures can remal n comfortable
rials can be used to store the sun’s heat for later for many hours. Really massive houses can stay
use. Solar energy penetratesthrough walls, roofs, warm for a few days without needing auxiliary
and windows to the interior of a house. This heat from fires or furnaces.
solar heat is absorbed in the air and surrounding During the summer, a massive house can also
materials. The air in the house is likely to heat store coolness during the night for use during
up first. It then distributes this heat to the rest the hot day. At night, when outside air is cooler
of the materials via convection. If they have than it is during the day, ventilation of that air
already reached the temperature of the air or into the house will cool the air and all of the
cannot absorb the heat quickly, the air continues materials inside. Since they will be cool at the
to warm and overheats. The greater the heat beginning of the next day, they can absorb and
storage capacity of the materials in the house, store more heat before they themselves become
the longer it will take for the air to reach un- warm-cooling the indoor air as they absorb
comfortable temperatures and the more heat can heat from it. Thus, if the materials are cool in
be stored inside the house. the morning. it will be a long time before they
54
The House as a Heat Storehouse
70
have warmed to the point that additional cooling ,I, DROP IN OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE SWINGS
The effects of varying outdoor temperaturesupon
the indoor temperatures can be very different
for different types of houses. The first graph 10
10
shows the effects of a sharp drop in outdoor IIll RISE IN OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE
100 -
temperature on the indoor temperatures of three
types. Of the three, a lightweight wood-frame
house cools off the fastest. It has little heat
stored in its materials to replace the heat lost to
the outside. A massive structure built of con-
crete, brick, or stone maintains its temperature
over a longer period of time if it is insulated on
the outside of the walls. The heavy materials
which store most of the heat are poor insulators, 7”
70
EO
00
and they must be located within the confines of ,,I,, DAILY
IllI FLUCTUATIONS IN OUTDOOR TEMPERATURE
the insulation.
A massive house set into the side of a hill or
covered with earth has an even slower response
to a drop in the outdoor air temperature. Ideally,
the interior concrete or stone walls in this house
are insulated from the earth by rigid board in-
sulation. One or two walls can he exposed to
the outside air and still the temperature will drop
very slowly to a temperature close to that of the
earth. 1
ELAPSED TIME
The second graph shows the effects of a sharp
rise in outdoor temperature on the same three _---- -----a -.--
ouldoor amr
hak, mrdrld rrood ham hovrc
55
The New Solar Home Book
labor at full throttle to keep the house warm at BUILDING WITH THERMAL MASS
night. The massive earth-embedded house, on
the other hand. averages the outdoor tempera- Thermal mass is one of the most underrated
ture fluctuations over a span of several days or aspects of current building practice. Unfortu-
even weeks. A bantamweight heating system nately, heavy buildings are hardly the favorite
(such as a wood stove, for example) could op- children of architects and building contractors,
erate constantly to assure an even comfort level because the visual weight of buildings is an
throughout the house. important aesthetic consideration. Well-insu-
lated homes with reasonable amounts of south
glazing (no more than six percent of the floor
area) usually have enough thermal mass in the
standard building materials without adding more.
Extra thermal mass is now looked at more as
HEAT STORAGE CAPACITIES
an “option” than a “necessity.”
All materials vary in their ability to store heat. Massive fireplaces. interior partitions of brick
One measure of this ability is the specijk heat or adobe, and even several inches of concrete
of a material, which is the number of Btu re- or brick on the hoor can greatly increase the
quired to raise one pound of the material 1°F.
For example, water has a specific heat of 1.0,
which means that 1 Btu is required to raise the
SPECIFIC HEATS AND HEAT CAPACITIES
temperature of 1 pound of water 1°F. Since one OF COMMON MATERIALS
gallon of water weighs 8.4 pounds, it requires
8.4 Btu to raise it 1°F.
Different materials absorb different amounts Specific Heat Density Heat Capacity
of heat while undergoing the same temperature Material Btu/(lb OF) lb/ft3 Btu/(ft3 “F)
rise. While it takes 100 Btu to heat 100 pounds
of water 1°F. it takes only 22.5 Btu to heat 100 Water (40°F) I .OO 62.5 62.5
pounds of aluminum 1°F. (The specific heat of Steel 0. I2 489 sx.7
aluminum is 0.225.) The specific heats of var- Cast iron 0. I 2 450 s4.0
ious building materials and other common ma- Copper 0.002 556 51.2
terials found inside buildings are listed in the Aluminum 0.314 I71 36.6
Basalt 0.20 I80 36.0
accompanying table. Marble 0.2 I 16’ 34.0
The heat wpacity. or the amount of heat Concrete 0.33 144 31.7
needed to raise one cubic foot of the material Asphalt 0 .-a
3’ 131 29.0
I “F. is also listed along with the density of each Ice (32°F) 0.387 57.5 18.0
material. Although the specific heat of concrete, Glass 0. I x IS4 27.7
for example. is only one-fourth that of water. White oak 0.57 47 26.8
Brick 0.10 123 24.6
its heat capacity is more than half that of water. Limestone 0.’ I7 I03 x.4
The density of concrete compensates somewhat Gypsum 0.26 78 ‘0.3
for its low specific heat. and concrete stores Sand 0.191 94.6 x. I
relatively large amounts of heat per unit vol- White pine 0.67 27 X.1
ume. As heat storage devices. concrete or stone White fir 0.6.5 37 7.6
Clay 0.23 6.7 3.9
walls insulated on the outside are superior to
Asbestos wool 0.20 36 7.2
wood-framed walls having a plywood exterior Glass wool 0. IS7 _3 .-_
‘5 0.5 I
and a gypsum wallboard interior with fiberglass Air (75°F) 0.34 0.07s 0.0 I 8
insulation stuffed between them.
56
The House as a Heat Storehouse
Consider u 20 X 40 .fimt hoiise ,vith u bill- With a tutu1 ~vhrme of 600 cubic -feet
insulutrd concrete sluh 9 intks thick. By 5 pm. (2ONJONO.7.5) und u heat captrci~ ($32 Btul
on Junutrrv 2 I. the sluh bus ~rwmed ~rptn 75°F (fi” “F). the concrete slab .store.s19.200 Btlt.fiv
fi-om sunlight flooding in the .south ,tirrdmr*.s. u I “F rise in its temptwrtwc. For- u I “F drop
From that rim until rurly the ne.vt niorning, in its tempertrture, the slab reltwses the sumtl
the o:rtdoor tenrperuturc~ ur*eruge.s 25°F. ,\hile 19.200 Btu. [f’ the slub drops 10°F. *from 75°F
the indoor uir uverugr.s 65°F. !f the house is to 65°F. it will reltwe just enough heat to re-
well-insuluted and 1osr.s heat ut u rule of 300 pluc~e thut lost b! the hrse during the night.
Btul(hr “F). and there is no source r,f‘umiliu~ So the .slub drops to u temperatuw c$65”F b!
hrut, what is the temnperutirw of the sluh ut 9 9:00 thr nert morning.
o’clock the ne.rt tnorning~~ In reali&, things are a bit more cwmplicuteci.
The total heat lost from the house during that But this twrcise kelps to give a rough i&w of
period is thr product cf the rute of heut loss how mwh heat you cm store in u concrete slab.
(UA). times the number cd’hours (h). times the !f the house has 200 square feet of soirtli win-
average temperature diff~rcnw between the in- dows. and u solur heut gain of 1000 Btulft’ is
door und outdoor uir (AT). or typical ,fiw a .sunny Junuu~ day. the slab cm
.storr the 200.000 Btu of solur energ! with a
AH = (UA) (h)(AT) temperuture rise of about 10°F. The stored solar
= 300(16)165 - 25) heut is the11releused at night to keep the house
= 192.000 Btu. warm as the inhabitants sleep.
57
The New Solar Home Book
level. The most popular alternative is to plaster strikes so that you can get by with as little mass
the insulation with a “cementitious” material as possible. This saves on costs.
such as fiberglass-reinforced mortar. The table shows the surface area of the three
types of mass needed for each square foot of
south glazing, for different materials of various
thicknesses. The mass must be directly exposed
to the room. Mass in the floor doesn’t count if
it’s covered with carpet. Concrete or brick walls
don’t count as mass if they are hidden behind
a frame wall.
In a well-insulated, iight-frame house (R- 19
walls, R-38 ceiling, triple-glazing), the building
dWUlOTL
MASS materials themselves are enough thermal mass
to allow six to seven square feet of south glazing
for every 100 square feet of heated floor area.
In the average house (R-l I walls R-19 ceiling,
double-glazed), the building material’s thermal
mass allows 11 to 14 square feet of south glaz-
The three kinds of thermal mass, based ing for every 100 square feet of heated floor
on location. area. To have more glazing than that, thermal
mass must be added to the building to avoid
overheating.
SIZING MASS
Thermal mass in a building stores heat and re- MASS SIZING: SQUARE FEET OF MASS
NEEDED FOR EACH SQUARE FOOT OF SOUTH
leases it later to the space when the air tem- GLAZING
perature around it begins to drop. When sized
properly. the mass can prevent overheating on
a sunny afternoon. and can keep the auxiliary Miltt+ll Direct Indirect Remote
heat from turning on until later in the evening. Thickness Mass Mass Mass
There are three ways mass can be “charged.”
that is. heated up. If it is “direct” mass, it is Concrete 4” 4 7 14
directly hit by the sun for at least six hours a 6” 3 5 14
day. If it is “indirect” mass. the sunlight hits X” 3 s I5
another surface tirst and is reflected onto the
Brick 7” x IS 30
mass. If it is “remote” mass. it is charged by i,.
5 9 IX
warm air that tlows by its surface through nat- X” s 10 Is)
ural or forced convection. Direct. indirect. and
remote mass al! charge and discharge on one Gypsum 0.5” 76 I14 II4
side only, as shown in the figure. tKMKi I” 38 57 57
The effectiveness of the mass is directly re-
lated to its location. Direct mass stores more
Hardwood I” 17 2X 3’
heat than the same surface area of indirect mass.
and much more than remote mass. When you S0ftw00d I” 21 36 39
design. try to place the mass where the sun
A grasp of the principles of thermosiphoning- You have observed the process of thermo-
where the natural bouyancy of heated air or siphoning, also called natural convection, at work
water is used to circulate heat-is crucial to an in a fireplace. Because the hot air just above
understanding of the passive uses of solar en- the fire is much lighter than the surrounding air,
ergy. When heated, air expands and becomes it rises rapidly up the chimney. Cooler, heavier
lighter than the surrounding air. The heated air room air replaces it, bringing more oxygen to
drifts upward and cooler air moves in to replace maintain the flames. Most of the fire’s heat is
it. delivered to the outdoors by this “chimney ef-
fect.” Thermosiphoning is also a strong force
in passive solar heating systems.
COOL AIR
t%dCK AESCRE
lq.4s OR PLASTI
4
59
Undesirable reverse thermosiphoning
Added fan provides heat control. 1 cools the room.
active systems). Using fans with a proper com- in summer to prevent overheating by inducing
bination of windows and wall collectors, you natural ventilation through houses. Cool air can
can simultaneously heat the rooms exposed to be drawn into the house from the north side and
the sun and those in the shade. warm air expelled by the “chimney” exhaust
Dampers help to control the air flow and pre- system shown here. As with all air-type solar
vent the cooling effect of ~et’~~e thermosi- heating devices, dampers should be simple in
phoning. When the sun isn’t shining, the air in design and operation. They should close tightly
the collector loses heat by conduction through and there should be as few of them as possible.
the glass and radiation to the outside. As this
air cools, it travels down the absorber face and
flows out into the room. Warm room air is drawn TAP VARIATIONS
in at the top to the collector and cooled in turn.
Although this reverse thermosiphoning could be A number of variations on the basic design of
a benefit in summer, it is most undesirable in TAPs can improve their performance. These
winter. It can be prevented by shutting dampers variations include insulation, improved ab-
at night. sorber surfaces, and dampers and fans to reg-
Dampers can operate manually or automat- ulate the How of air.
ically. Natural air currents or fan pressure can During a sunny winter day, no insulation is
open or close them. You can also use dampers needed between the back of the absorber and
61
The New Solar Home Book
62
Indirect Gain Systems
PfDtWAL VE NT5
63
The New Solar Home Book
made of concrete are often referred to as Trombe December and January, the coldest months, and
(pronounced Trohm) walls. The first buildings the least occurs in June and July. The mid-
were two four-room houses, each with a floor winter clear day insolation on vertical south walls
area of 818 square feet and a collector area of is only about 10 percent less than that on tilted
5 I6 square feet. The collectors operate in a fash- roofs facing south. With an additional IO-50
ion similar to the one in the previous diagram, percent more sunlight reflected onto vertical
except that to prevent reverse thermosiphoning. surfaces from fallen snow. they can actually
the lower ducts are located above the bottom of receive more solar heat gain than tilted surfaces.
the collector. Cool air settling to the bottom at Other types of reflectors, such as swimming
night is trapped there. pools. white gravel, and concrete walks, work
Because they are not very well insulated, the well with vertical collectors. South walls can
houses lose about 22.000 Btu per degree day. be shaded easily in summer, preventing the col-
Nevertheless. the concrete wall collectors sup- lector surface from reaching high temperatures.
ply 60 to 70 percent of the heat needed during At first glance, it seems foolish to remove a
an average Odeillo winter, where temperatures window which admits light and heat directly,
frequently plummet to 0°F. From November to only to replace it with an opaque wall solar
February. the collectors harvest more than 30 collector. But don’t forget the advantages of a
percent of the sunlight falling upon them. Over mix of windows and collectors: direct gain, in-
a typical heating season, this passive system direct gain, view, ventilation, and egress. In-
supplies about 200.000 BIU (or the usable heat terior wall surface is lost if the entire south
equivalent of 2 gallons of oil) per square foot facade is glass, and excessive sunlight can dam-
of collector.
30-
on south walls follows the seasonal need very Clear day insolation on horizontal surfaces,
closely. In most of the United States. the great- and on south-facing vertical and tilted sur-
est heat gain on vertical south walls occurs in faces. Reflected radiation not included.
6-a
Indirect Gain Systems
age furniture. floors, and fabrics. A section of glass, with solar transmissivity greater than or-
wall provides an interior space where you may dinary glass, will improve sunspace perform-
place delicate objects that could not take direct ance. Polycarbonate sheets, fiberglass-reinforced
sunlight. People also can be very uncomfortable polyesters, and polyethylene glazings are other
when the sun shines directly on them. Over- choices in sunspace glazing. They can be less
heating is often a problem with an all-glass wall, expensive, lighter in weight, and less likely to
even with massive floors and partitions. But break than glass, but they age more quicklv.
with solar collectors and heat storage in the losing their strength and appearance.
south walls. the excess heat can be transported If the sunspace will only be used as a solar
to cooler parts of the house or trapped and stored collector, and closed off from the house at night,
for later use. single glazing will do. Single glazing may also
be suitable if you use insulated shutters or shades
that store out of the way in the daytime and
SUNSPACES cover the glazing at night. Otherwise, double
glazing shoud be used. (Triple-glazed glass is
Sunspaces are the modem solar equivalent of only worth the extra cost in severe climates.)
attached greenhouses.Originated in Roman times New high-performance glazings are available
to meet the demands of Tiberius Caesar for fresh for site-built sunspaces with a layer of high
cucumbers out of season. greenhouseswere used transmittance film sandwiched between two glass
in I Wh-century Europe as both a supply of year- layers, or a low-emissivity coating on the inner
round food and a source of winter heat from pane of double glazing. They offer a high de-
the sun. Called “conservatories” in England. gree of protection from 24-hour heat loss.
they were built in sizes ranging from small win- A sunspace should face due south, but up to
dow units to room-sized structures. IS degrees either east or west will have little
Today. site-built or prefabricated sunspaces effect on perfomlance. Facing it slightly east
have become a very popular mode of capturing offers desirable sunlight and warmth in the
the benefits of passive solar heat and making morning. The space should not be shaded during
winter living more cheerful. As a heat source. the day. Direct sun should be allowed in at least
a sunsptlce with 100 square feet of glazing can. from IO:00 a.m. to 2:OO p.m.. and more is
in one winter. offset up to 30 gallons of heating better.
oil. 6560 kilowatts of electricity. or 3000 cubic The best glazing angle for collecting winter
feet of natural gas. As a greenhouse rather than sun is between 50 and 60 degrees. But sloped
primarily a heat source. a sunspace can work glazing is difficult to seal against leaks year-
wonders on houseplants. and supply fresh veg- round. and is harder than vertical glazing to tit
etables all winter long. Or a sunspace can he with window insulation in winter and sh:ldes in
used mainly ;LSadditional year-round living space. summer. Sunspaces with sloped glazing are
(In this case it is a direct-gain system and not colder at night in the winter and hotter all sum-
truly a sunspace.) How the space is to be used mer. Vertical glazing solves these problems.
will affect choices of glazing. heat storage ma- with only a IO to 30 percent loss in efficiency.
terials. and heat transfer methods. Ground reflectance from snow. gravel. or side-
walks can cut this loss in half.
Glazings and Orientation
Storing and Moving the Heat
Sunspaces collect solar heat through south-fac-
ing glass or plastic glazing. Glass can last a If a sunspace is to be more than a solar collector.
long time-up to 50 years if no one throws a it will need thermal mass to retain the heat when
rock through it in the meantime. Using low-iron the sun goes down. A brick or concrete floor
65
The New Solar Home Book
works well. So do water-filled containers painted Wall openings that allow warm air to pass
a dark color. Phase-change salts have four to through should be included no matter what type
five times the heat storage capacity of water, of common wall is used. Warm air can flow
but are expensive and have often proved un- from sunspace to living space Lhrough the top
reliable. Whatever is used should be positioned of a doorway or window and cool air can return
to capture direct and reflected solar radiation, through the bottom. This can also be done with
and have as great a surface area as possible. pairs of high and low vents. There should be at
At least three square feet of concrete or brick least 8 square fee: of openings for each 100
tloor (4 to 6 inches thick) or three gallons of square feet of south glazing. When they are
water are required for every square foot of south closed, the sunspace will act as a buffer against
glazing. Heat can also be stored in a rockbed living area heat loss.
under the sunspace and/or living room floor by Any outside surface not used for collection
blowing warm air from the sunspace through it. or storage should be well insulated. The side
There are several choices of how to connect walls of a sunspace should only be glazed if it
the sunspace and the house. The two spacescan is to be used for serious plant growing. East-
be open to one another so that the sun’s heat west exposure supplies a negligible amount of
penetrates directly. If you choose this design, solar heat. If the layout of the house permits,
use high-performance glazings or very good in- it can “wrap around” the sides of the sunspace.
sulating shades over double-glazing at night, thus partly enclosing it. This design reduces
and insulate well around the rest of the struc- heat loss, offers a place for more thermal mass
ture. or heat loss will be high. (The sunspace than the add-on sunspace. and transfers heat to
would really be a direct-gain space in this case.) a larger area of the house itself.
Double-glazed sliding glass doors are a sec- As in any energy-efficient construction, care
ond option. Direct solar radiation can still pen- must be taken in putting together a sunspace to
etrate the living space, and the view through limit air infiltration. Tight co;lstruction. weath-
the sunspace to the outside can be maintained. erstripping, and careful caulking to seal cracks
If the doors are left open during the day. warm are all important, especially around windows
air can freely pass to the living area. When the and vents that open and close.
doors are closed at night, the sunspace acts as Shadesand vents are absolutely necessary for
a thermal buffer, reducing heat losses in adja- summer comfort. A properly-sized fixed over-
cent rooms. hang on vertical south glazing can be sufficient
A standard wood-frame wall with R-IO to R- to keep the sunspace tolerably cool. If the glaz-
I5 insulation prevents solar radiation from pass- ing is tilted. a fixed overhang is impossible. and
ing through, but warm air can pass through open exterior shading with vegetation and interior
windows and doors. A solid masonry wall offers shading with movable insulation or window
a combination of storage and distribution. If it shades are the only options.
is meant to warm only the sunspace, it should Warm air in the winter carries desirable heat
be six to eight inches thick and insulated on the through doors and windows in the common wall
house side. If the wall’s stored heat is to be to living rooms inside the house. But in the
shared by the sunspaceand living space, it should summer. that warm air must be vented .utside.
be I2 to I6 inches thick. and uninsulated. This is usually done with vent openings placed
A wall made of water containers 6 to 12 high and low on exterior walls of the sunspace.
inches thick also works well. Water can hold a By convection, hot air rises out the top and
great deal of heat and deliver it easily to both draws cooler air in through the bottom.
rooms through convection currents in the water Fans and therinostatic controllers may be
itself. Vents or windows and doors will help necessary to move air. especially in the summer
transfer warm air to the living space earlier in if sloped glazing is used. They can also be used
the day. to raise and lower movable insulation, to keep
66
ndirect Cain Systems
Sunspaces are attractive additions to a home, for living space, winter greenery, extra
heat, or a combination of all three. (Photo courtesy of Sunplace, Inc.)
67
The New Solar Home Book
68
I believe the grolcnd rules can be transformed
so that technology simplifies life instead of cm-
tinually complicating it.
Steve Baer
69
The New Solar Home Book
less severe than if the house were to lose its a separate structure. (Before installing the col-
heat. It’s the difference between letting the laun- lectors on the roof, be sure the roof is sound-
dry wait a bit longer or having the pipes freeze if it is an older house, it may need reinforce-
and burst. If you can tolerate occasional short- merit.) True south orientation and latitude angle
ages of hot water, your solar water heater can tilt may not be feasible on many houses. For-
have a very straightforward design-free of :he tunately, the loss in efficiency is relatively small
complications that provide for sunless periods. ( 10 to 15 percent from idea!) if the roof faces
When a more constant hot water supply is within 25” of true south and its tilt is within 15”
needed the existing, conventional water heater of the latitude angle. This efficiency reduction
can make up the difference. Controls are simple can be easily recouped by making a propor-
enough because this auxiliary heater can boost tionately larger collector.
incoming water temperatures to the desired sup- How much storage capacity should you have?
ply temperature. If the solar heater is providing Two days is generally the optimum. A larger
full-temperature water. the auxiliary remains off. tar will carry a household through longer cloudy
If not, the auxiliary comes on just long enough periods (assuming enough collector area), but
to raise the solar-heated water to the required will require more time to reach the desired hot
temperature. water temperature. Every attempt should be made
In addition to all these advantages,solar water to stratify the hot water in the storage tank above
heaters are a lot smaller than solar spaceheaters. the cold. The hot water then goes directly to
The initial cost of a solar water heating system the load, and the cold water to the collectors,
is lower. and it can be installed and operating increasing efticiency and allowing the use of a
within a very short time. larger tank. The larger tank costs more but a
How large a system you need depends on smaller one requires more frequent use of aux-
how much hot water you use daiiy. and whether iliary heat. In genera!, the collector should be
you will draw it directly from the solar heater. large enough to provide a single day’s hot water
or use the solar heater to preheat the water for needs under average conditions. Beyond this
a !inal boost by a conventional water heater. point. a larger collector experiences the law of
On average. a solar water heater will supply 50 diminishing returns.
to 75 percent of your annual hot water needs; After the system is installed. check regularly
25 to 35 percent in the winter. and SO to 100 on the ouside racks, fasteners, mounts, and in-
percent in the summer. depending on how much sulated piping. They should be repaired im-
water you use and what system you choose. mediately if damaged by weather. Follow the
manufacturer’s maintenance instructions and
schedules faithfully.
Where should you locate your collectors? The Just as in space heating, there are passive and
tirst thing to consider is that the collector should active solar DHW systems. The passive group
face south or as nearly south as possible. Be- includes batch or integral collector storage (KS).
cause domestic hot water is required year round thermosiphoning. and phase-change systems.
in about the same daily amounts. the collector The active group-those powered by an elec-
should be tilted for about the same solar gain trically-driven pump-include antifreeze. drain-
in all seasons. Relatively constant daily inso- back, draindown. and recirculation.
lation strikes a south-facing collector tilted at A third group, photovoltaic-powered sys-
an angle equal to the local latitude. Steeper tilts tems. can be totally passive because the sun
(up to latitude + IO“) may be needed in areas provides the electricity to power the pump. But
with limited winter sunshine. the system uses a!! the same components as an
If the roof can support the collector. it is active system with the addition of the photo-
much less expensive to put it there than to build voltaics panel.
70
Passive solar domestic hot water heaters come heavy insulation, and double or triple glazing
in a wide range of shapes, sizes, efficiencies, is recommended for the box. If installed in a
and costs. Many can be totally passive by using freezing climate. the batch heater is usually
the sun’s power in the collection mode and city drained before the first freeze and lies dormant
water pressure in the storage and distribution for the winter.
modes. Many are termed “passive” but are ac- The “bread box” is a batch water heater that
tually hybrid systems. because although their retains the virtues of low cost and simplicity of
collection modes may be passive, their storage design. Variations of this water heater were first
and distribution loops require auxiliary power used in the 1930s.
for pumping. The bread box minimizes heat loss from the
stored hot water by means of an insulated box
that encloses the tank at night and during cloudy
BATCH HEATERS weather. During the day. a top panel is raised
and the front panel on the south face is lowered
In the batch heater. the solar storage tank itself to expose the glass and tank to sunlight. The
is the collector and all the water is heated to- inside surfaces of the panels and the box itself
gether in one “batch.” One or more pressure are covered with a material such as alun,inum
tanks are painted black and placed inside a glazed. foil to increase collection by reflection of sun-
insulated box. House water pressure draws the light around to the sides and back of the tank.
hot water from the tank and takes it directly to When the panels are closed these surfaces reflect
the user. or to the conventional water heater. thermal radiation back to the tank.
The batch design is the easiest to do yourself. The tank can be filled with water from either
The inside tank of a conventional water heater. a pressurized or non-pressurized source. Once
minus the metal cover and insulation, do nicely. in the tank. the water is heated slowly but uni-
You can even hang one or more tanks in a formly. Convection currents and conduction
sunspace or greenhouse. through the tank metal distribute the heat
Batch systems are the least efficient solar throughout the water, and little heat stratilica-
DHW systems, but they are also the least ex- tion occurs. In unpressurized systems, the hot
pensive. If it is going to be used year round in water is nearly used up before the tank is re-
a cool climate. all the exposed pipes require filled. In pressurized systems. cold replacement
71
The New Solar Home Book
water is drawn into the tank as hot water is Batch and ICS heaters are really DHW “pre-
dmwn off and sonre mixing occurs. lfdual tanks heaters.” since their lower cfliciencies rarely
arc used. the bread box has less difticulty with let them achieve the temperatures needed by the
mixing. Hot water is drawn from one tank while average family. Their efliciency is hurt drdsti-
cold wuter flows into the other. tally by the high heat loss from the tank to the
Frec/.ing in cold weather i> not much of a ambient air at night-a loss other DHW tanks
problem becuuusr of the large volume of warm located inside the house don’t experience. But
water in the tank. However. the pipes must be if the demand for hot water is concentrated into
protected with insulation and electric helit tape the early evening when the water is its hottest
(it‘ the system isn’t drained for the winter). and before outside temperatures drop, their
Integral collector stordgc ( ICS) systems
;irC maximum efticiencies can be reached.
the modern. m~nufacturctl vcrsicrn of the bread ICS manufacturers are striving to make their
box. The units are better insulated, and many’ units more attractive by lowering the protile of
manutastureres claim that if they ;rrc plunrhed the collectors to look more like their “flat-plate”
with polyhutylene pipe. they can withstand nwl- collector counterparts. One manufacturer does
tiplc freezes. However. many Ioc;~l plumbing this by having many smaller stainless steel tanks
codes still Jo not allow the use of pcAybutylene plumbed in series in one collector instead ot
pipe in potable water lines. one or two larger diameter tank>. The smaller-
72
Passive Solar DHW Systems
profiled collecton can be roof mounted like other if the collector is near the south wall. That way.
collectors, but the concentrated dead load of the the heat lost will flow to the rooms. If the tank
30 to 40 gallons of water on the roof, and the has to be outside. it should be shielded from
nighttime heat loss. still remain. the winds and lavishly insulated.
Another manufacturer solves all three prob- Manufactured thermosiphoning systems are
lems by using a phase-change ma!erial in the installed as one unit, with collector and tank
collector instead of water. Copper pipe in tin together. They are available in the open-loop
tubes runs through long rectangles of wax. The systems described above, where water is used
wax melts during the day. storing latent and for collection and storage. or in closed-loop sys-
sensible heat (see the discussion of phase-change tems.
collectors below). It transfers the heat to the In a closed-loop system. the heat transfer
water running through the pipes when there is tluid follows the same pattern. but passesthrough
a demand. As it cools. the wax solidilies from a heat exchanger in the storage tank. The heat
the outside in. insulating itself against high eve- transfer Huid is usually a mixture of glycol and
ning heat losses. The collector only holds 5 water or other non-freezing mixture. This pro-
gallons of water at one time, and is only 5.5 tects the collector from freezing. and a well-
inches high. insulated tank protects the water within it from
freezing. But the piping from the cold water
supply and to the auxiliary heater in the house
THERMOSIPHONING WATER must still be protected.
HEATERS To eliminate the large heat loss from the tank
above the collector. many manuf’acturers have
The least complicuted type ot’ Ilat-plate Jar rcplrrd the tank with a heat exchanger. The
collector is one that thermosiphons. It has no heat exchanger is connected to the storage tank,
pumps. controllers. or other moving parts in the or between the supply line and the storage tank.
collection loop. All that moves is the water. It If the collector heat exchanger (or tank. as in
operates on the principle of natural convection: ,he above case) is plumbed between a pressur-
the hot water rises from the collector to a tank ilcd supply line and the storage tank, it is rotally
hjcatcd uhovc the top of the collector. passive. If the heat exchanger (or tank) is con-
The older thcrmosiphoning water heater de- nected only to the storage tank, then the storage
signs and site-built systems have a complctcl~ loop must hc pumped, and the system is con-
scparute collector and storage tank. Insulated sidcred hybrid. When the heat exchanger above
pipe5 connect a tilted Hat-plntc c~~llectorwith a the collector is connected to another heat ex-
well-insulated tank. In an open-loop system. the changer in the remote storage tank, and an anti-
water in the collector is heated by the sun, rises. freeze solution is used. the system is completely
cntcrs a pipe. and tlows into the top of (1,~‘ protected against freezing.
storage tank. Simultaneously the cooler water In addition to lowering the heat loss from the
at the bottom of the storage tank Ilows through tank. the use of a heat exchanger instead of a
another pipe leading down to the bottom of the bulky ::mk above the collectors. lowers the pro-
collector. As long as the sun ahincs. the water tile of the collectors. It also eliminates the dead
cirCUlatc5 and becomes warmer. load >,f mtjre than 40 gallons of water on the
Collector backs. pipes. and tank should all roof.
he insulated, with the insulation around the tank For thermosiphoning solar water heaters. the
ax thick as your pockcthH)k permits. Four inches collector location must allow placement of the
01’ tihergla.ss isn’t 4xccssivc. If possible. pIact storage tank at a higher level. For roof-mounted
the tank indoors-in the attic if the collector i> collectors. the storage tank may be placed under
on the root’, or in the room behind the collector the roof ridge or even in a false chimney. The
73
The New Solar Home Book
Closed-loop solar water heater with heat exchanger inside the tank.
roof structure must be strong enough to support a solid. Other phase-change materials change
the weight of a full tank. One alternative is to from a liquid to a gas and hack. Latent heat is
build a collector support structure on the ground. stored at one particular temperature. For ex-
detached from the house or leaning against it. ample. when one pound of ice at 32°F melts.
The collector then feeds an elevated tank located it absorbs I44 Btu. but the cold waler’s tem-
beside it or inside the house. Another possible peralure is also 3,7°F. When it freezes. it gives
location is on the roof of a lean-to greenhouse up I44 Btu. but the temperature of the ice is
built onto the south-facing side of a house. still 32°F. Stvrsihle heat is stored when a ma-
terial is heated and rises in temperature. A sin-
gle BIU is stored when you raise one pound of
PHASE-CHANGE SYSTEMS water 1°F. Phase-change materials. such as
Freon. eutectic salts. or wax. change phase in
Materials can store IWOdifferent kinds of heat, a tempcrarure range better suited to solar energy
larent and sensible. LUIPI~~heat is stored when systems than water’s 33°F freezing point and
a material changes phcrsc~from a solid to a liquid 212°F boilingc point. For example. some salts
and released when the material changes back to melt at 84°F and store 75 Btu! I b-perfect for
74
Passive Solar DHW Systems
passive systems. Others melt at 97’F. and store integral collector storage systems is another type
I14 Btu-perfect for low-temperature active of phase-changesystem. But this time, the phase-
systems. (The pros and cons of phase-change change material is the collector’s built-in stor-
materials are discussed in Chapter 15.) age and not the heat transfer fluid. The collector
Traditional phase-change collectors use a re- is plumbed between the cold water supply line
frigerant that changes from a liquid to a gas and the auxiliary DHW tank. As hot water is
when heated by the sun. The gas bubbles rise drawn from the water heater, it is replaced by
in the collector, pass over the heat exchanger. warm water from the collectors. The collector’s
and condense to a liquid again as they give up absorber is made of wax, encased in long ex-
their latent heat. The condensed fluid flows by truded-aluminum canisters coated with a selec-
gravity to the bottom of the collector to begin tive surface. Copper-fin tubes, which help
the process again. Since the Huid is able to conduct the heat from the wax to the passing
change phase and store latent heat, more energy water in the tubes, are embedded in the wax.
is collected over the same temperature rise than The wax holds onto its heat longer into the
by thermosiphoning collectors, which store only evening than traditional flat-plate collectors can.
sensible heat. Manufacturers claim increased And it has a lower heat loss than other ICS units
eflicicncies of 30 to 30 percent. because the wax insulates itself as it cools and
Although the collectors cannot freeze. the hardens from the outside in.
potable water side of the heat exchanger can.
Anti most phase-change systems still need to
!IXV~ their heat exchanger installed above the
top of the collector. Another drawback to phasr- FREEZE PROTECTION
chungc refrigerant systems is the need for silver-
solder connections. which increases cost. When air temperatures drop below 32°F. freez-
A new phase-change system has been devel- ing water can burst the pipes or collector chan-
oped that is t(~tally passive and yet still allows nels of a solar water heater. Less obvious but
the !+rayt’ tank to he located one story below. more dangerous is freezing caused by radiation
An cvacuatcd closed-loop system is filled with to the night sky. Copper pipes in collectors have
a w;itcr-alcohol heat transfer fluid that changes frozen and burst on clear, windless nights whet1
phase thoilh) at a low temperuturc. Its change air temperatures never dipped to freezing. The
in phase drives the Iluid through the loop, and heat lost by thermal radiation was greater than
doesn’t transfer IlCilt hctwccn collectors and that gained from the surrounding air.
\toragc (as in truditional phase-change collec- To protect a passive solar DHW sy::tem that
tors). The lluid boils. carrying a mixture of gas uses potable water in locations where freezing
and liquid to a riser across the top of the collec- temperatures occur only now and then, heat tape
tors. This causes a pressure difference in the fastened to the back of the absorber is a simple
closed Il~~p. which the system naturally tries and inexpensive safeguard. Heat tape. com-
to overcome. The liquid portion of the mixture monly used to prevent ice dams on eaves. looks
fl~~wsdown to the storage tank. gives up its heat like an extension cord and has a small resistance
in the heat exchanger. and is forced up again to electricity. A thermostat turns it on when the
lo the collectors by the difference in pressure. outside trmper:lture falls to 35°F. and the cur-
Mcanwhilc. the gas in the header travels to the rent flowing through it heats the absorber. in
Vapor condenser. whet-c it condcnscs against the more scverc climates where I( would be called
cooler liquid returning from the heat exchanger. on frequently. heat tape would be too hard on
l’hc comhincd liquid falls through a pipe to the the electric bill. and the batch heater, ICS. OI
hotrom 01’the collectors. open-loop thermosiphoning system would have
The wax ICS unit dcscribcd in the section on to be drained for the winter.
7s
The USC 01’ pumps cun remove many of the ar- is poor. or freezing is 3 coninion ivintor occur-
~hitcctural constraints of thcmmosiphoningwater rence. you’d he better r~l’l’with iI closed-loop
heaters. A purnpd system is commonly used system.
when piping runs would bc loo long or an cl- CIOS~Z~-IOO~ SySlcfllS have sSepiIri\tccollector
cvittcd tank is impossible. The penalty paid for and storrrgt‘ IOO~S that pass through iI hcut ex-
choosing iin Mivt! systt’111 is the additional lirst changer. l%h IOO~ mily have its O\VII punlp.
costs of the pump and controls. and the elec- The heat transfer lluid in the collector loop c;ln
tricity needed to run them. On the positive side. be distilled Wilkr. trtxtcd water (to rcducc car-
;;ou have more freedom in the systcn~ layout. rosion). or an anlifrtxLc solution.
A pumped systcnl can have 3 collccror on the Active solar DHW sy~knls xc further clas-
roof and the storage tank located qwhcre you sifietl by their specilic rncrhod ol’ from protcc-
iikc. The hc~t advuntilge ix the additional us~t’ul lion. Open-loops inc*ludc “rccirculrttion” and
cncrgy produced per squxc foot of collector “drilindiwn” systems. Clos13I-l~~opsinclude
xxx. “drainback” and “i:ntifrtx~e.”
Active hol;rr domestic hot watt’r systc~lls pre-
vent t’rccx-ups in one ot’ three ways: by using
ibn antifrcc/,c solution; by draining the ct~llcc. RECIRCULATION
tot-s; or by circulatmg warm water through the
colltxtors. Biisically . syste111s are divided into l&circulation systems arc only rccc~mn~endt2cl
open- and closed-loops. Open-lcxjps circulate for ;trCiIswhere frtxzing tcmptxuures occur less
polablc wuttx through the collectors. The col- than 70 days ;Lyear. When iI t’rcc/.c snap switch
Icctor array is pumped directly zo the tank. Hot on the collector header scnscs the tcmpcraturc
Hater is drawn from the top of the timk. and hils dropped to 30°F. it “snaps” shut and sends
fold water from the supply line r~pli~c~s it iIt 3 signal through the controller to the pump. ‘The
the bottom. Coc~lwater from the bottom of the pump circulates warm water from the storage
tank is p~nlpd to the collecttws and solar-heated tank through the collectors until the tcmpcrrtturc
water is returned through ;I dip tuhc to the mid- of the snap switch rises over 50°F. when it opens
dl~ 01‘ the tank. ;IS shokvn in the ligurc. and signals the pump to turn off.
‘l‘wo lllgii~r problems cim plague open-loop l’hcrc arc two mil.jor disadvimttigcs to this
5ystl’nls: c~~rrosionillld trcc/.in~. I!‘ water qUillit) type of system. First. it’s the cncrgy collcctcd
76
Active Solar W Systems
/
D CITY WATER IA
In a pumped system the collector can be located above the storage tank.
HOT WATER
TO LOAD
WATER
TO IXKLECTO RS
The Oprn-Loop System: Polable water from the tank also serves as the
heat transfer fluid in the collectors.
I
77
FROM COLLEtTORS
COLD WATER
COLLECTORS
The Closed-Loop System: Treated water or antifreeze solution is cir-
culated in the collection loop, which is separated from the storage loop
by a heat exchanger.
j 91 R VENT/
PRESSURE. RELIEF
FREEZE-SNAP
SWITCH
>
WARM WATER
FROM COLLECTORS
I
DI FFE RENTIAL :..,:j:;1.‘;,‘;
CONT~OLLE R ;:lj,:,,‘:.1:; HOT WATER
R STORAGE
I
b
-l.@J--4-r
-I--- l
t-4-
J
cmnhb
:.,z.z
WA I tn
rnt n
Y”.
SUWL,
b
COOL E
WATER
Tb COLLECTORS
Recirculation System: When the freeze-snap switch senses the approach
of freezing temperatures, it signals the controller to turn on the pump.
Warm water from the storage tank circulates through the collectors
until the snap switch temperature rises over 50”F, when it signals the
coatroller to shut off tbe pump.
78
Active Solar DHW Systems
79
The New Solar Home Book
Al AIR VWT/VACUUM
EZE SAlAP
BREAKER
swiT-cH
HOT WATER
TO LOAD
SENSOR
4 I
I
I
I
4
A
FROM
COOL COLD
WATER WATER
TO SUPPLY
COLLECfORS
Draindown System: When temperatures approach 46”F, the freeze-snap
switch signals the controller to open the draindown valve.
(8 to 12 gallons) that holds the heat transfer drains by gravity back into the tank. Just as in
fluid. When the c:ontroiier shuts off the pump the draindown sytem. you have to be sure the
at the end of the collection day. or when the collectors and piping are pitched properly to
c‘oiieclor temperature approaches 4PF. the lluid drr?in.
80
Active Solar D
STORAGE PUMP ( c
l STORAGE TANK
FROM COLD
WATER SUPPLY
Drainback System: When the collector sensor signals the controller that
temperatures are approaching freezing, it activates the drainback mod-
ule to open its valves to drain the collector and return/supply piping.
Several manufacturers make drainbuck mod- into it that allows air to enter and escape when
uies that include the insulated tank. heat t‘x- the system drains and tills. The tank completely
changer. pump. and differential controller. One tills with water when the system drains. When
module has an air-vent/pressure-relief valve built the pump tills the system. it creates ;L siphon
81
The New Solar Home Book
that helps pull the water through the loop, so operating costs. The disadvantages are slightly
you can use a smaller pump. Unfortunately. the lower efficiencies because of the less-effective
entry of outside air can mean increased corro- heat transfer fluids and the heat exchangers they
sion in the collectors, piping, or tank. Another use.
manufacturer’s module has a tank with enough There are many different types of heat trans-
room for both air and water so that the system fer fluids for active systems. The most popular
can be completely closed to outside air. This is a propylene glycol and water mixture. Pro-
reduces corrosion. but it means you’ll need more pylene giycol is a non-toxic antifreeze, so a
pump horsepower to overcome the pressure in single-walled heat exchanger can be used. A
the loop. double-walled heat exchanger must be used with
If the water in the tank is distilled or treated ethylene glycoi, its toxic cousin.
with a potable non-toxic corrosion inhibitor, a Other fluids include silicone. aromatic oils,
single-walled heat exchanger can be used. But paraftinic oils, and synthetic hydrocarbons. They
if a toxic solution is used, the heat exchanger each have their drawbacks, ranging from less
must be double-wailed to prevent leakage into desirable viscosities and lower flash points, to
the potable water supply. Double-wailed heat corrosion and toxicity.
exchangers are less efficient than single-wailed, Another non-freezing heat transfer fluid is
reducing the total system efticiency. They’re air. It’s non-corrosive, non-freezing or boiling,
also more expensive. free. and it doesn’t cause damage when it leaks.
Drainhack systems require two pumps-one Unfortunately, its specific heat and density are
t’or collection and one for storage-unless the much lower than the others, and coupled with
heat exchanger is part of the main storage tank. an air-to-liquid heat exchanger, air solar DHW
Tanks are available with hr,eat exchangers inside systems are much less efticient. The higher ma-
them or wrapped around them. which transfer terial and installation costs for ductwork over
heat through natural convection currents in the copper piping make them even less popular if
water inside the tank. If the heat exchanger is you’re only heating domestic hot water.
separate from the tank. a circulator is needed Just like drainback systems, antifreeze sys-
to pump water to it tram the tank. tems can have one pump or two. depending on
The differential controller requires at least the location of the heat exchanger.
IWOsensors. with additiona! stnsors and freeze
snap switches recommended for extra freer.e
protection. Drainback systems are second only PV-POWERED
to anlifre3.e systems in popularity and freeze
pr:Gcction. Solar domestic hot water systems that include
a photovoltaic (PV) panel arc included in this
section because they share many of the same
ANTlFRElME components as active systems. The major dif-
ference is that the PV panel replaces the dif-
AntifrccLe systemscircuialc a non-freezing heat ferential controller. power from the electric
transtcr fluid through a cii)scd collector ioc~p. company. or both.
The collectors transfer their heat to storage PV panels produce direct current (dc) eiec-
through ;I heat exchanger. The primary advan- trinity irom the sun (see Chapter 16). The cur-
tage of these systems is that. dcpcnding on the rent can be used to signal the pump that there
hcut transfer lluid. they can withstand freezing is enough solar insolation to begin collecting,
0931 in the most severe climates. in addition. or that there isn’t enough to continue. In this
a smaller circulator ta low horhepowcr pump) case. the PV panel is only used to control. and
can be used. reducing tirst costs and annual you :;tiii purchase the electricity to run an al-
82
Active Solar D
EXCH4NGER 1I
HOT
WATER
PUMP
\\
COOL WATER
TO HEAT
EXCHANCZjER
83
The New Solar Home Book
freezing outdoor temperatures. Its shut-off in- ufactured with the burner at the top. The cold
solation level must be set low enough to make water supply line and ths collector supply line
sure you can still collect the energy left in the are connected to the bottom of the tank. The
collector’s materials themselves at the end of a collector return line and the line to the hot water
warm day. It also shouldn’t allow the pump to demand are connected at the top. as long as
cycle on and off every time a cloud passes in water entering the tank moves slowly, the hot
front of the sun. You have to carefully match water will stratify above the coid, so that only
the PV panel to the pump to be sure it’s big cool water goes to the collectors. You can buy
enough to produce the extra burst of energy the special diffusers to slow the entry of water into
pump needs to start. the tank. One-tank systems save you money
The more insolation available the warmer the since you aren’t buying an extra tank.
absorber plate, and the more energy being pro- In two-tank systems, a tank for sr-!ar storage
duced by the PV panel to power the pump. The is plumbed between the backup tank and the
pump begins circulating slowly, increasing the collectors. the solar tank has no heating ele-
temperature of the water returned to the tank. mcnts in it. but only stores solar energy. The
As the insolation level increases, the collector cold water supply line enters the bottom of the
absorber temperature increases and the PV panel \:)lar storage tank. The top of the solar tank is
produces more electricity. The extra power makes p!umbed to the bottom of the backup heater,
the pump circulate t.tster, increasing collector which has a heating element or burner at the
efficiency by keeping the fluid temperatures top. As hot water is drawn from the top of the
lower. Unfortunately. unless care is taken to batLup tank. it is replaced from the top of the
make sure tank water stays stratified in hot and solar-heated tank.
cold layers. the faster pump rate could stir up A two-tank system increases collector efh-
the water in the tank and send warmer water to ciency by returning cooler water to the collec-
the collectors-negating the increase in efti- tors. Unfortunately, its standby losses are also
ciency . greater because of the increased storage vol-
PV-powered controls and pumps are usually ume. If the fJn:ily is small, you may find the
designed for closed-loop. pressurized systems. single-tank system adequate, as long as you take
PV panels arc expensive. and you need more precautions to stratify the hot water above the
panels to produce enough power to overcome cold.
the pressure in an open loop. A PV-pumping
system for an open hop can cost more than
three times as much as one for a closed loop. INSTAI,l~ATION CHECKLIS’I
And since the panels control the systems based
on changes in insolation and not tcnipcraturc. It is very important that you follow the manu-
a separate f’rccle-protection mechanism muht hc facturer’s installation. operations. and maintc-
added. II;IIICC instruction. But it will also be helpful to
ask yourself the i‘ollowing questions when dc-
signing and installing a solar domestic hot water
ONE:-TANK VS. TWO-TANK SYSTEMS system:
01wtanh ~y~lclns USCthe existing domestic water Arc the collectors oricntcd properly? 110they
l
hcatcr tier fhc storage tank an(J;I backup hcatcr. have an unobstructed vicu bctwccn 9 a.m. and
It‘ the tank uses electricity to heat the water. 3 p.m.‘. Have you tilted them within acccptablc
rcmovc the lower healing element so that hcatcd liniils?
wutcr isn’t being pumped to the collectors. It l Have you arranged the system components to
it’s gas-lircd. the tank ~nu~t bc specially nIan- bc easily accessible for scrvicc and repair’!
Active Solar DHW Systems
HOT WATER
TO LOAD
HEATING ELEMENT
HOT WATER
TO LOAD
HEATING, ELEMENT
SOLAR
BACKUP TANK
I COLD WATERSJPPLY
85
The New Solar Home Book
. If you’re planning on mounting the collectors and pipes properly pitched to drain all the fluid
on the ground, are they arranged so that they in areas where fluid might freeze?
don’t block drifting snow, leaves. and debris? . Have you designed in isolation valves so that
If you’re mounting the collectors on the roof, major components of the system (pumps. heat
will the roof be able to support the additional exchangers, storage tank) can be serviced with-
load? out system draindowns? Have suitable connec-
0 Is the collector frame designed to support col- tions been supplied for filling. flushing, and
lectors under the most extreme local weather draining’? Do you have temperature and/or
conditions’! Can the frame material resist cor- pressure relief valves to prevent system pres-
rosion? Are the roof penetrations caulked or sures from rising above working pressure and
tlashed to prevent water leakage? Have you in- temperatures?
stalled the collectors so that water Howing off l Is the storage tank insulated well’? Are the
warm collector surfaces can’t freeze in cold piping connections to the tank located to pro-
weather and damage the roof or wall’? In areas mote thermal stratification? Is the storage tank
that have snow loads over 20 pounds per square properly connected to the backup water heater’!
foot or greater, have you made sure that snow
or ice sliding off won’t endanger persons or . Are all system, subsystems, and components
property? clearly labeled with appropriate flow direction.
* Have you designed the system to follow the till weight. pressure, temperature. and other in-
local and national codes that apply? Have you formation useful for servicing or routine main-
obtained the required building. plumbing. and tenance’? Have all outlets and faucets on
electrical permits’! nonpotable water lines been marked with a
* Are all the pipes properly insulated to main- warning label’?
tain system efticiency? Have you protected all . Are you sure you know how the system op-
exposed insulation from the weather and ultra- erates. including the proper start-up and shut-
violet rays? Do you have enough pipe hangers. down procedures. operation of emergency
supports, and expansion devices to compensate shutdown devices. and the importance of rou-
for thermal expansion and contraction? If you’re tine maintenance’!Does the owner’s manual have
installing a draindown system. are the collectors all instructions in simple. clear language?
86
Who tloc~.~ not rrtt~rtthrr tlw ititerest h-itlt brhic4
wlwtr wtirtig lw Iookecl tit shel~~itig rock~. or try
~rppro~t~~li tit it (ul’c :’ It 11w.vthe trtrturtrl ycwrtiitig
1!/‘ tliirt portiott 01 oiu ttiost pritttiti\v trtrwstot
~~hicli still .wr\~irxd iti its. f‘rltttt the cii\*i~ w
ltm3i~ trtl~*m~~id to ror$v c~f’ltdtti letrr~~s. c!f‘ hit-k
trttcl ltcrrrs~lis, cff‘ liticw \~w*cti md strcwliivl. (!I’
,grm.~ mcl strcm~. if ttocrrtls trtttl sliitrgl~~s. (ff‘
stotw.~ lrttrl ti1c.s. At Itrst. NY ho,\. trot \\hcrt it
is to li\*c itr tlw oprti irir. litid oi4r li\*cs urc
clottw.vtic. in ttiort’ wttws tlitrti u-c think.
87
Simplicity is the watchword in the overall dc- There are usually two primary heat transport
sign of 3 solar energy systtm. It’s tempting to loops: one links the solar collector to the heat
design mart’ and more ccmiplrx system-al- storage container: the other delivers the heat
ways trying to squce/x one niorc ounce ot‘ pcr- t’r~m storilgt to the house. Liquids or gases rnu~
t’ormancc or a little mart’ comfort out ot’ them. be used as the heat transfer Iluid in either loop.
But this added compkuity usually means higher Liquids includin, 0 IVilttT. ethylcnc flycOl. illIll
initial costs illld grcatt’r opcriiling ilnd niainte- propylene glycol have predominuttxl. Air is the
nanct’ txpcnscs. It’s better to design il siniplc cmly gas that has been used. The following cri-
system that may require the inhahitants to toss tcria intlucncc the selection ()I‘ a heat transport
iI lo? or two in a fire every now and then. fluid:
It’ you’re installing the systtm in ;I new house.
design the house to incorporate passive solar l Personal nerds and conitcxt.
systems to collect and store solar heat in the * Compatihilit~ with the hackup heating sys-
walls and Floors. On ;1sunny winter day. enough tern.
solar energy streams through ;t hundred square l Compatibility with other mechanical devictx.
teet of south-fncing windows or &ylights to l Climate t notrrhly I’rec1ing).
keep ;L well-insulated house toasty wiu-m long * RCliltiVi- cosi i initial. oprilling. mainte-
into the evening. And it’ the house has ;I concrctc nance 1.
tloor slab or masonry walls insulated on the Kclativc complexity.
l
outside. any excess heat can he stored tar use . Long term reliabilitv.
lutcr at night. The solx heat gathered in the
iictive collectors can then he stored away until When personal comfort requires only space
it is nwll~ needed rather than squandered hrat- heating. forced-air systems are favored hecause
ing the house during ;L cold. sunny day. of their relative simplicity and long lifetimes.
When domestic hot water must also be pro-
vided, cold inlet water can be prcdwotcd before
HEATTRANSFERFLUIDS reaching the hot water heater where it is then
raised to its final temperature. This preheating
When designing an active solar system. you can he accomplished by passing the cold water
must choose it Huid for transporting the heat. supply through a heat exchanger in contact with
89
The New Solar Home Book
“‘m A 1 HEATEV
Basic components of an active solar heating system. There are two primary heat
transport loops from collector to storage and from storage to the room.
the solar heated fluid in the return air duct to terns 1tm htz uncotnt‘ort~hlr to the people using
the stor;qc bin or tank in ;tn air system. or in than and they rnlrst be designed caret’ully. But
the t;tnk itwll in ;1 liquid hysttrm. they do have the adva~ltagt’ of grt’ater simplic-
II’ c~~cllin~ is ncedcd in addition to heating. ;I ity.
Iicfutd \! \tcnl 14 ;I niorc likeI> choice. Although M,)st radiant hciiting systenls USC kvater to
uww rcsc;rrch ha hwn done v ith ;tir. most transport the heat. but some USC hot air circu-
~~~liir-p~~~~crcil cooling systcrns USCliquids. I‘hc !rrtcd through wall. wiling. or floor panels. Hot
WIIK th~rlllc,~lvnariii~ and physical propcrtics water radiant S~S~CWS. such iis hawhourd ra-
that labor licluid~ in convcnticwal ct,oling units diators, work well with licfuid systcrns. H\)t water
;ll\cr I;rvcw thcln in \~diir ccloliiig systcnis. t\ir l‘rom hish-tcmpcrature collectors can circulatt’
4\ k ‘III\. hobcwr. ciiii hc used wcccssl’l~lIv 1’~~ directly through ;L hascfward hc;rting system or
4cjlllC I\ pC\ cll’CcN~ling. In arid pitI?\ ~J!‘tllc coun- hc sent to the htxt storage tank. The main dis-
tr>. Ior ~uan~plc. coc~l ntght air can hc hllwn ~~dvtintit~t’ is the high ( 130°F to Ic)O”F) water
through ii r(bcC,hctl and the co~,liic\\ 5tiwcd f’or tcnlperaturcs. The higher the \vatcr tcmpcratute
1la> t1111c ll\C used, the lower the overall cfticiency of’ the
I‘hc nlcthc~il of di~trihutin~ heat or ~~~~lnc~s s\ll;lr hcatins systt’m. Stcitnl hcatq syst~n~+ arc’
to the l-o~wt4 Itl;i! help ~cw dctcmiinc Iihich $CllCKl!lY incc~~npatihle with solar collccticw he,
11uId\ to u\c. f-clr~xxl-air circui;ltlcN~ i\ ii1041 c‘~bin- c;iusc of the poor cjpcrating cfficicncics ol‘ col-
ptll~le \+ Ill1 ;iir \>ktcii!s. fG)rccd-air cx~llcctors Icctrws ;It those high tcnipcraturt3 (with the
ktorc their heat in hin4 lillcd \iith roc.h4. C\‘hcn cuccpticjn of‘ the niort’ txpcnsivc concentrating
the hour calls for hciit. rooiii air I\ hlrw 11through ;Illtl c\~;lCUatcd tlthc collect~ws). Bllt IllilIIy de-
the njchhin 10 ilcli\cr the heat to the I!\ inp S~;ICCS. si~iicrs arc illstilllillg liquid systems IhiIt cir-
f3ut Iorcctl-air dcli\,cry \> 4tctils ciiii ;1140Iw tidal culittc their fluid through polyhutylcnc tubes in
Li Ith Iicfuid scalar cx~llcc.t~w\. ~‘;iirII or C.CN)I ~;ltcl concrctc floors. I‘hc concrt’tc stores the hcilt and
1rcwl the \t(jr;t!:C t;lnh IS Pascal thrcwsh f’;u-coil radiates it to the living space. m3~ active-
units or hc;tt cuchanycr4. \i her-c the air hlou n ~h;ir~~:passiv~-ilischitrF~ systems xc htxxwiinp
;tc’ro\\ thcnt i\ hcatctl or coc~lcd ;tld deli\ crcd wry popular since they dlm’t require the higher
to tflc hc~llsc. k~~iiilsc 01. the hot or cold ~fr;if’ts tcmpcr;tturcs thitt lxtscho;trd hwting systems dc-
that occur. I~wccLair hc;iting and co~\liiig \b\- Illand.
90
COMPONENT OPTIONS FOR ACl’TVE HEATING SYSTEMS
Oil and other liquids or Large tanks of water Forced convection past
phasechange materials or othnr liquids water-to-air heat
exchangers
or heat pumps
The amount of space allotted to heat storage velocities are necessary. Both alternatives are
is often a citicaf factor in the choice of fluids. usually expensive. and the latter can be very
lintil phase-change materials are cheap and re- uncomfortable.
liable, the mam choices for heat storage are Climate rnay dictate the choice of tluid. In
water and rock. Water tanks occupy from one cold climates. where a house may require only
third to one half the volume of rock beds for heating, air systems could he the most likely
the same amount of heat storage. This fact alone choice. When a liquid system is subject to freez-
may dictate the choice of a liquid system. The ing conditions. an antifreeze and water solution
options available for collection. storage. and may be necessary. An alternative is to drain the
distribution of heat are summarized in the ac- water from the collector when the temperatures
companying chart. approach freezing.
A choice of heat transfer fluids is available First costs for materials and installation are
for residences-but not for larger buildings. The also a factor. Storage and heat exchangers (or
larger the solar-heated building. the greater the the lack of them) can cost less for air systems.
amount of heat that must travel long distances. Local labor economics often favor the instal-
If the fluid temperature is kept low to increase lation of air ducts over water pipes. But don’t
collector efficiency. either a heat pump is needed underestimate the cost of fans and automatic
!a raise the delivery fluid temperature. or more dampers.
fluid must be circulated to provide enough heat Air systems can be cheaper to maintain be-
to the building. Liquid heat delivery is better cause air leaks are nowhere near as destructive
suited to large buildings because piping occu- as water leaks. Antifreeze solutions in liquid
pies less valuable space than ductwork. For air systems deteriorate and must be changed every
to do a comparable job. large ducts or rapid air two years. True enough. the cost of changing
91
The New Solar
antifreeze in cars and trucks is minimal. but ;L from the house to the collector. heated by the
residential liquid-type solar heating system re- sun. and fan-forced into the room. The only
quires up IO SO rinws as much antifreeze as a heat storage container is the fabric of the house
car. Air systems. on the other hand. can be more itself-and the heavier it is. the better. The fan
costly to operate than liquid systems because operates when the collector temperature is warmer
more electrical power is required to move heat than that inside the house. It shuts off when the
with air than with water. collector cools in the late afternoon or when
In all Huid transport systems. the network ot room temperatures become unbearably hot. The
ducts and piping should be kept simple. Pipes more massive the house. the more heat it can
or ducts should k wdl insulated and as sijort store before temperatures get out of hand. and
;I\ pohsiblc. the longer it can go without backup heating.
Thi\ type of sys!em eliminates the controls,
ductwork, and storage unit of the more expen-
AlK SYS’lXM DESIGNS
sivc systems. and i5 becoming very popular.
I’hc very 4mpks1 active solar heating system Another simple active system delivers solar
has collector\ that functicrr only nhcn the sun heated air to ;L shallow rod storage bin jud
is shining and the house needs hritt. Air is ducted kneath the house Hoor. Heat can tlou up to
NO HEPr NEMD
IN k%DMS
COuECTOQ
When the sun shines, the collectur heats the storage. Storage is hypassed if the rooms call for he&
WEQT NtXDED
1 I
When the sun isn’t shining:. stored heat is delivered to the rooms as needed. If there is
no heat in storage, the furnace comes on.
92
Space Heating and Cooling
93
The New Solar Home Book
needed to circulate the water through the two don’t need glass or plastic covers, they are less
heat transport loops. expensive than collectors that produce higher
A somewhat more complex system is illus- temperatures for space heating, cooling. and
trated in the second diagram. Because of the domestic hot water.
threat of freezing. a water-glycol solution cir- Because the pool water can be very corrosive
culates through the collector and surrenders its when proper pH and chlorine levels aren’t main-
solar heat to a heat exchanger immersed in the tained, polybutylene or PVC plastic collectors
storage tank. Heat is distributed to the rooms are recommended more often for open-loop sys-
by a warm air heating system that uses a fan to tems than copper collectors. They are more re-
blow cool room air past a water-to-air heat ex- sistant to corrosion, but less resistant to ultraviolet
changer. Cold inlet water from a city main or radiation. Closed-loop systems-where treated
well pump passes through yet another heat ex- water or antifreeze is spearated from the pool
changer immersed in the storage tank. This water water by a heat exchanger-are recommended
is preheated before it travels to the conventional for metal collectors to avoid corrosion. But the
hot water heater. This type of system can be closed-loop system can be less efficient and more
si/.ed only slightly larger than a solar DHW expensive since it requires an extra pump and
system for each fan-coil unit connected to it. heai exchanger.
An active solar energy system can be much Most solar swimming pool heating systems
more involved than these simplified diagrams have :lpen loops and use the swimming pool’s
indicate. Additional pipes. controls. and valves existing filtration pump. When the collectors are
arc required for the various modes of operation. hot enough. the differential control signals a
Each heat exchanger degrades the overall per- diverter valve to s(:nd the pool water through
formancc of the system. The use of a heat ex- the co,~tors before returning to the pool. The
changer substantially increases the collector diverter valve i\ located after the tilter so th:lt
operating trmperrrture and lowers its cfliciency. only clean water passcq through the collectcr:s.
The greater the number of heat exchangers in Closed-loop systems have an extra pump to cir-
a system. the lower the collector etliciency. Even culatc heat transfer fluid. and use the filtration
more pumps. t’ans. and heat exchangers are pump lo circulate pool water only.
necdcd than shown in the diagrams if solar ah- PV-controlled systems are available for pool
sorption cooling is desired. heating. At a preset time in the morning. pool
water begins circulating through the filter. When
the intensity of the sunlight reaches a preset
SWIMMING POOL HEATING level. the PV panel signals the controller to
divert water through the collectors. When pool
Solar collccton can be used to heat swimming water reaches a preset temperature. the diverter
pool wutcr too. For outdoor swimming pools. valve bypasses the collectors and sends the water
inexpensive unglalcd collectors can extend the straight back to the pool. If pool water drops
swimming season carlicr into the spring and below the desired temperatrqre. the diverter valve
later in the f4l. How much longer you’ll be sends the u*dter bsck through the collectors. At
able to swim depends on how cold ir is in your the end of every day. when the sunlight drops
arca. Glazed collectors can be used in freezing to a preset level. the valve diverts the pool wa!er
climates to heat water year-round for indoor back to the pool filtration loop again. Finall; at
hwiniming pools. a preset time. the circulation pump turns off.
e)ngla/.ed plastic or metal collectors perform In hot-arid climates. the cycle can be re-
well because they operate at low temperatures, versed IO cool the pool during the summer. Pool
usually in ranges that are only IO to 20°F above water is circulated through unglazed collectors
the \ummcr outdoor temperature. Since the) at night to radiate the heat to the night sky. A
eating and Cooling
COLLECTORS
30LAR LOOP
LTER
n PUMP
DIVERTER ,
VALVE/
95
The New Solar Home Book
Photovoltaic panels, that convert solar en- Warm air or water from storage is cooled as it
ergy to electricity, are also being used to control circulates past a surface exposed to the night
and pump solar systems. The photovoltaic panel sky. The cooled fluid returns to the storage con-
turns the pump on when solar insolation reaches tainer, which is cooled in the process. The next
a certain level and turns it off when it falls below day the storage is used to absorb heat from the
another level. house.
Solar collectors can provide the heat needed
by an absorption cooling device-making so-
PERFORMANCE AND COST lar-powered air conditioners a distinct possibil-
ity. An absorption cooling unit uses two working
The tradeoff between performance and cost is fluids-an absorbent such as water, and a re-
crucial to the design of any solar energy system. frigerant such as ammonia. Solar heat from the
The performance of a system is measured by collector boils the refrigerant out of the less
the amount of energy it can save a household volatile absorbent. The refrigerant condenses
per year. The dollar value of the energy saved and moves through a cooling coil inside the
is then compared with the initial (and operating) room. Here it vaporizes again, absorbing heat
costs of the system. The initial costs must not from the room air. The refrigerant vapor is then
get so high that they can never be recouped over reabsorbed in the absorbent, releasing heat into
the life of the system. One doesn’t have to be cool water or the atmosphere.
quite as careful in the design of conventional Unfortunately, most absorption cooling de-
heating systems because the fuel costs are far vices work best with fluid temperatures between
and away the major heating expense. But the 250°F and 300°F. The lowest possible working
initial costs of an active solar heating system fluid temperature that can be used is about
are usually so high that more than IO years of l8O”F-where flat-plate collectors have sharply
trouble-free operation are needed before the en- reduced efficiencies. And the collectors have to
ergy savings make it a good investment. operate at temperatures about 15°F to 20°F above
this lower limit.
If 210°F water is supplied by a collector. the
SOLAR COOLING working fluids will receive solar heat at 180°F
and the water will return to the collector at 200°F.
Active solar energy systems can also cool a On a hot summer day. a square foot of collector
house during the summer. And the sun is usu- might deliver 900 Btu-or about 40 percent of
ally shining the brightest when cooling is needed the solar radiation hitting it. About 450 Btu will
most. The hottest months and times of day occur be removed from the interior air, so that a 600-
at times of nearly peak solar radiation. Systems square-foot collector can provide a daytime heat
that provide both heating ~lnd cooling can op- removal capacity of about 270,000 Btu or 30.000
erate the year round-with additional fuel sav- Btu per hour.
ings and a shorter payback period. Solar collectors designed for absorption cool-
Solar cooling seems paradoxical. How is it ing systems are more expensive than those used
that a heat source can be used to cwol a house? only for winter heating. But substantial fuel sav-
One answer is that solar energy is also a source ings are possible if the same collector can be
of power that can move room air in ways that used for both purposes. Concentrating collec-
enhance comfort. tors and evacuated-tube collectors are particu-
Substantial cooling can be obtained by using larly well suited to absorption cooling because
nocturnal radiation to cool the storage container they can supply high temperatures at relatively
at night. Warm objects radiate their heat to the high efficiency. Almost all absorption cooling
cooler night sky-particularly in arid climates. equipment requires liquid collectors.
96
eating and Cooling
Complete packages are available that com- cooling cycles are not solar, but first costs are
bine solar space heatmg and domestic hot water, lower for the whole system since it comes as a
and evaporative and desiccant cooling. The manufactured unit.
Just like window uir conditioners and heat pumps, The less ~~oiatiieabsorbent remuins a liquid
un uhsorption cooling device uses the ewpo- and returns to the absorber. The refrigerant
rution of u fluid refrigerant to remo\v heurfrom liquid returns to the evaporating coils-where
the uir or wuter being cooled. But window uir it evaporates and cools the room uir. complet-
cw1ditiorter.s und heut pumps use /urge yuun- ing rhe cycle.
tiries of ektricity to compress this iwporuti~d Absorption cooling devices cun use hot fluid
jiltid so thur ir cvmd~v~st~.s rrnd releuws this hear *from u soiur collector to boil the refrigerant
lo rhe ’ ‘out.sid~~ . ’ ’ The condensed jhki then w- from the absorbent. U~~fortunatel~. most ab-
twn.s to th4 rlwpwxting cwi1.sfor trnothi>rcyie. .sorption cooling devices work best \rith fluid
In un ui~.sorption cooling cyie. (hi> PINTO- temprrutures behveen 250°F and 300°F. Fiat-
ruted wj-iglwmt is ubsorbed in a ,SPCO~I~ fluid piutc cwlitwors ure inejficient at such high tem-
l*~liir~d the *‘ub.sorbwt. ” The rcwiting solution perutwes, but wnctwtruting and elwc.lctrttJd-tlrbp
is pirmprd to rhr ’ ‘ril-SrnPrcrtor’ ’ by (I !ow-pohw m’iemws can prodme thestj ~en~peraturesPNS-
i?ttitll). Here. u .sourct~of’ heut- \r*hich cut1 bt’ ily . [f’rheir c0.st.sund cwmpit~si~ cun be brought
&J.s.sii,fiwi or .soiur twergy-di.stii1.s thr w/i-ig- down. tht>Fmu! somrdtry jind un upplicvrtio,l in
crunt ji-om the soirrtirvi. soiur ubsorption cooling.
98
Liquid Flat Plate Collectors
99
The New Solar Home Book
PARALLEL
ber of independent collector panels. a series- every surface struck by sunlight. With almost
parallel network is your best bet. In any net- all liquid systems now in use. however. the
work. the exterior piping should he at least I liquid is channelled through or past the plate.
inch in diameter and well-insulated. Many col- Heat must be conducted to these channels from
lectors are available with integral top and bot- those parts of the absorber that are not touching
tom headers. Connections are made directly the fluid. If the conductivity of the plate is not
between collectors, reducing pipe costs and heat high enough. the temperatures of those parts
loss. will rise, and more heat will escape from the
The pluml>ing configuration most often used collector-lowering its efficiency. To reduce
is the reverse-return method. that follows the this heat loss. the absorber plate will have to
lirst-in. last-out rule. The first collector to re- be thicker or the channels more closely spaced.
ceive liquid from storage is the last connected With a-metal of high conductivity such as cop-
to the return to storage. per. the plate can be thinner and the channels
spaced further apart. To obtain similar perform-
ance. an aluminum plate would have to be twice
ABSORBER PLATES as thick and a steel sheet nine times as thick as
a copper sheet.
Absorber plates are usually made of copper or The accompanying graph illustrates the var-
aluminum. But plastics are taking over the low- iation in absorber efficiency (the “efficiency
temperature applications. such as swimming pool factor” gauges the deviation from optimum)
heating systems. with tube spacing for various types and thick-
A metal need not be used for the absorber nesses of metals. Cost rises jkster than effi-
plate if the liquid comes in direct contact with ciency for increasing thickness of copper.
100
Liquid Flat Plate Collectors
100
ABSORBER PLATE
Type Thicknezs
Copper 0.040”
Aluminum 0.040”
90 Copper 0.020”
Aluminum 0.020”
Steel 0.040”
Steel 0.020”
60
TUBE DIAMETER = %”
I 1 I 1 I 1
5c
1 2 3 4 5 6 I
TUBE SPACING, INCHES (center to center)
The variation in collector efficiency with tube spacing and absorber type.
Optimum cost and efficiency is achieved with d&ion. But there is no such substance. and we
a 0.0 IO-inch-thick copper sheet with tubes spaced usually settle for Hat black paints. with both OL
at intervals of 4 IO h inches. Copper has become and E close to I.
the most popular absorber choice in manufac- There are a few substances called .sdrctir*c
tured collectors. s~rrfir~s which ha\ e a high absorptance (greater
than .OS) and low emittance (less than .7). Se-
ABSORBER COATINGS lective surfaces absorb most of the incident sun-
AND COVER PLATES light but emit much less thermal racliqtion than
ordinary black surfaces at the same temperature.
The primary function of the absorber surface or Collectors with selective absorber surfaces at-
coating is to maximize the percentage of sun- tain higher collection efticiencies at higher tem-
light retained by the absorber plate. Any surface peratures than normal collectors. But they are
reflects ~rd absorbs different amounts of the necessary for systems which operate at tem-
sunlight striking it. The percentage it absorbs peratures below I W’F.
is called its crhsorptcrrtw (a). Enritttrncx~(EJ is The absorber coating should be chosen IO-
the tendency of a surface to emit longwave ther- gether with the collector cover plate.They have
mal radiation. An ideal absorb,:r coating would similar functions-keeping the solar heat in--
have CL = I and E = 0. so tha: it could absorb and complement each other in a well-designed
all sunlight striking it and emit no thermal ra-. collector. For example. a selective surface with
The New Solar Home Book
*Commercial processes. (Source: Duftie and Be&man. Soiur Ener,cp Thermal Processes.)
a single cover plate is usually more efficient of glass (at vertical incidence) is transmitted. It
than flat black paint with two cover plates. The is stable at high temperatures and relatively
accompanying graph compares the performance scratch-and weather-resistant. Glass is readily
of Ilat black and selective surfaces for one and available and installation techniques are famil-
two cover plates. For collector temperatures be- iar to most contractors.
low 150°F. a second cover plate may be su- High transmittance solar glass with a low iron
pertluous. blrt for temperatures above I 80°F (for content is used almost exclusively today in com-
process heat or absorption cooling) a second mercial solar collectors. Viewed on edge. the
cover plate or a selective surface may be nec- greener the glass. the higher the iron content
essary. For temperatures below IOO”F. a sclcc- and the lower the transmittance.
tivc surfxc performs no better than flat black Alternatives to glass include plastic and fi-
paint. berglass-reinforced polyester. Plastics. many of
C’o\w /~/tr~c~sarc transparent sheets that sit them lighter and stronger than glass. have a
about an inch above the abscjrber. Shortwave slightly higher solar ttxnsmittance because many
sunlight penetrates the cover plates and is con- are thin films. Unfortunately, plastics transmit
vcrted to heat when it strikes the absorber. The some of the longwave radiation from the ab-
cover plates retard the escape of heat. Thq sorber plate. Longwave transmittance as high
absorb thermal r&iation from the hot absorber. as X0 percent has been measured for some very
returning some of it to the collector. and create thin films. The increased solar transmittance
a dead air space to prt3ent convecticjn currents mitigates this effect somewhat-as does the use
from stealing heat. Commonly used transparent of a selective surface. But good thermal traps
i:latcriuls include glass. libcrcelass-reinti,rc~d become very important at higher collector tem-
polyester. and thiu plastics. They vary in their peratures. and many plastics can’t pass muster
ability tn transmit sunlight ancl trap thermal ra- under these conditions.
diation. They also vary in wtaight, east of him- Almost all plastics deteriorate after continued
dling. clurability. and ctjst. exposure to the ultraviolet rays of the sun. Thin
Glass is clearly the favorite. It has very pooch films are particularly vulnerable to both sun and
solar tnlnsmittance and is fairly opaque to ther- wind fatigue. Most are unsuitable for the outer
mal radiation. Depending OK. the iron content cover but could be used for the inner glazing.
of the glass. between XS and 9h percent of the with glass as the outer glazing. Some of the
sunlight striking the sur:‘;Lce of l/X-inch sheet thicker plastics yellow and decline in solar
102
Liquid Flat Plate Collectors
: 40-
:
u
;
k 30-
;
w
INSULATION
2
2 70- Insulation is used behind the absorber to cut
hehi losses out the back. If the collector is in-
I”- tegrated into the wall or roof. heat lost out the
back is transferred directly into the house. This
0 0 ! 1
can be an advantage during winter but not in
6 I3 10 1‘J 7 4 6
511l.11 ry,~,~~~
the summer. Except in areas with cool summer
TIME
temperatures, the back of the absorber should
Flat-plate collector performance of be insulated to minimize this heat loss and raise
selective and flat black absorber collector el’ticiency. Six inches of high temper-
coatings. ature liberglass insulation or its equivalent is
adequate for roof collectors, and as little as 4
transmittance. even though they remain struc- inches is sufficient for vertical wall collectors
turally sound. Other plastics like Plexigl:iss’““’ it‘ they are attached to a living space. Where
and acrylics soften at high temperatures and the collector sits on its own support structure
remain permanently deformed. In dirty or dusty separate from the house an K- I7 back and K-X
regions, the low scratch resistance of many plas- sides should be the minimum.
tics make them a poor choice. Hard. scratch- Choose an insulation made without a binder.
resistant coatings are available at an increased Tine binder will vaporize at high temperatures
cost. Newer plastics are being introduced with and condense on the underside of the glaling
special coatings to protect against ultraviolet when it ~~~1s. cutting transmittance. The in-
degradation. with limited warranties up to IO sulation should be separated from the absorber
years against yellowing. scratching. and hail plate by at least a j/d-inch air gap and a layer
hlllilg~. ol’ rellective foil. This foil renects thermal ra-
Additional cover plates provide extra barriers diation back to the absorber-thereby lowering
to retard the outward few of heat and insure the temperaturt: ot’ the insulation and increasing
higher collector temperatures. Double-glared collector et’licicncy. Most collectors use a foil-
commercially available collectors most com- t’aced cellular plastic insulation at the back of
monly use two layers of glass. The more cover the absorber. separated from it with a layer of
plates. the greater the fraction of sunlight ab- binderless tiberglass and a layer of foil. Both
sorbed and rellected by them-and the smaller insulations are made spc~(fic*trll~ for high tem-
the percentage of solar energy reaching the ab- peratures because the collector could stagnate
sorber surface. above 300°F.
In general. the lower the temperature re- The perimeter of the absorber must aIs0 be
quir :d t’rom the collector. the fewer the cover insulated to reduce heat losses at the edges.
plates. For example. solar collectors that heat Temperatures alon, o the perimeter of the ab-
swimming pools usually, don’t require iI cover sorber are gcncrally lower than those at the mid-
plate. For co&r climates. additional cover plates dle. So less insulation can be used. but it too
may be needed. To obtain the same collector should be made for high temperatures in case
performance. for exanlplc. IUO covers may be of Stil@liltiOll.
103
The New Solar Home Book
105
The New Solar Home Book
106
Air Flat-Plate Collectors
To create turbulent flow on either level. the at each bounce. oriented properly. its absorp-
absorber surface should be irregular-not tance is higher than that of a flat metal sheet
smooth. Finned plate and “vee” corrugations coated with the same substance. But the in-
create macroscopic turbulence by breaking up crease in the emitted thermal radiation is small
the air flow-forcing the air to move in and by comparison.
out. back and forth. up and down. To create
microscopic turbulence. the surface should be
rough or coarse. with as many tine, sharp edges OTHER DESIGN FACTORS
as possible. Meshed surfaces and pierced metal
plates do the trick. Air leakage. though not as damaging as water
But increased air turbulence means a greater leakage in a liquid collector. should be kept to
pressure drop across the collector. 1‘00 many a minimum. Because the solar heated air is un-
surfaces and too much restriction of air flow der some pressure, it will escape through the
will require that a larger fan be used to push tiniest crack. Prevention of air leakage helps to
the air. The added electrical energy required to raise the collector efficiency. Take special care
drive the fan may cancel out the extra solar heat to prevent leakage through the glazing frames.
gains. By using large sheets instead of many small
panes you can reduce the number of glazing
ABSORBCCR COATINGS AND COVER joints and cut the possibility of leakage. And
PLATES just as storm windows cut the air infiltration
into your home, second and third cover plates
While considerutions for absorber coatings. se- reduce air leakage from a collector. Air leakage
Icctivt. surfLlces. and cover plates are similar for is the biggest factor in decaying efficiency and
air and liquid collectors. there are a few dif- occurs throughout the system: collectors, ducts,
fercnceh. One of the primarq drawbacks of a and storage.
non-metalic absorber. such as in a plastic thin For Type I and II collectors, the turbulent
him collector. is the extreme difficulty of ap- flow through the air space in front of the ab-
plying a selective surl&e to it. Until this tech- sorber results in somewhat larger convection
nology improves. metal absorbers are preferred heat loss to the glass than is the norm with liquid
in applications where a selective surface is de- collectors. Thermal radiation losses from the
sirable. Low-cost. eflicient air collectors will absorber are therefore a smaller part of the over-
be readily available if selective surt’aces can all heat loss. The absorber in a Type I collector
ever bc applied to non-metal absorbers with ease. becomes relatively hot and loses a lot of hea1
As with liquid collectors, the use of a selec- out the back. so more insulation is required.
tive surface is about equivalent to the addition But in Type I! and III collectors. a turbulent air
of a second cover plate. For Type I and II col- tlow cools the back side somewhat and less
lectors. in which air tlows between the absorber insulation may be required.
and the glazing. the addition of a second cover One drawback of air as a heat transfer fluid
plate may be preferred because it creates a dead is its low heat capacity. The specific heat of air
air space in front of the absorber. is 0.24 and its density is about 0.075 pounds
The use of a “vee” corrugated absorber plate per cubic foot under normal conditions. By
is somewhat analogous to the use of a selective comparison, water has a specific heat of I .O and
surfiice. The vees create more surface area in a density of 62.5 pounds per cubic foot. For
the same square footage of collector area. It the same temperature rise, a cubic foot of water
also increases the overall solar absorption (and can store almost 3500 times more heat than a
hence the “effective” absorptance) because di- cubic foot of air. It takes 260 pounds. or about
rect radiation striking the vees is retlected sev- 3500 cubic feet of air, to transport the same
eral times, with a little more absorption occuning amount of heat as a cubic foot of water.
107
The New Solar Home Book
Because of this low heat capacity, large spaces costs for materials. For flat. sheet-metal ab-
through which the air can move are needed- sorber surfaces. the passageway usually is l/2
even in the collector itself. Air passageways in to I inch. Passageways ranging from t-112 to
collectors range frcm l/2 to 6 inches thick. The 2-l/2 inches are standard for large collectors
larger the air space. the lower the pressure drop, using natural convection or having unust,ally
but the poorer the heat transfer from absorber long (more than IS feet) path lengths-the dis-
to air stream. And larger passages mean higher tance from the supply duct to the return duct.
108
Corr~vatr~rtin!:~ and focwsing collecmrs may sun so that the absorber remains at the focus.
someday emerge as favorites. These collectors The mechanical devices needed to accomplish
use one or more retlecting surfaces to concetrate this tracking can be expensive and failure-prone.
sunlight onto a small absorber area. Collector But the higher the temperatures and efficiencies
performance is enhanced by the added sunlight possible with a focusing collector are sometimes
hitting the absorber. worth this added cost and complexity for high-
Depending upon their total area and orien- temperature applications.
tation, Hat reftectors can direct SO to IO0 percent
more sunlight at the absorber. Focusing collec-
tors only retlect direct sunlight onto the ab- COMPOUND PARABOLIC
sorber. Concentrating collectors direct and diffuse CONCENTRATOR
radiation. so they also work well in cloudy or
hazy weather-when diffuse sunlight is coming The compound parabolic concentrator was de-
from the entire sky. veloped at the Argonne National Laboratory by
physicist Dr. Roland Winston. His collector uses
an array of parallel reflecting troughs to con-
PARABOLIC COLLECTORS centrate both direct and diffuse solar radiation
onto a very small absorber-usually blackened
Parabolic collectors have ;r rellecting surface copper tubes running along the base of each
XYU-IYYI to direct incoming sunlight onto I very trough. The two sides of each trough are sec-
small area. A deep parabolic surface (a Hy ball tions of parabolic cylinder-hence the name
hit to tile outlield traces out a parabolic path) “compound parabolic concentrator” or CPC.
can focus sunlight on an area as small as a Depending upon the sky condtion and collector
hlackcned pipe with tluid running through it. orientation. a three- to eight-fold concentration
Such a focusing collector will perform ex- of solar energy is possible. The collector per-
tremely well in direct sunlight but will not work forms at SO percent efficiency while generating
at all under cloudy or hazy skies because only temperatures 150°F above that of the outside
a few of the rays coming from the entire bowl air.
of the sky can be caught and reflected onto the The real beauty of the CPC collector is its
blackened pipe. And even in sunny weather, ability to collect diffuse sunlight on cloudy or
the retlecting SUifaCC must pivot to follow the hazy days. Virtually all the rays entering a trough
109
The New Solar
PARABOLIC
REFLECTOR
~ARABOLI C
DISH
-COLD FLUID IN
@OUC R&t=ECTOR
PARABOLIC TROUcjH
Typical concentrating collector with parabolic reflectors. Direct rays from the sun
are focused on the black pipe, absorbed and converted to heat.
EVACUATED-TUBE COLLECTORS
110
Other Collector Types
SELECTIVE
SURFACE
SELECTIVE SURFACE
COLD FLUID IN
efficient Hat-plate collector would have a vac- Another design, called the heat-pipe evacu-
uum between its absorber plate and the cover ated tube. has a closed metal tube and plate
sheet. The vacuum would eliminate the con- inside the evacuated glass tube. The end of the
vective currents that steal heat from the absorber metal tube, which extends just beyond the glass
and pass it to the cover plate. which conducts tube, protrudes into the header across the top
it through to the outside. Better still would be of the collector. The refrigerant heat transfer
an absorber with a vacuum on all six sides. fluid in the metal tube vaporizes when warmed
But vacuums cannot be created easily in a by the sun, rises to the top of the tube. and
rectangular box without atmospheric pressure condenses after conducting its heat to the water
pushing in the cover. Researchers years ago passing through the header. The condensed liq-
applied the fluorescent tube manufacturing uid falls down the side of the tube, to boil again.
process to make solar collectors. One glass tube The 3- to 4-inch diameter evacuated tubes
is piaced within another and the space between are arranged side-by-side connected at one end
them is evacuated-like a Thermos”?: bottle. to a header or heat exchanger (depending on
The inner tube has a selective coating on its the design) and supported at the other end.
outer surface. and an open-ended copper tube Evacuated-tubes are available for liquid, air, or
inside it, as shown in the figure. Air or water phase-change systems. When pitched properly,
enters the copper tube from the header, and is they can even be used in drainback systems.
forced out the open end of the copper tube. No matter what the fluid or design, the collec-
gathering heat absorbed in the inner glass tube tors drastically cut heat loss from the absorber,
before it returns to the header. and can have higher annual efficiencies than
Most of the recent evacuated tube designs Hat-plate collectors in cold, cloudy climates or
feature a U-shaped copper tube with a small in higher temperature applications.
selective-surface copper absorber. The copper Because the “cover plate” on an evacuated
plate absorbs the sun’s energy and passes it to tube is a cylinder. less sunlight is reflected over
the heat transfer Huid flowing through the U- the whole day than from a flat sheet of glass.
shaped tube. And since many of the collector designs feature
111
The New Solar
HOT
WATER
OUT
SURFACE
COPPER FIN
COPPER U -TUB
Subsequent evacuated tube design.
EVACUATED TUBE
Heat pipe evacuated tube.
flat or CPC-like reflectors underneath the tubes. lower heat losses aren’t as important. This re-
they can collect diffuse as well as direct sun- veals the secret of concent&ing collectors: it
light. This means they can collect energy on isn’t their ability to cone ntrate energy that’s
days when flat-plate collectors may be lying important. but the fact t’rat they have such small
/
dormant. heat losses.
/
The two major Drawbacks to evacuated-tube
Whether or not you need an evacuated-tube d
collectors are thprr high cost and tube breakage.
collector depends on your local climate and the Harder glass ‘and better manufacturing proc-
temperature needed. In side-by-side tests, evac- esses and d& signs have reduced the second, but
uated-tubes with CPC reflectors outperformed production volumes are achieved,
flat-plates during the winter, and performed about be more expensive than flat-plate col-
the same during the warm months, when their
112
Other Collector Types
*..
123
The performance of flat-plate collectors has been when sunlight strikes a single sheet of glass at
studied extensively. Most researchers try to pre- right angles, about IO percent is reflected or
dict the collector efficieny-the percentage of absorbed. The maximum possible efficiency of
solar radiation hitting the collector that can be a flat-plate glazed collector is therefore about
extracted as useful heat energy. A knowledge 90 percent. Even more sunlight is reflected and
of the efficiency is very important in sizing a absorbed when it strikes at sharper angles-and
collector. If you know the available solar energy the collector efticiency is further reduced. Over
at your site, the average collector efficiency, a full day, less than 80 percent of the sunlight
und your heating needs, you’re well on your will actually reach the absorber and be con-
way to determining the size of your collector. verted to heat.
The collector efficiency depends upon a num- Further decreases in efficiency can be traced
ber of variables-the temperature of the col- to heat escaping from the collector. The heat
lector and outside air, the incoming temperature transfer from absorber to outside air is very
of the heat transfer fluid, the rates of insolation complex-involving radiation, convection, and
and Huid Row through the collector, and the conduction heat flows. While we cannot hope
collector construction and orientation. By ma- to analyze all these processes independently, we
nipulating the variables, a designer can improve C’UII describe some important factors, including:
overall collector perfomrance. Unfortunately,
few gains in efficiency are made without paying * average absorber temperature
some penalty in extra cost. Beyond the obvious * wind speed
requirements of good collector location and ori- * number of cover plates
entation. many improvments in efficiency just . amount of insulation.
aren’t worth the added expense. Keep a wary
eye turned toward the expenses involved in any Perhaps you’ve already noticed that very similar
schemes you devise to improve the efficiency. factors determine the rate of heat escape from
a house!
More heat escapes frJ,m collectors having hot
absorbers than from those with relatively cool
COLLECTOR HEAT LOSSES
ones. Similarly, more heat escapes when the
A portion of the sunlight striking the collector outdoor air is cold than when it is warm. The
glazing never makes it to the absorber. Even diJ%wwce. in temperature between the absorber
I14
Collector Performance and Size
Because energy never disuppeurs. the total su- Of the total insolation the amount actually
lur energ.v received by the ubsorber eyrruls the con\.erred to heat in the absorber (H,) is re-
sum of the heat energy escaping the collecto, duced by the transmittance (represented by the
and the useful heat energy extructed from it. If Greek letter tau. or T) of the cover plates and
H, represents the rate of solar heat gain (es- by the absorptance (represented by the Greek
pressed in Btul(fi’ hr)) by the absorber, and H,. letter alpha, or a) qf the absorber. The value
is the rate of heat escupe. the’1 the rute ofusefttl of H, is further reduced (by 3 to 5 percent) b>
hea; c.dli;ciitjn (H,.) is Rivet; b!: dirt on the cover plates and by shading from
the glazing supports. Therefore, the rate of so-
H,. = H,, - H, lar heat gain in the absorber is about
Usuall! H,. and H,, are the easiest yuuntities
to cwkulate. und H, is e.rpressed as the differ- H,, = (O.%)fcx)(~)(I)
ence between them. The rate of solar heut col-
lection is easily determined by measuring the Both OLand 7 depend upon the angle at which
@cl Jaw rute (R. in lbl(fr’ hr)) und the inlet the sunlight is striking the collector. Glass and
und outlet temperatures t T,,, and T,,,,,. in “F). plastic transmit more than 90 percent of the
The solar heut e.vtructed. in Btu per square foot sunlight striking perpe,ldic.lairrl~. But d:crir:g a
of collector per hour, is then: single day, the uverage transmittunce can be as
H, = WC,,NL,,, - -I-,,,) low as 80 percent for single glass, and lower
for double glas.s. The absorptances +muterials
where C,, is the specijc heat of the ,jlrtid--I .O commonly used for collector coatings ure usu-
Btull b.fi>r wuter and 0.24 Btull b for uir. Knolc*- ~11~Setter thun 90 percent. Jf rio rudiation is
ing H,. und the rute of insolution (I), yol; can converted to heut absorbed in the collector juid.
immediuteiy culc14lute the collector q@ipng tht-n
(E, in percent):
E = IOO(H,.lI) Hc = H,, = 0.9tqaj(~j(1j
The instuntuneous qfficienc! cun be culcrc-
lured by taking this rutto ut uny selected mo- und the uveruge collector elfJicrenc:v
(&jr a whole
ment. Or an uveruge tlfjcienq muy be determined dq) izvuld still be less Ihun 80 percent. Un-
by dividing the totul heut collected o\*er u cer- fortunately. there are large heat losses from u
tain time period (suy un hour) by the totul in- flat-plate collector, and efJiciencies rarely get
.solution during thut period. above 70 percent.
and the outdoor air, AT = Tahb - T ,,,,,, is what collector to prevent this occurence. They carry
drives the overall heat flow in that direction. away the accumulated heat and keep the ab-
The heat loss from a collector is roughly pro- sorber relatively cool. The higher the fluid flow
portional to this difference. rate, the lower the absorber temperature and the
As the absorber gets hotter. a point is even- higher the collector efficiency.
tually reached where the heat loss from a col- Some fluids cool an absorber better than oth-
lector equals its solar heat gain. At this ers. Although it has the disadvantages of freez-
equilibrium temperature, the collector effi- ing and corrosion, water is unmatched as a heat
ciency is zero- no useful heat is being col- transfer fluid. It has the advantages of low vis-
lected. Fluids are usually circulated through a cosity and an extremely high heat capacity. So-
I15
The New Solar Home Book
II6
Collector Performance and Size
centage of Possible Sunshine Maps in the ap- The effect of different insolation rates on collec-
pendix provide a suitable method for calculating tor efficiency. The outdoor air temperature is
the insolation at most sites. They are limited to assumed constant.
south-t’acing surfaces. Unless you do a little trig-
onometry. They are capable of providing good
estimates of the average insolation for any day
rool
and time. And fortunately a precise knowledge
of the insolation isn’t critical. Variations of IO
percent in the insolation will change collector
efticiency by only 3-4 percent out of a total
efficiency of 40 percent.
117
The New Solar Home Book
% INCREASE IN % INCREASE IN
COLLECTOR AREA COLLECTOR AREA
5-30%
lo-60% 30-90%
The change in area of a vertical wall collector with orientations away from true south.
The collector (shaded areas) has been sized to provide 50 percent of the winter heating
needs of a well-insulated home in Boston and Charleston.
Icctor facing ilway from true south. The graph The effect orientation has upon the required
is valid for latitudes between WN and JS’N- size of 9 collector is illustrated by two examples
almost the whole United States. if we forget in the next diagram. The vertical wrll collectors
Ala&a and Hawaii. And it applies to the coldest in all cases are sized to provide SO percent of
part ot’ the yea-from Novemhcr 21 to January the heating needs of a IOW-square-foot house
21. YOU can uw this Lgraph together with the in either Boston or Charleston. South Carolina.
Clear Day Insolation Data to get ;I rough esti- Note that southwest (or, for that matter. south-
mate of the clear day insolation on surfaces that east). orientations require an extra collector area
do not face true south. Simply multiply the data of only IO percent in Boston and 30 percent in
by the percentage appropriate to the orientation Charleston. Tilted surfaces are affected even
you have selected. less by such variations.
Collector Performance and Size
The collector tilt angle depends upon its in- MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA
tended use. A steeper tilt is needed for winter % CHANGE IN TILT
COLLECTOR AREA ANGLE
heating than for summer cooling. If a collector
will be used the year round, the angle chosen
will be a compromise. If heating and cooling
90”
needs do not hr<e equal weight, your selection
of a tilt angle should be biased toward the more
important need.
The general consensus holds that a tilt angle
of IS’ greater than the local latitude is the op-
timum for winter heating. For year-round uses, +6% 60”
the collector tilt angle should equal the local
latitude. And for maximum summer collection,
the best choice is 15” less than the latitude. But
your house won’t freeze up or boil over if you
don’t have exactly the right tilt angle. The col-
lector can be tilted 15-20” away from the op- 0% 50”
timum and still get more than 90 percent of the
maximum possible insolation.
For areas with severe winter cloudiness.
steeper tilts may be required. Sometimes ver-
tical wall collectors are a good idea. Such a
collector receives its peak insolation in the win-
+18% 40”
ter months. but gets very little in the summer.
so don’t expect to heat a swimming pool with
it. When reflections from the ground are added
to the sunlight hitting a vertical collector di- NOTES: 1. Base tilt angle = 50’.
rectly. its performance can surpass that of a 2. Operating temperature .9O”F
collector tilted at the “optimum” winter heating 3. Due South orlentatlon
angle (latitude + 15”). Clean. fresh snow has Small changes in collector size are required
the highest reflectance-87 percent-of any when the tilt angle differs from the optimum.
common surface. It can add another IS to 30
percent to the solar heat output of a vertical
collector. Other surfaces such as asphalt. gravel.
concrete. and grass have reflectances ranging
from 10 to 33 percent.
The accompanying diagram shows the rela-
SIZING THE COLLECTOR
tionship between tilt angle and collector size.
The collectors in all four cases are sized to pro- Accurate performance predictions are needed
vide 50 percent of the January heating load for for si7ing a collector. It is important to know
a typical Minneapolis home oriented true south. whether 35 or 40 percent collector efticiencies
Relatively small changes in collector size can (on the average) can be expected in any given
compensate for the reductions in solar collection month. With this knowledge and some predic-
resulting from changes to the January “opti- tions of the average daily insolation for that
mum” (50”) tilt angle. With additional sunlight month, you’ll have a good idea of how much
reflected from fallen snow. a vertical wall col- solar heat you can expect from each square foot
lector can be 14 percent smrller than the rooftop of collector. The size then follows from the
collector tilted at SO”. average monthly heat demands.
119
The New Solar ome Book
colleclor
Lze’
111:
I
OLAR HEAT AVAILABLE 2ow
But the performance of a collector is even son (late September to early May) as shown in
more difficult to predict when it is tied into an the diagram. Little heat is needed in October or
entire heating system. Although some rules of April and the bulk of the heat is needed from
thumb have emerged. the subject is still clouded December through February--just when sun-
in mystery as far as the average homeowner or light is at a premium.
builder is concerned. Site conditions. the heat- Such a house needs about 600.000 Btu on a
ing demands of the house. and specilic design day when the outside temperature averages 15°F.
choices (such as the collector tilt. the operating On a sunny day. this amount of solar heat can
temperature. and the heat siorage capacity) all be supplied by 500 square feet of a good col-
affect the average collector performance. lector. And with a 3S”F temperature rise (from
A well-designed collector might be able to 85°F to 120°F. for example). about ZOO0 gallons
collect I200 Btu per square foot on a sunny of water will absorb all of the solar heat. But
winter day. But not all of this heat will reach under crwrqy operating conditions. a square
the rooms. There will be heat losses from the foot of this collector gains only 350 Btu of us-
heat storage container. which may already be able solar heat per day-or 84.000 Btu for the
too hot to accept additional heat. There will also entire seven-month heating season. The 500
be heat lost from the ducts or pipes between the square feet of collector will supply only half of
collector and the storage tank and the rooms. the seasonal heating load of 84 million Btu.
Solar energy will be rejected during extended Contrary to what you might expect, doubling
periods of sunny weather-even if the outdoor the collector size from 500 to 1000 square feet
temperatures are quite cold. Only when the proper does rror provide 100 percent of the heating
sequence of sunny and cloudy days occurs can load. Instead. it provides about 75 percent be-
all the available solar energy be used. cause the larger collector does not work to full
Consider a 1000-square-foot house with a capacity as often as the smaller one. In this
heating demand of 12.000 Btu per degree day. particular system. the usable heat per square
or 84-million Btu in a 7000-degree-day climate. foot of collector drops from X4.000 Btu to h9.000
This demand is distributed over the heating sea- Btu because the house just cannot use the added
120
Collector Performance and Size
COLLECTOR SIZE AND SOLAR HEAT DELIVERED First the monthly output of a Hat-plate col-
-~
lector is calculated as the product of the usejitl
Collector Solar Heat Used Total Solar Heat sunshine hours in the month times the average
Size* per Square Foot Supplied per Season hourly solar heat output of the collector during
(f& of Collector MMBtu+ of Demand the month. The number of useful sunshine hours
is less than the total number of sunshine hours
‘ow 4xw x4 100% because the insolation rate is not high enough
I SW sh.ow 7s X9%
in early morning to justify collector operation.
IO00 69.0(N) 6.3 75%
S(H) x4.000 42 50% The two most influential factors that determine
the hourly solar output-the hourly insolation
*S1orage site remains fixed. +I MMBtu = I million Bw.
rate and the temperature difference between the
absorber and the outside air-change rapidly
heat in the fdll and spring. And the system must
during a single day. Therefore, we only try to
reject more heat during four or five successive
determine an UIWU,+J hourly solar output. The
days of January sunshine. Even if the storage
method outlined in “Estimating Collector Per-
silt were doubled. the system would have to
formance” is an attempt to determine the rea-
reject cxccss heat durin! the autumn and spring.
sonable mean monthly output from average
As collector size increases for a fixed heat de-
insolation rates and temperature differences.
mand. the amount of solar energy provided by
More detailed analyses are usually made using
each square fool drops because of the decreased
the F-chart computer simulations described ear-
/ocrd,/irc~or- on each additional square foot. This
lier.
is the law of’ tlirv~ir~i.d~ir~c~
rumrx~.
A simplified method for collector sizing. lies A sample calculation of mean monthly solar
somcwherc between educated guess-work and heat output is provided for iiiustrstion. The hy-
detailed analytical calculations. It is accurate to pothetical collector is sited in Boston and ori-
within 20 percent and is biased toward con- ented south at a tilt angle 0: 60”. At an average
scrvative results. Architects. designers. and operating temperature of 120°F. this col!ector
owner-huildcn often need such a “tirst-cut” has an efliciency of 38 percent and gathers 9880
c&mate of collector si/.c to proceed with their Btu per square foot during the month of Janu-
designs. ary .
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
TEMPERATURE DlFFERtNCE BETWEEN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
ABSORBER f’LATE AND OUTDOOR AIR. “F ABSORBER PLATE AND OUTDOOR AIR. “F
Performance curves for single- and double-glazed collector. Use these graphs to estimate
collector efficiency from the insolation rate and temperatures of the absorber and outdoor
air. SOCRCli Re~rc C’oppcr and Bras\ (‘11
121
The New Solar Home Book
The.following method will help you estimate the (#3); 1774 Btul(f+ day) + 7 hours/day =
average eSJiciencyand monthI! solar heat out- 253 Btul( f+hr).
put of a well-built solar collector. This method 7. Determine the average outdoor tempera-
is accurate to about 20 percent and results ;n ture (T,) during the collection period from
conservative estimates of per$ormance. A run- II2 the sum of the normal daily mcruimum
ning example is included for illustration. temperature and the normal daily average
temperaturefor the month and locale. These
I. Find the total number of hours of sunshine are uvuilable from the local weather bu-
for the month jLom the “Mean Number of reau and from the Climatic Atlus of the
Hours of Sun,hine ’ table in the appendix: UnitedStates . T(,,,, = 1/2(38”F) + (30°F)
for e.\-crmple,148 hours for Boston in Jan- = 34°F.
1iCl~. 8. Select the averuge operating temperature
7
h. Find the averuge day length,fin- the month iTc,I,.r)of the collector absorber and$nd the
from almanucs or the weather bureau; 10 difference (AT = Tcrhs- T,,,,,). In general,
hours for Boston in Junuury . you should e..ramine a runge elf possible
3. From the Clear Day Insolation tables in vdue.s for Tcrh.,.AT = 120°F - 34°F =
the appendix. calculate the number of 86°F.
’ ‘collection hours ’ per duy . For the se- 9. Refer to a performance curve *for the col-
lected collector tilt angle, this is the num- lector to determine the averuge collector
ber of hours that the insolution is greater eficienq from a knowledge of AT (#8) and
than 150 Btulft’. Count II2 hour for in- I (#6). The sumple curves provided apply
solution rutes between 100 and 1.50 Btrrl to u tube-in-plate liquid-type collector. but
.ft’; 7 hours for 4O”N lutitude und 60” tilt. they should be.fairly accurate for most,flat-
4. Determine the totul collection hours per plate collectors of moderate to good con-
month by multiplying the sunshine hours struction; average colle~*tor crfJicienc*y=
per month (#I) by the collection hours per 38 percent for a double-glazed collector.
duy (#3) and dividing by the average da! IO. Determine the averuge hourly collector
length (#2); 148 hours (7 hours) + 10 output by multiplying the a\Berage hour!\
hours = IO4 hours. insolation rate (I from #6) by the average
5. Determine the totul daily usefitl insolation, collector eficiencv (#9): 0.38(253 Btul(ft’
dejined us t!le total insorirtiotr during cul- hr)) = 96 Btul(f;? hr).
lection hours, b!: adding the hourly inso- 1I. The useful solar heat collected during the
lation rutes (from the Cleur Dq Insolution month is then the uverage hourly collector
tables) for those collection hours described output (#IO) multiplied by the number of
above; 187 + 254 + 293 + 306 + 293 collection hours (#4) for that month: 96
+ 254 + I87 = 1774 Btul(ft’ dir!). Btul(jiihr)(l04 hclurslmonth) = 9984 Btul
6. Determine the uveruge hourly insolution ft’ for Japuan, in Boston.
rate (I) during the collection period by di- This procedure should be repeated for a number
viding the total daily useful insolation (#.5) of other collector operating temperatures and
b! the number of collection hours per da> tilt angles.
122
Collector Performance and Size
OF Tilt Sep Ott Nov Dee Jan Feb Mar A pr May TOTALS
90 60° 21.700 19.630 13.780 13.080 12,480 14.640 8.000 14.720 5,225 143,255
90 900* 14.615 19.781 14.310 14.170 13.000 15.250 0.925 5,040 2.520 109.61 I
I20 60° 18.600 15.855 II.130 9.810 9.984 Il.590 4.250 I 2. I60 2,325 Il5.704
120 900* 12.700 16,006 l I.660 l I.455 10.400 12.200 8,625 3,240 I.800 88,076
140 60° 16,275 I 2,835 9.010 8.175 7.800 9.150 I I.250 10.240 9,425 94. I60
140 900* IO.lhO 12,986 9.540 9.265 8.320 9.750 5,750 2.160 I.080 69.02 I
Monthly solar output for the rest of the heat- A simplified method of calculating the col-
ing season has been calculated with the same lector size from monthly output and heating de-
method and listed in the accompanying table. mand figures is outlined in “Estimating Collector
The output of a vertical collector (including 20 Size.” The monthly output tigures are those of
percent ground reflectance) is included in the our hypothetical collector, tilted at 60” and op-
table. as are the monthly outputs when 90°F and erating at an absorber temperature of 120°F. The
140°F operating temperatures are allowed. The heating demand figures are for a Boston home
seasonal output is the sum of all these monthly of 1000 square feet. that loses 9500 Btu per
tigures. In your design work. it’s extremely use- degree day. In this particular example. we strive
ful to consider a number of alternative collector to provide 50 percent of the seasonal heat de-
tilts and operating temperatures-instead of mands of the house. If the initial guess at the
proceeding single-mindedly with a precon- appropriate collector size does not provide the
ccived design. Almost every collector operates desired percentage, it can be revised up or down
over a range of temperatures and its efficiency and the calculations repeated until the desired
varies in a corresponding fashion. It’s irrstruc- results are achieved.
tive to determine the solar heat collection for a The final size of the collector should reflect
few of these conditions. other factors besides heating demand-for ex-
In general, the larger the percentage of house ample, the size of the heat storage container,
heating you want your collector to supply, the the solar heat gain through the windows. avail-
more diffcult it is to estimate its size using these able roof or wall area, and cost.
simplified methods. The actual sequence of sunny
and cloudy days becomes more important as the
percentage of solar heating increases. If a full
week of cold, cloudy days happens to occur in
COMPARING COLLECTORS
January, your collector (or storage) would have
to be enormous to insure 30 percent solar heat- Some states require that manufactured solar cot-
ing. But good approximations of collector size lectors be tested and rated on how much thermal
can be made for systems that are designed to energy they produce. The Solar Rating and Cer-
supply 60 percent or less of the seasonal heating tification Corporation (SRCC) is a non-profit
needs. organization incorporated in 1980 to develop
123
1 he New Solar Home Book
The following procedure helps you to estimate MMBtu) (100,OOOBtu) f 115,704 Btulft’ =
the collector size needed to supply a desired 277.2 f?.
percentage of the yearlv_ heating demand. To 5. Multiply this collector area by the entries in
use it, you need the monthly output per square column A and enter the resulting solar heat
foot of collector, as calculated in “Estimating collected in column D.
Collector Performcnce.” The Boston example 6. Subtract entries in column D from those in
is continued here for illustration-with the col- column C to obtain the heat demand NOT
lector tilted at 60” and operating at 120°F. met by solar energy durirq the month. If a
negative result occurs, solar energy is sup-
plying more than can be used, and a zero
I. For the tilt angle and operating temperature should be recorded in column E.
selected, enter the month/y output per square 7. Subtract entries in column E from those in
foot of collector in column A. Add them to column .C to get the total solar heat used by
get the heating season output for one syuare the house in the month. Enter these resuits
foot. in column F.
2. Enter the monthly degree days of the loca- 8. Divide entries in column F by those in col-
tion (jIrom the “Degree Days and Design umn C and multiply by 100 to get the per-
Temperatures” table in the appendk) in col- centage of monthly heat losses provided by
umn B. solar (column G).
3. Enter the monthly heat loss of the house in 9. Divide the seasonal total of column F by
column C. This is the product of the monthly that of column C to get the percentage of
degree days times the heat loss per degree the seasonal heat loss provided by solar, or
day-or 9500 Btu per degree day for our 47 percent in the Boston home. If this result
Boston home. is too low (or high) the collector area can
4. Add the entries in column C to determine be revised in step 4 and steps 5 to 9 repeated
the seasonal heat loss. Divide this total until satisfaction is achieved.
by the total of column A (step I) and take The total of column F is the “useful”solar en-
60 percent of the result as a first guess at ergy output of the collector. it can be used to
the collector area needed to supply 50 per- predict the economic return on rhe initial e-r-
cent of the seasonalheat demand: 0.6Oc.53.46 penses of the system.
A B C D E F ci
Collector Degree Heat Solar Heat Auxiliary Solar Heat Percent
Output Days Loss Collected Heat USed Solar
Month (Btu/ft’) (OF days) (MMBtu*) (MMBtu*) (MMBtu*) (MMBtu*) Heated
Heating
Season I 15,704 5,627 53.46 32.06 28.46 24.99 47
Totals
*Millions of Btu. House Heat Loss: 9500 Btuldeg day. Collector Area: 277.2ft’.
Collector Performance and Size
0 .l .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1.0
it, -t,j
and implement certification programs and na- different collectors, so that with the cost of each
tional rating standards for solar equipment. The collector, you can decide which collector is right
SRCC’s collector certification program pro- for your location and application.
vides a means to evaluate the maintainability, The figure shows the thermal efficiency curves
structural integrity, and thermal performance of for four collectors: an unglazed collector with
solar collectors under strict laboratory condi- a plastic absorber, a single-glazed collector with
tions. The tests. paid for by each n,;inufacturer, a flat-black painted absorber. a double-glazed
are conducted by independent laboratories ac- collector with a flat-black absorber. and a sin-
credited by the SRCC. gle-glazed collector with a selective-surface ab-
Collectors or whole systems are randomly sorber.
selected and inspected upon receipt to check the Following our last example, if the average
original condition after shipping. The collector insolation rate (I) in January is 253 Btu/(ft’hr)
then undergoes a pressure test to see if it leaks, in Boston, the average daytime temperature (T,)
and is exposed to the weather for 30 days. After is 34°F. and the collector inlet temperature (T,)
exposure, the collector is checked for signs of is 120°F. you can use the thermal efficiency
degradation. A series of tests, from thermal shock curves to find each collector’s average instan-
to thermal performance, is conducted before the taneous efficiency in this application. The fluid
collector is taken apart and inspected one last parameter, plotted along the x-axis, is equal to
time. the inlet temperature (Ti) minus the daytime
The thermal performance test determines the temperature (T,). all divided by the insolation
instantaneous efficiency of the collector. With rate (I) :
the outside air temperature and incident solar
radiation level held constant. the inlet temper- Fluid parameter = (Ti - T,) / I
ature is varied four times to see how well the In this case, the fluid parameter equals ( I20 - 34)
collector operates in four different temperature /253. or 0.34. Starting at that point on the x-
ranges. The data collected is plotted on the col- axis, mark the intersections with the efficiency
lector’s thennul e@kienq cww. The curve helps curves, and read the efficiency from the y-axis.
you compare the instantaneous efficiencies of The efficiency for the single-glazed selective
125
The New Solar Home Book
q .4
.2
0
.l .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 7 .Q .9 .l .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
(to -5’
.8 t .8
.6 .6
Industrial processes or
rl .4 q .4
.2 .2
0 0
1 2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
It, -1,) It, -‘J
It
surt‘dce collector if 0.45. for the double-glazed The steeper the slope of the curve, the less
flat-black collector is 0.36. and for the single- efficient the collector is at higher temperatures.
glazed Ilat-black collector is 0.28. The unglazed As the Huid parameter increases. collector ef-
plastic collector cannot compete in this range ticiency decreases. Swimming pool coiiectors
--it only performs well in low-temperature ap- have the steepest slopes because their losses are
plications. such as pool heating or domestic hot high. They are best suited in the fhud parameter
water in very warm climates. range below 0. IO (see figure). Collectors for
The thermal efhciency curve can tell you a solar domestic hot water have less steep s!opes
lot about the collector. The point where it in- so that they can collect energy better in the 0.10
tersects the left side of the graph represents the to 0.30 fluid parameter range. Space heating
maximum efliciency the collector can achieve collectors are made for the 0.30 to 0.50 range.
tat that point its losses equal zero). If the man- and industrial process heating or absorption
ufacturer tells you his collector can deliver half cooling collectors need to perform well in the
the energy it receives. and its collector efti- 0.3 to 0.8 fluid parameter range.
ciency curve intersects the y-axis at 0.50. he’s Single-glazed flat-black collectors have steeper
exaggerating. The curve doesn’t account for the slopes than double-glazed collectors since their
rest of the system losses! losses ate higher. But selective surfaces on
126
Collector Performance and Size
single-glazed, double-glazed, or evacuated-tube The SRCC tests for complete systems do take
collectors outperform the rest since their radia- into account losses from the tank and how much
tion losses are cut significantly. pump power is used. Tank losses at night are
The instantaneous efficiencies only help tc important if you’re comparing an aclive system
compare collectors and shouldn’t be used to (with the tank in a “heated” basement) to an
determine annual performance, since it is only integral storage system (with its tank exposed
the instarmu~eous efficiency under optimum to the cold night air). Taking pump power into
condittons. It doesn’t account for the difference account is important if you’re comparing pas-
in collector efficiency at the beginning or end sive and active systems. But remember again
of the day versus that at noon, when the sun’s that the results you see are only those gathered
rays are more perpendicular to the absorber and under strict laboratory conditions, and not what
insolation rates are higher. It doesn’t say what you’ll get for the same systems in your location
happens under hazy skies. In both cases, col- and your operating conditions.
lectors such as evacuated-tubes can perform bet- Comparing efficiency curves is like compar-
ter than flat-plates. Another drawback to the ing EPA automobile gas milage ratings. There
collector test is that it only tests the collector are many other things that should be looked at
efticiency. and doesn’t subtract the tank or dis- before you decide which collector to buy: cost,
tribution losses or pumping power required. appearance, and anticipated lifetime.
127
Some capacity for storing solar heat is almost influence performance to some extent. Other
always necessary because the need for heat con- factors include the average operating tempera-
tinues when the sun doesn’t shine. And more ture of the entire system, the pressure drop of
heat than a house can use is generally available the heat transfer fluid as it passes through or by
when the sun is shining. By storing this excess, the storage medium, and the overall heat loss
an active system can provide energy as from the container to its surroundings.
needed-not according to the whims of the In general, the heat storage capacity of com-
weather. mon storage materials varies accordjng to their
If costs were not a factor, you would prob- specific heat-the number of Btu required to
ably design a heat storage unit large enough to raise the temperature of I pound of a material
carry a house through the longest periods of 1°F. The specific heats of a few common heat
sunless weather. A huge. well-insulated storage storage materials are listed in the table along
tank (say IS-20.000 gallons) in the basement with their densities and heat capacities-the
could store heat from the Summer for use in amount of heat you can store in a cubic foot of
winter! But most of us do not have the money the material for a 1°F tempe, sture rise. Heat
to spend on an enormous storage tank, and our energy stored with an accompanying rise in tem-
designs are limited by what we can afford. Some perature is called sensibk heat. and it is re-
of the major factors influencing heat storage claimed as the temperature of the storage medium
costs are: falls. It takes high temperatures or large vol-
umes of material to store enough sensible heat
0 choice of storage medium (say SOO,OOOBtu) for a few cold, sunless days.
= amount or size of the storage medium Rocks and water are by far the most common
l type and size of a container storage media because they are inexpensive and
0 location of the heat storage plentiful,
. use of heat exchangers, if required Some materials absorb a lot of heat as they
l choice of pumps or fans to move the heat melt, and surrender it as they solidify. A pound
transfer fluid of Glaubers salt absorbs IO4 Btu and a pound
of paraffin 65 Btu when they melt at tempera-
In designing solar heat storage, you must tures not far above normal room temperatures.
weigh these cost considerations against the per- The heat absorbed by the change in phase from
formance of the system. All of the above factors liquid to solid and solid to liquid is called latent
128
Storage and Distribution
WZtel I .oo 62 62 43
Scrap Iron 0.12 490 59 41
Scrap Aluminum 0.2! 171 36 26
Concrete 0.22 144 32 22
Stone 0.2 I 170 36 25
Brick 0.20 140 78 20
heat, and is stored or released without a change other advantage of water heat storage is its com-
in temperature. For example, when one pound patibility with solar cooling. But there are several
of ice melts, it absorbes I44 Btu, but stays at problems with water storage, such as the high
32°F. This is latent heat storage. To raise its cost of tanks and the threat of corrosion and
temperature to 33’F. it takes I Btu-sensible possible leakage.
heat storage. Water containment has been simplified in re-
The storage of heat in phase-changing materials cent years by the emergence of good water-
can reduce heat storage volumes drastically. 3ut proofing products and large plastic sheets.
continuing problems of cost. containment. and kPreviously, the only avaiiable containers were
imperfect re-solidification have limited their use. leak-prone galvanized steel tanks. Their base-
ment or underground locations made replace-
A solar collector and heat storage medium ment very difficult and expensive. Glass linings
should be chosen together. Liquid collectors al- and fiberglass tanks helped alleviate corrosion
most always require a liquid storage medium. problems but increased initial costs. Until re-
Most air c:ollectors require a storage medium cently, the use of poured concrete tanks has
consisting of small rocks. or small containers been hampered by the difficulty of keeping them
of water or phase-change materials. These allow water tight-concrete is permeable and devel-
the solar heated air to travel around and ops cracks. But large plastic sheets or bags now
between-transferring its heat to the medium. make impermeable liners having long lifetimes.
Within these basic categories of heat storage, And with lightweight wood or metal frames sup-
there are many possible variations. porting the plastic, the need for concrete can be
eliminated.
The most straightforward heat storage system
(see diagram) is a water-filled container in direct
TANKS OF WATER
contact with both the collector and the house
Water is cheap and has a high heat capacity. heating system. The container shown is made
Relatively small containers of water will store of concrete or cinder blocks with a waterproof
large amounts of heat at low temperatures. From liner, but it might well be a galvanized or glass-
I to 2 gallons are needed per square foot of lined tank. The coolest water from the bottom
solar domestic hot water collectors, and I to IO of the tank is circulated to the collector for solar
gallons are needed per square foe* of space heat- heating and then returned to the top of the tank.
ing collectors-or SO0 to SO00 gallons for a Depending upon the time of day, the temper-
SOO-square-foot space heating collector. An- ature difference between the bottom and top of
129
The New Solar Home Book
130
Storage and Distribution
131
The New Solar Home Book
Temperature
Range (“F) 80”-100” 50”-130” 50”-200”
Temperature
Difference (OFI 20” 80” 150”
TVe volume of Glaubers salt needed to store the same amount of heat as
a cubic foot of water. The salt volume indicated includes 50 percent voids
between the containers of salt.
diameter required to keep the pressure drop and releases that heat as it solidifes. A pound of
fan size small. If the path length through the Glaubers salt. the most widely studied and used,
rock bed is more than 8 feet, the rocks should absorbs 104 Btu 2s it melts at 90°F and about
be at least Z inches in diameter-and larger for Z I Btu as its temperature rises another 30°F. To
longer paths. For shorter path-lengths I- to 2- store the same I25 Btu in the same temperature
inch gravel can be used. range requires about 4 pounds of water or 20
The optimum rock diameter depends a lot on pounds of rocks.
th- velocity of the air moving through the rocks. Much smaller storage volumes are possible
The slower the air speed. the smaller the rock with eutectic salts. Consequently. they offer un-
diameter or the deeper the bed of rocks can be. usual versattlity in storage location. Closets.
And the smaller the rock diameter. the greater thin partitions. structural voids. and other small
!hc rock surface area exposed to the passing hot spaces within 2 house become potential heat
air. A cubic foot of l-inch rock has about 30 storage bins.
square feet of surface area while the same vol- But this advantage is less pronounced when
mile of 3-inch rock has about I13 as much. In you increase the temperature range over which
general. the rocks, stones, gravel, or pebbles the salt cycles. The diagram illustrates the vol-
should he large enough to maintain a low pres- ume of Glaubers salt needed to store the same
sure drop but small enough to insure good heat amount of heat as 2 cubic foot of water over
tranfer. three different temperature ranges. With 50 per-
cent voids between the containers of salt, twice
as much total volume is needed. Clearly. the
ANGE MATERIALS advantages of phase-change materials decline
as the storage temperature range increases.
Phase-change materials, such as cutectic salts, But the costs of these salts can often demolish
are the only real alternative to rocks ard con- the bes: ‘laid plans of enthusiastic designers. Off
tainers of water 2s the heat storage for an air the shelf. Glauhers salt costs little more than 2
system. A eutectic salt absorbs a large amount cents a pound. But preparing and putting it in
of heat as it melts at a low temperature and a container can run the costs up. It is unlikely
132
Storage and Distribution
that Glaubers salt will ever be installed in an age temperature is 120°F. for instance. the heat
active solar heat storage system for less than 20 transfer fluid will not begin to circulate until
cents a pound. The other salts can cost signif- the collector reaches 135°F. And collector ef-
icantly more. ficiency plummets as the temperature of its ab-
sorber rises. A collector operating at 90°F may
collect hvice as much heat per square foot as
INSULATION one operating at 140°F. On the other hand, the
storage must be hot enough to feed your base-
Every storage system-whether of water. rock. board radiators, fan coil units, or radiant panels.
or phase-change material-requires 2 massive For example. a fan coil unit that delivers 120°F
amount of insulation. The higher its average air cannot use storage tank temperatures of 100°F
temperature and the colder the surroundings. the without an auxiliary boost in temperature. In
mote insulation required. For low temperature general, the upper limit on the storage temper-
(below 120°F) storage units inside the house. ature is determined by the collector performance
at least h inches of liberglass insulation (or its and the lower limit by the method of heat dis-
equivalent) is the noml. The same unit in the tribution. You can increase the possible range
basement needs 8 inches of tiberglass or more. of storage temperatures and keep the storage
And if located outside. it must be shielded from size at a minimum by using collectors that are
the wind and insulated even more heavily. The efficient at high tempertures and heat distribu-
ground can provide insulation if the water table tion systems that operate at low temperatures.
is low. But be careful-even a small amount It’s 2 good idea to allow some flexibiltity in
of moisture movement through the soil will ruin yoclr initial designs so that you can alter the heat
its insulating value. storage capacity after some experience under
All ducts or pipes should be just as well in- real operating conditions. For example, an over-
sulated as the storage unit. Heat loss from the sized concrete water tank can be tilled to various
ducts or pipes can be further reduced by putting levels until the best overall system performance
the collector close to the storage. The shorter is attained. If you’re not too sure of your cal-
the ducting or piping, the lower the total heat culations, the storage should be oversized rather
loss. And you’ll save on construction and op- than undersized-to keep its average temper-
erating costs too. ature low.
The capacity of a heat storage unit is often
described as the number of sunless days it can
STORAGE SIZE
keep the house warm. But this approach can be
The higher the temperature a storage medium misleading. A system that provides heat for two
can attain. the smaller the storage bin or tank sunless days in April is much smaller than one
needs to be. For example. 1000 pounds of water that can do so in January. It’s better to describe
(about I20 gallons or I6 cubic feet) can store the heat storage capacity as the number of de-
20.000 Btu as its temperature increases from gree days of heating demand that a system can
80°F to 100°F. and 40.000 Btu from 80°F to provide in the absence of sulight. For example,
IN’F. It takes almost 5000 pounds of rock (c)r a 1200-square-foot house in Minneapolis loses
40 cubic feet. assuming 30 percent voids) to about 10.000 Btu per degree day. In the base-
store the same amounts of heat over the same ment, a tank with 15,000 pounds of water (about
temperature rises. 2000 gallons) stores 600.000 Btu as its tem-
Offhand. you might be tempted to design for perature rises from 80°F to 120°F. Assuming
the highest storage temperatures possible in or- the heating system can use water at 80°F. this
der to keep the storage size down. But the stor- is enough heat to carry the house through 60
age temperature is linked to those of the collector degree days (or through one full sunless day
and the distribution system. If the average stor- when the average outdoor temperature is 5°F).
133
The New Solar Home Book
134
Storage and Distribution
Generally. t!te storage should be large enough the coldest weather will supply more than 80
to supply a home with enough heat for at least percent of the home’s heating needs. But the
one average January day. In Minneapolis, there wide variaticn in weather patterns at a single
are about 1600 degree days each January, so location makes such a practice little more than
the storage unit in our Minneapolis example educated guesswork. And this kind of weather
should be designed to supply at least 52 degree data is hard to obtain.
days of heating demand-or 520.000 Btu. De-
pending upon available funds, the storage can
be even larger. Or you can sink your money
into better collectors that are efficient at higher
temperatures. Solar heat can then be stored at HEAT DISTRIBUTION
high temperatures-increasing the effective
storage capacity of a tank or bin. An active solar heating system usually requires
At the very least, the storage should be large another sub-system to distribute the heat to the
enough to absorb all the solar heat coming from rooms. With integrated solar heating methods
the collectors in a single day. If you can be such as mass walls and direct-gain windows,
satisfied with 60-percent solar heating or less. the solar heat is absorbed directly in the fabric
the simplified method described in “Estimating of the house and heat distribution comes natu-
Collector Size” will be useful. First you size rally. But an active system usually needs more
the collector according to the method provided heat exchangers. pipings ducts. pumps. fans.
earlier under “Estimating the Collector Size.” and blowers to get the heat inside the house.
Then determine the volume of storage medium And there must still be some provision for backup
required per square foot of collector. Multiply- heating in the event of bad weather.
ing this volume by the total collector area gives The heat distribution system should be de-
a reasonable “first-cut” estimate of stomge size. signed to use temperatures as low as 75°F to
This estimate should be close enough for pre- 80°F. If low temperatures can be used. more
liminary design work. If this storage volume solar energy can be stored and the collector
fails to meet the heat demand for an average efficiency increases dramatically. In general.
January day. revise your estimate upward until warm air heating systems use temperatures from
it does. 80°F to 130°F. while hot water radiant heating
To get more than 60-percent solar heating, systems require temperatures from 90°F to 160°F.
it helps to know the normal sequence of sunny Steam heating is rarely combined with a solar
and cloudy days in your area. If sunny days array since it needs temperatures over 212°F.
followed cloudy days one after the other, you so incorporating solar heating into an existing
would only have to size the collector and storage house equipped with steam heating will require
for one sunny day and the following cloudy day. a completely separate heat distribution system.
Almost 100 percent of the heating demand could Many designers of new homes opt for forced
then be provided if the system were designed w;rm air systems or radiant heating systems.
for the coldest two-day period. If the normal By using larger volumes of air or oversized
sequence were one sunny day followed by two panels (such as concrete floors). these solar
cloudy days, both collector and storage size would heating systems can operate at lower tempera-
have to be doubled to achieve the same per- tures. Radiant slabs take time before the room
centage. At the Blue Hills weather staiion near is comfortable and usually require slightly higher
Boston, for example. about 80 percent of the storage temperatures. But because their radiant
sunless periods are two days long or less. A heat warms occupants dircct!y. the air temper-
collector and storage system that could carry a ature can be kept 2 to 3°F lower. reducing the
house in Blue Hills through two cloudy days of home’s heat loss.
135
The New Solar Home Book
136
Storage and Distribution
Coefficient of Performance
A heat pump uses electrical energ! fo munip- (or removed) divided by electrical energy con-
ulute heut trunsferfrom .source to sink. The heat sumed.
deposited in the sink is N combinutiov of the
heat ge~leruted by compressing the refrigerunt The electrical energy reqitired to run the
(which requires electricul power) cind the lutent compressor (in hlvh) can be converted to Btu
heat rei’pased by the condensing vapor. The heat b? multiplying by 3413 Btulkwh. Because the
removedfrom the heat source is the lvent heat heat oj’compression is part of the heat deposited
of evuporution. The eflectiveness of a heartpump in the sink, the COP of a heat pump used.f~~r
is indicuted bx its Coeffiunt of Pet-ftn-munce, heating is usuctll~ greclter than the COP qf the
or COP, which equuls heut energ! deposited .sume hsut pump used for cooling.
137
Of all the benefits the sun can give us, poten- providing a steady source of power for devices
tially the most far reaching is direct generation such as marine radios, lights, and recorders.
of electrical power. Photovoltaic (PV) cells High cost is still a serious disadvantage of
can generate electricity from sunlight. Like PV systems. Although considerably cheaper than
sunlight. electricity is an essentially benevo- the $5,000 per watt cost of 25 years ago, PV
lent form of energy: silent, invisible, quick, power is still more expensive than conventional
nonpolluting, far reaching. PV-powered ve- utility power.
hicles and aircraft are now where Henry Ford
and the Wright brothers were with their fossil-
fueled inventions less than a century ago.
Imagine a future where pollution-free cars and SUNLIGHT TO ELECTRICITY
airplanes whisk us silently from one place to
another: where trucks, buses, machines, and Photovoltaic or solar cells generate electricity
factories no longer intrude upon the natural when exposed to sunlight. Although the amount
landscape and atmosphere. of electricity produced by a single solar cell is
The use of solar cells to generate electricity small, a group or array of cells can generate a
is a very recent achievement. Although the pho- considerable amount-almost l/2 kilowatt per
tovoltaic phenomena was tirst discovered in the square foot of cell surface. A sufticiently large
19th centrury. it was not until the 1950s that army-555 square feet for a small residential
scientists built the tirst working solar cells. Be- installation-can generate enough electricity to
cause of the high costs involved, solar cells meet a substantial percent of the needs of a
were used initially in military and research proj- single-family home.
ects and where the cost of ol,taining conven- In practice, electricity generated by PV ar-
tional power was too expensive. During the t 460s rays can be used as direct current (dc). stored
and 1970s. solar cells were used to provide power in batteries for subsequent use, or changed to
in remote installations, such as electronic relay alternating current (ac) for immediate use. With
stations. irrigation pump facilites. and naviga- a good-quality power inverter (a transformer-
tional buoys. as well as for homes and other like device that converts dc to ac). surplus elec-
installations that were not tied to conventional tricity can be fed into the local power grid to
power lines. Other applicatons were developed be credited against later power drawn from that
by using solar ceils to charge storage batteries. system when the photovoltaic array is not gen-
138
Photovoltaics: Electricity from the Sun
erating electricity. Local power companies are amorphous silicon a pnme candidate to replace
required by federal law to accept and pay for crystalline silicon as a low-cost source of PV
such customer generated power. This eliminates power in the future.
the need for costly battery storage.
When bundles of solar energy, called pho-
tons, penetrate two-layered solar cells, *hey knock
loose electrons. transfening energy to them. POWER REQUIREMENTS
These loose electrons move to one side of the
A typical residential PV installation consists of
cell. creating a negative charge. On the other
an array of solar modules, an inverter to change
side, a deticit of electrons creates a positive
solar-cell direct current to alternating current
charge. As they move about, these loose elec-
and, where local utility power is unavailable, a
trons are quickly caught up in an electrical held,
bank of batteries to store excess electricity.
forming a weak electric current at the junction
In designing a system, you must take into
of the two layers.
account factors such as geographical locations.
To generate electric current in this manner,
availability of local utility power and how much
solar cells use a semiconductor, typically two
electricity you need.
layers of silicon. The negative layer on the top
GeogrEtphic location affects the amount of
facing the sun is treated or “doped” with phos-
potential power available from a system, be-
phorous to create an excess of electrons; the
cause the percentage of sunshine available var-
positive layer on the bottom of the cell is treated
ies greatly in different sections of the country.
with boron to create vacancies or “holes” for
A home in the southwestern U.S. can count on
new eiectrons to till. As photon energy is ab-
a much higher percentage of daily sunshine than
sorbed by the negative layer. millions of excess
one in the northeast or coastal northwest. A
electrons are captured by the electrical held at
residential PV system in Arizona for example,
thejunction between the two layers. The voltage
will generate almost twice as much electricity
difference between them pushes the electrons
as a similar system in New Hampshire. To de-
through a wire grid on the front of the cell.
temtine the amount of sunshine available in your
which is connected in turn to the wire grid on
location you can refer to the Clinrutic Atlas oj
the back of the next cell. As current tlows through
the Ullited States which lis s percentages of pos-
a seiies of cells. its voltage continues to build.
sible sunshine by geographic area. The less sun-
The ~~11sare sandwiched together between a
light available. the larger your PV array must
substrti*e and a superstrate to form a rwdule.
be to meet given power during needs.
The aluminum-framed modules are connected
If you live in an area where local utility power
together to form p~w1.s that are installed in an
is unavailable. you must design your system to
crrrtr~. The ultimate current and voltage pro-
store power for use when there is not enough
duced by the array depends on how the modules
sunlight for PV operation. Storage requires a
and panels arc wired together.
bank of batteries with sufficient capacity to pro-
Most PV semiconductors arc made of crys-
vide power at night and during cloudy weather.
talline silicon in an expensive manufacturing
process. Among alternative semiconductor ma-
terials less expensive to produce, amorphous
silicon offer:; much of the same capability as
AN AVERAGE HOME
crystalline silicon. Amorphous silicon actually
absorbs visible light better than the crystalline The table that follows lists the example require-
form, but it is less efticient- about 3 percent ments for an average home. But how much of
compared with I2 to I6 percent for crystalline this load could be met by a PV system’!
in converting light to electricity. Nevertheless. Let’s say that the house with the electrical
the lower material and fabrication cost make demand we just calculated is located in Phila-
139
The New Solar Home Book
delphia (40” north latitude). There is room on the power company, but some of the power
its SOO-square-foot roof for the PV array. The produced by the PV array would be stored in
roof is pitched at a 40” slope. First, we must batteries for later use, or flow back into the grid
calculate how much solar radiation is available to be credited against the power bought.
every month. For example, in January, the av- The second table lists the average radiation
erage daily insolation (from the “Clear Day that strikes the roof each month, the percent
Insolation” tables in the appendix) on a 40” possible sunshine for that month, the total daily
slope is 1810 Btu/(ft’ day). From the “Mean insolation on the roof, how many kwh a day
Percentage of Possible Sunshine” map in the the system produces after subtracting for cell
appendix, we see that Philadelphia receives only efficiency (0.10) and balance of system efh-
50 percent of the possible sunshine in January. ciency (0.85). The last column is the percent
Multiplying 0.50 by 18 IO Btu/(ft’ day) and 500 of the daily demand supplied by the array.
square feet, we calculate that the roof would Remember that this only gives you an esti-
receive 452.500 Btu/day of sunshine. Since there mate of what the array may produce, and not a
are 3412 Btu in a kwh. that is 133 kwh/day. guarantee of how much energy you’ll collect.
But not all that energy can be converted into That depends on your system components and
electricity. If the solar cells only have an effi- local climate.
ciency of 0.10. then the array only produces If you have unlimited roof area and would
(133)(0.10) or 13.3 kwh/day. The inverter and like to size the array based on the demand, you
other balance of system parts lose another 15 can find a range of areas that will help you
percent in conversion of the dc power to ac. so decide. With the monthly insolation values and
the system output is further reduced by percent possible sunshine, you can find the max-
(13.3NO.85) to 11.3 kwh/day. imum and minimum array you need.
If our daily average demand is 19.4 kwh. the In our example, December gets the least sun
PV array could provide ( 1 I .278/ 19.4)( 100) or with only 815 Btu/(ft’ day) from (1634 Btu/(ft2
58 percent of tb.e electricity used. Since not all day))(0.5). In August, the roof gets the most
the electricity is used during daylight hours, sun with 1400 Btu/(ft’ day) from (2258 Btu/(ft’
some of the demand would have to be met by day))(0.62). Converting the solar gains to kwh,
140
Photovoltaics: Electricity from the Sun
Average 78%
The New Solar Home Book
the maximum gain is 0.41 kwh/(ft’ day) and third how much energy would be produced if
the minimum is 0.24 Btu/(ft’ day). the system were sized to the miminum. Unless
The areas needed to supply the demand can your power company is paying top dollar for
be found by: area (ft’) = daily demand/!(so!ar the electricity it buys from you, you’d be better
gain) (cell efficiency) (balance of system effi- off sizing the collector toward the minimum side
ciency)]. to save on the high first cost of the system.
In our example: Your initial overall requirement for power is
likely to be substantial. we!! beyond the capac-
maximum area = !9.4/!0.24(0.10)(0.85))
ity of a residential PV system. To reduce the
= 953 ft’
amount of power needed to a more practical
minimum area = !9.4/[0.41(0. !0)(0.85:]
level. conserve energy first. Reduce the number
= 557 ftl
of electrical appliances. Use them less. When
Depending on how much money you want to the appliance requires a large amount of power,
spend on the system, and how much you want e.g., a refrigerator, hot water heater. or clothes
to invest in battery storage (for the excess) or dryer, install more efficient units or replace them
how much power you want to buy from the with non-electrical devices, such as a solar water
electric company (from the deficit). your array heater, or a clothes line for drying. Your goal
should be between 557 and 950 square feet. is to reduce the gap between the amount of
The next table shows how much excess or def- power needed and the amount your PV system
icit energy those two PV array sizes will pro- will generate.
duce each month. The first column shows how Daily residential power use usually shows
big the array should be based on the average peak consumption at meal times and in the eve-
energy produced per day that month. The sec- ning with an additional low level of steady usage
ond shows the energy produced per month if 24 hours a day. Your system must be able to
the system were sized at the maximum and the provide adequate power at these times plus when
142
Photovoltaics: Electricity from the Sun
143
The New Solar Home Book
ules overlap each other, forming an effective the air used to cool the back of the cells to the
sea! against water and wind. However, oper- load or to a storage container.
ating temperatures will be higher and efficiency
In designing a mounting system, there are
lower because of the lack of air circulation around
several factors to consider. Panels must be in-
the back of the cells to coo! them. For this
stalled so that they are easily accessible. For
reason, direct-mount arrays are few and far be-
example, debris must be brushed away from
tween.
time to time and accumulated dirt washed off
Rack-mounted PV panels are used on flat
cell surfaces. Stand-off and rack. panels must be
roofs to position PV cells at the proper angle to
easy to remove from their mountings for repair
the sun. Although more complicated to build
or module replacement. Panels installed inter-
than a stand-off mount, this arrangement pro-
grally must be water-tight and panel backs ac-
vides excellent air circulation, increasing sys-
cessible for repair and cooling. Whenever
tem efficiency.
possible t’V panels should be mounted to allow
Integral-mounted PV systems replace ordi-
air to circulate behind them to cool the under-
nary roof sheathing and . !. :.ngles. PV pane!s are
side of the cells.
attached directly to rafters, the space between
them sealed with gaskets. Other edges are sealed The appearance of the PV array is also
with silicone sealant or held down by aluminum impottant- especially roof-mounted arrays that
battens. Attic ventilation keeps backside tem- are clearly visible. Rectangular and square ce!!s
peratures at efficiently coo! levels. and dark anodized metal frames blend in better
Integral mounts can produce hot air for space with most roofs than modules of round cells and
heating or solar domestic hot water by directing polished aluminum frames.
144
S&r energy, in rhe lusr unuly.si.s. bus ulrcw.~.s ing upon size and complexity, a solar heating
been rhe hu.si.snor only oj’ i~ir~ilixrion. hlrr of system could add 2-10 percent to the building
I(fv: .from the primecul sun-5uskin,q plunkron lo cost of a new house. A system fitted to an ex-
modern tnun harvesring his fields utd brrrnin,q isting house costs more. Financing such an ex-
cwal und oi! betwuth his boilers. .solur energ> penditure is particularly difficult during periods
bus provided rhe ul~itnute movin,q.fbrc*r. But irs when costs are burdensome, interest rates high,
direr-r itrilixticm iiI u higher Ie~el of‘rechnolo~~~ and mortgage money difficult to obtain. Fi-
is u tie\i’ ph~~tiottietr!ttt.und rich wirh Neil* po- nancing is one of the principal reasons people
tenMitie.s ut rhis stuge of human uffirirs. decide against using solar energy.
Part of the problem. of course. is that solar
Peter van Dresser,
energy is sti!! not a major established alternative
Lund.sc*upe.Spring I956
to conventional heating systems. Banks are re-
There are sti!! many obstacles blocking the luctant to fund an expensive addition that they
widespread use of the sun’s energy for heating consider unlikely to pay back. As more solar
and cooling. Most of these problems are non- heating systems come into genera! use, how-
rechnicul in nature, having to do with solar en- ever, and bear out the claims of lowered heating
ergy’s impact upon and acceptance by society costs, loans for these systems are becoming more
as a whole. Whenever a new building method readily available.
bursts upon the scene. financial institutions and Compounding the financing difficulties is the
the building trades are understandably conserv- fact that an auxiliary heating system must be
ative until that method has proved itself. But provided, even in solar-heated homes. People
with the long-range depletion of cheap fossil prefer complete heating systems rather than sys-
fuels and the rising energy needs of our devel- tems that provide only 50-90 percent of their
oping world, the rapid development o!.‘!his here- heating needs. But IOO-percent solar heating
tofore neglected power source is inevitable. systems are usually far too large to be practical.
so the additional expense of a conventional heat-
ing system must also be borne.
FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS
If long-range predictions are true, and sources
The greatest barrier to the immediate home use of conventional fuels dry up over time. argu-
of solar energy is the high initial cost. Depend- ments against a big cash outlay will lose their
145
The New Solar Home Book
Ufe-Cycle Costing
L$e-cycle costing is an estimating method that Solution: Assuming an annual interest rate
includes the ftlrure costs of energy consumption, of 10 percent, the ratio R equals I .OSlI .12, or
maintenance and repair in the economic com- G.9375. Applying the equation, wefind the pres-
parison of severul alternatives. ‘hese furure coss ent value of 30 gallons of oil expended over the
can make an initially cheaper system costlier next 30 years is $12.84:
over the life cycle of rhe system. Life-cycle cosf-
.P, = $I .00(0.9375)(0.9375 - !)/(0.9375 - 1)
ing methods make such costs visible af the OUI-
= ($!.00)(12.84) = $12.84
set, und rhey include the economic impact of
interest rates and injarion. They ure iderllly
To ger the life-cycle costs of a system, the
suited for comparing the costs oj’ solar heating
purchase and installation prices are added to
with those of conventional methods.
the present value of the total operating and
1n order to obtain consistent cost cotnpuri-
maintenance cosCs.
sons among several alrernarives, ull rhe co>fs
For example, an owner-builder might want
of each sysretn (over a selected “life cycle” )
lo compare the life-cycle costs of insulated 2x4
ure reduced to total costs over a unit of titne.
stud walls lo the cost of insulated 2x6 stud walls.
usually rhe jirsr year. Furure suvings such as
He estimates that the 2x4 walls will cost $7140
lon*er fwl costs ure discounred to ’ ‘present-
CObuild but will lose 48.4 million Bru per year:
vulue” doll~!rs, ,vhich is rhc atnount of money
the 2x6 walls will cost $7860 and loge 34.8
rhut, jf it:\tesred roduy. would grow lo the value
million Bru. Assutning that a gallon of hearing
of rhe suvings in the inrervening years. And if
oil produces 100,000 Btu of useful hear. the
the unnuul operating and maintenunce expenses
house will require 484 or 348 gallons per year,
can be predicred to grow at some steady injia-
depending upon rhe wall construclion. Over a
rion t-ale. the presenr-value total of those ex-
30-year l[fe cycle, rhe operuring costs will be
pendintres over rhe lije c*ycleoj* the system (P,)
($12 .X4)(484) = $62 1.5for the 2x4 walls and
can be calculared using the jbllorcing equation..
($12.X4)(348) = $4468 ji)r the 2x6 walls, in
P, = A(R)(R” - !)/(R - I) present-value dollars. Maintenance expensesare
where R = (I + g)/(I + i) and i and g are equal for the two alternatives and hence are
the .frucriottal rates of interest und injiation. In ignored. Adding operating und insrallution costs,
this equation, [he current annual e.~pen.se(A) the owner-builder jinds rhat the 30-year lift>-
is tnulriplied b! a fuctor rlhich accout1t.sfor rhe cycle COSISof rhe two alrernutir’es are:
number of yeurs in the lift> cycle 01) uttd fhe
2x4 walls = $7140 + $6215 = $13.355
rate ut which rhe annual expense (A) is expected
2x6 wulls = $7860 + $4468 = $12,328
to increase . .
Example: A.s.sumerhar 1111’ refail cosf of‘hetrr- Lij&cycle costing suggests that the initially
ing oil is $1 .OOper gullon and that it will in- more e.xpensive2x6 wall is actually more thun
crease 5 percenf per Jear. What is lhe presenr $1000 cheaper over titne. Sitnilar cosring can
\vrlue of rhe e.\-penditure.sj%r one gallon of oil be used to cotnpare the COSC.Sof solar heating
euch year for the next 30 yeurs? and oj’ conventional systems.
146
Epilogue
clout and the avuilubili~ of fuel will become this turns out usually not to be the case as con-
the real issue. People who find themselves with- struction costs rise and prices of manufactured
out fuel will decide that the shortage is reason systems drop. (The exception would be systems
enough for using solar energy. that the initial built by the do-it-yourseifer. or the owner-builder.
costs of the system are less tmportant. whose time and labor are not usually counted
But home-financing plans can encourage such :n the cost.) There are now hundreds of excel-
an investment even now because lower heating lent solar products, and the competition is fierce.
bills over rhe lifprimc of the system make it a Resulting price reductions are inevitable in the
sound buy. Ail too frequently. financial insti- long run, but they will come slowly.
tutions disregard the ever-increasing operating Passive solar systems are often cheaper, more
costs of a conventionally heated home and focus efficient. and more reliable than active systems.
upon the large initial costs of a solar heating and are usually more appropriate for custom
system. Some lending institutions, however, are design and on-site construction of new houses.
using life-cycle costing methods, which com- Here, too, there are now many products to choose
pare the higher initial costs of solar to lower from.
operating and maintenance costs. These meth-,
ods emphasize the lowest total monthly home-
nwning costs (mortgage payments plus utili- SOLAR ENERGY AND THE
ties). Lenders should allow higher monthly CONSTRUCTION 1NDUSTRY
mortgage payments if monthly energy costs are
lower. Most progressive lending institutions are The housing industry and the laws that regulate
doing just that. it have a record of slow adaptaticn to change.
The industry is very fragmented, with thousands
of builders, and 90 percent of all work is done
SYSTEM RELIABILITY by companies who build fewer than lo0 units
per year. The profit margin is small. and in-
A major difticuity in the custom design and novation is a risk that few builders will take.
manufacture of active boiar heating systems for But the fragmented nature of the construction
particular sites is the necessary combination of industry is essential to the localized industries
low cost. good performance. and durability. The that have sprung up around solar energy. Even
building designer must have a thorough under- if a few large manufacturers achieve low-cost
standing of the principles of solar energy and solar collectors. interstate transportation costs
of the pitfalls discovered in the past. Even then. will remain relatively high. adding one or two
many things can go wrong with such complex dollars per square foot to collector costs. On-
systems. and many architectural and engineer- site construrtion or local fabrication of com-
ing firms hesitate to invest extra time and money ponents will be a viable alternative for years to
in custom designs. Most active systems today, come.
however. are designed by the supplier of the Some contractors and developers install solar
equipment. leaving the building designer with equipment in order to evoke interest in their
the responsibiity only to seiect the best system recent housing developments. And, despite
from the most reliable supplier. lessening public concern for energy. most buiid-
One of the most appealing aspects of solar ers and contractors are building energy efficient
heating has been that custom design and on-site homes, and more and more are including solar
construction often seems a cheaper alternative water heating and passive solar room heating
than buying manufactured collectors. However. systems.
147
The New Solar Home Book
JAN FEE MAR API3 MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV OEC
Solar declination
The sun’s position in the sky is described by The exact calculation of theta or phi depends
two angular measurements. the solar altitude upon three variables: the latitude (L). the dec-
(represented by the Greek letter theta or 8) and lination (represented by the Greek letter delta
the solar azimuth (represented by the Greek iet- or 6). and the hour angle (H). Latitude is the
ter phi or 4). As explained earlier in the book. angular distance of the observer north or south
the solar altitude is the angle of the sun above of the equator; it can be read from any good
the horizon. The azimuth is its angular deviation map. Solar declination is a measure of how far
from the true south. north or south of the equator the sun has moved.
149
The New Solar Home Book
15
DEC JAN FEE MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV
Equation of time
At the summer solstice. 6 = + 23.5’. while at If the locality is east of the standard merid-
the winter solstice 6 = - 23.5” in the northern ian, add the correction minutes; if it is west,
hemisphere; at both equinoxes. 8 = 0”. This subtract them.
quantity varies from month to month and can 3) Add the equation of time (from the second
be read directly from the first graph shown here. graph shot\ n here) for the date in question.
The hour angle (H) depends on Local Solar The result is Local Solar Time.
Time, which is the ume that would be read from
Once you know the Local Solar Time, you can
a sundial oriented south. Solar time is measured
obtain the hour angle (H) from:
from solar noon. the moment when the sun is
highest in the sky. At different times of the year,
H = 0.25(number of minutes from solar noon)
the lengths of solar days (measured from solar
noon to solar noon) are slightly different from
From the latitude (L), declination (8). and hour
days measured by a clock running at a uniform
angle (H), the solar altitude (0) and azimuth (4)
rate. Local solar time is calculated taking this
follow after a little trigonometry:
difference into account. There is also a correc-
tion if the observer is not on the standard time
sin 8 = cos L cos 6 cos H + sin L sin 6
meridian for his time zone.
sin $I = cos 8 sin H/cos 8
To correct local standard time (read from! an
accurate clock) to local solar time, three steps
As an example, determine the altitude and
are necessary:
azimuth of the sun in Abilene, Texas, on De-
I ) if daylight savings time is in effect, subtract cember I. when it is I:30 p.m. (CST). First
one hour. you need IO calculate the Local Solar Time. It
2) Determine the longitude of the locality and is not daylight savings time, so no correction
the longitude of the standard time meridian for that is needed. Looking at a map you see
(75” for Eastern. 90” for Central. 105” for that Abiiene is on the iOO”W meridian. or IO”
Mountain, 120” for Pacific, 135” for Yukon, west of the standard meridian, 9O”W. Subl.ract
150” for Alaska-Hawaii). Multiply the dif- the 4( IO) = 40 minutes from local time; I:30
ference in longitudes by 4 minutes/degree. - 0:40 = i2:50 p.m. From the equation of
150
Solar Angles
time for December I, you must add about I I Sun Path Diagrams
minutes. 12:50 + 0: 11 = I:01 Local Solar
In applications where strict accuracy is super-
Time, or 61 minutes past solar noon. Conse-
fluous, solar angles can be quickly determined
quently, the hour angle is H = 0.25(61) or about
with sun path diagrams. In these diagrams, the
15”. The latitude of Abilene is read from the
sun’s path across the sky vault is represented
same map: L = 32”, and the declination for
by a curve projected onto a horizontal plane
December I is 6 = - 22”.
(see diagram). The horizon appears as a circle
You have come this far with maps, graphs,
with the observation point at its center. Equaiiy-
and the back of an old envelope. but now you
spaced concentric circles represent the altitude
need a scientific calculator or a table of trigon-
angles (0) at IO” intervals, and equally spaced
ometric functions:
radiai lines represent the azimuth angles (4) at
the same intervals.
sin 0 = cos(32”)cos( - 22”)cos( 15”)
The elliptical curves running horizontally are
+ sin( 32”)sin( - 22”)
the projection of the sun’s path on the 2ist day
= 0X5(0.93)(0.97) + 0.53( -0.37)
of each month; they are designated by two Ro-
= 0.76 - 0.20 = 0.56
man numerals for the two months when the sun
follows approximately this same path. A grid
Then 8 = arcsin(0.56) = 34.12” above the
of vertical curves indicate the hours of the day
horizon. Similarly:
in Arabic numerals.
‘ .
0
P
.
0”
.,.- N P,,.
r7 . -- %-,.
*,* . . .
si.
. .
*.._ . _..._ .
. . - . .
. . . .*
. = . __-_
.
-. . c-
I‘ ’ _. .
,:,. . ,” 3. +
‘. . Ji. .
+r). . I’f- 23. . . 2:.
,:- .. ; ,-.
‘I- 8
48-N LATlT”DE 62-N LATITUDE
Solar Angles
153
ASHRAE has developed tables that give the Example:Determine the optimum tilt angle
clear day insolation on tilted and south facing for a flat plate collector located in Atlanta,
surfaces, such as those commonly used for solar Georgia (32” N latitude). Select the tilt angle to
collectors. For north latitudes (L) equal to 24”. maximize the surface insolation for the follow-
32”. 40”, 48”. and 56”. insolation values are ing three periods: a) heating season, b) cooling
given for south facing surfaces with tilt angles season, and ::\ the full year.
equal to L- 10’. L, L+ 10” L+ 20’. and 90” 1) The lrc;,;rirg season in Atlanta lasts from
(vertical). Values are also given for the direct October through April: the cooling season
normal (perpendicular to the sun’s rays) radia- from May to September.
tion and the insolation on a horizontal surface. 2) Using the 32” N table, we sum the surface
The values listed in these tables are the sum of daily totals for the 22” tilt for the months
the direct solar and diffuse sky radiation hitting October through April, and get 14,469 Btu/
each surface on an average cloudless day. Data ft*. We do the same for the 32”, 42”, 52”,
are given for the 21st day of each month; both and 90” tilts and get totals of 15,142; 15,382;
hourly and daily total insolation are provided. 15.172; and 10,588.
3) Comparing these totals, we conclude that
A brief examination of the 24” N table reveals the 42” tilt, or latitude + lo”, is the best
that the insolation of south-facing surfaces is orientation for solar collection during the
symmetrical about solar noon. The values given heating season.
for 8 a.m. are the same as those for 4 p.m., 4) A similar set of totals is generated for the
and they are listed concurrently. Moving from cooling season, using the data for the months
left to right on any fixed time line, you en- May through September. These are 11,987
counter values of: the solar altitude and azimuth Btu/ft* for 22”; 11,372 for 32”; 10,492 for
in degrees: the direct normal radiation and the 42”; 9,320 for 52”; and 3,260 for 90” tilt.
insolation on a horizontal surface in Btu/(hr ft’); 5) Comparing these totals, we conclude that the
and the insolation of the five south facing sur- 22” tilt, or latitude - lo”, is the best for
faces discussed above in Btu/(hr ft*). Below summer cooling.
these hourly data are values of the daily total 6) Using the data for the whole year, we get
insolation for each of these surfaces (in Btu/ft’). totals of: 24,456 Btu/ft’ for 22”; 26,514 for
An example will help to illustrate the use of 32”; 25,874 for 42”; 24,492 for 52”; and
these tables. 13,848 for 90” tilt.
154
ay Insolation Data
7) Comparing these totals, we choose the 32” 90’ surface is about 30 percent below the 42”
tilt, or latitude, as the best for year-round maximum. In reality, the insolation on a vertical
collection. surface is only 10 to 20 percent lower than this
These conclusions are useful for the designer maximum during the heating season because of
as they stand, but a little closer scrutiny is in- the contribution of these data is their assumption
structive. For example, the 42” tilt is best for of an “average” clear day. Many locations are
heating, but the heating season totals for 32” clearer than this (high altitudes and deserts), and
and 52’ are within 2 percent of the 42” total. many are less clear (industrial and dusty areas).
Thus, other design considerations (such as To correct for this assumption, the numbers in
building layout, structural framing, height re- these tables should be multiplied by the area-
strictions) can enter the decision process with- wide clearness factors listed in the ASHRAE
out seriously affecting the final collector Handbook of Fundamentals. Finally, the Clear
efficiency. Day Insolation Data do not account for cloudy
The Clear Day Insolation Data are an ex- weather conditions, which become quite im-
tremely valuable design tool, but their limita- portant for long term predictions. (Source: Mor-
tions should be kept in mind. For instance, there rison and Farber, “Development and Use of
is no ground reflection included in the listed Solar Insolation Data in Northern Latitudes for
values. This can lead one to underestimate the South Facing Surfaces,” symposium paper in
clear day insolation on a vertical surface. In the Solar Energy Applications, ASHRAE. Used by
example above. the heating season total for a permission. )
155
I
I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I1
I I I I I I I I I I I
I 14 t I I I I I I
C, F.
I.> J
- m,
‘:t ! Ttp-. -I-L------++ ~. +j-mm .-- -T
“7--- . . ~--t.+
,, f I lf *+ -----t
.+-. . ._.- ---- - .--- -__-j ; iI
The quantity of solar radiation actually available diation on a horizontal surface. Trigonometric
for use in heating is difficult to calculate ex- conversions must be applied to these data to
actly. Most of this difficulty is due to the many convert them to the insolation on vertical or
factors that influence the radiation available at tilted surfaces.
a collector location. But most of these ktors Other useful information includes the Weather
can be treated by statistical methods using long- Bureau records of the amount of sunshine, which
term averages of recorded weather data. is listed as the “hours of sunshine” or the “per-
The least modified and therefore most usable i’entage of possible sunshine.” A device records
solar radiation data is available from the U.S. the cumulative total hours from sunrise to sunset
Weather Bureau. Some of these data. averaged to get the percentage of possible sunshine.
over a period of many years. have been pub- Monthly averages tif this percentage are pro-
lished in the Clittwtic Ath o$ the Utlitrd States vided in the next 1Z contour maps here. “Mean
in the form of tabks or maps. A selection of Percentage of Possible Sunshine.” These val-
these al:‘:rage data is reprinted here for conven- ues can be taken as the average portion of the
ience. They are taken to be a good indicator of daytime hours each month when the sun is not
future weather trends. More recent and com- obscured by clouds.
plete information may be obtained from the Na- Also included in each of these I2 maps is a
tional Weather Records Center in Asheville. table of the average number of hours between
North Carolina. sunrise and sunset for that month. You can mul-
As one example. daily insolation has been tiply this number by the mean percentage of
recorded at more than X0 weather stations across possible sunshine to obtain the mean number of
the United States. The available data have been hours of sunshine for a particular month and
a*;erqed over a period of more than 30 years; location. A tab!e at the end of this section lists
these averages are summarized in the tirst I2 the mean number of hours of sunshine for se-
tone for each month) contour maps: “Mean Ciaily lected locations across the United States.
Solar Radiation.” Values are given in langleys. These national maps are useful tar getting an
or calories per square centimeter. Multiply by overview or approximation of the available so-
3.69 to ,:nvert to Btu per square foot. These lar radiation at a particular spot. For many lo-
figures represent the monthly average of the cations. they may be the only way of finding a
daily total of direct. diffuse. and reflected ra- particular \ ue. As a rule. however. they should
161
The New Solar Home Book
be used only when other more local data are national weather maps. (Source: Environmental
unavailable. Many local factors can have sig- Science Services Administration. Climatic At-
nificant effect, so care and judgement are im- las of the United States, U.S. Department of
portant when using interpolated data from these Commerce. )
x7 SOLiR R&IATiO~nt&vs)
162
Solar Radiation Maps
lIATiON &m&Yd -+
I! ” ..._. -,+-i-- ‘-
165
Solar Radiation Maps
169
The total solar radiation is the sum of direct, and the sunset hour angles (represented by the
diffuse. and reflected radiation. At present, a Greek letter Omega, or w). of the horizontal
statistical approach is the only reliable method and tiled surfaces:
of separating out the diffuse component of hor-
izontal insolation. (The full detail of this method horizontal surface: cos w
is contained in the article by Liu and Jordan = -tan L tan 6
cited below; their results are only summarized tilted surface: cos w*
here. ) = - tan (L - B)tan 6
First ascertain the ratio of the daily insolation
on a horizontal surface (measured at a particular where the declination 6 is found from the graph
weather station) to the extraterrestrial radiation in Appendix I and B = 90” applies to vertical
on another horizontal surface (outside the at- surfaces. Depending on the value of these two
mosphere). This ratio (usually called the per- angles w and w’, the calculation of F. is slightly
cent of ertruterrc~.striulruditrtim or percent ETR) different. If w is less the w’. then:
can be determined from the National Weather
Records Center: it is also given in the article
by Liu and Jordan. With a knowledge of the cos(L - p, x sinw- wcosw’
b =
percent ETR. you can use the accompanying cos L sin w - w cos w
graph to determine the percentage of diffuse
radiation on a horizontal surface. For example, If w’ is smaller than w. then:
SO percent ETR corresponds to 38 percent dif-
fuse radiation and 62 percent direct radiation. cos (L - B) x sin w’ - w’ cos w’
You are now prepared to convert the direct
h, = cos L sin w - w cos w
and diffuse components of the horizontal in-
solation into the daily total insolation on south- The direct component of the radiation on a tilted
facing tilted or vertical surfaces. The conversion or vertical surface is I’t, = Ft, (It,). where It,
factor for the direct component (Ft,). depends is the direct horizontal insolation
on the latitude (L). the tilt angle of the surface The treatment of diffuse and reflected radia-
(represented by the Greek letter Beta, or PI. tion is a bit different. The diffuse radiation is
17@
Calculating Solar Radiation
assumed to come uniformly from all comers of The reflected radiation on a tilted surface is:
the sky, so one need only determine the fraction
of the sky exposed to a tilted surface and reduce I’d = p( I - cos (3/2)(I, + Id)
the horizontal diffuse rddiation accordingly. The
diffuse radiatior: on a surface tilted at an angle where p (the Greek letter Rho) is the reflectance
P is: of the horizontal surface. (Source: Liu. B.Y.H.
and R.C. Jordan “Availability of Solar Energy
for Flat-Plate Solar Heat Collectors.” in Lou
I’d = I + cos B/2(Id)
7’emperature Etqineering Applications of Solar
Energy, edited by Richard C. Jordan, New York:
where IJ is the daily horizontal diffuse radiation. ASHRAE. 1967.)
30 40 50 60 70 60
PERCENT OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION
171
The hourly, monthly. and yearly heat losses cent of the time (about 2 days) during a typical
from a house depend on the temperature dif- Birmingham winter. Consuit the ASHRAE
ference between the indoor and outdoor air, as Hmdbaok oj’ Funduttretmls for more detailed
explained earlier. To aid in the calculation of listings.
these heat losses, ASHRAE publishes the ex- Degree days gauge heating requirements over
pected winter design temperatures and the the long run. One degree day occurs for every
monthly and yearly total degree days for many day the average outdoor temperature is 1°F be-
cities and towns in the United States. low 65°F. which is the base for degree day
The maximum heat loss rate occurs when the calculatiuns because most houses don’t require
temperature is lowest, and you need some idea any heating until outdoor temperatures fall be-
of the lowest likely temperature in your locale low this level. For example. if the outdoor air
in order to size a conventional heating unit, The temperature remained constant at 30°F for the
ASHRAE HtrttdhooX-c~f’Ftrrr~l~rttt~~ttttr1.s
provides entire month of January. then 3l(hS - 30) =
three choices-the “median of annual cx- IO85 degree days would result. Both monthly
tremes” and the “YY% ” and “07 I/Z4 *’ dc<ign and yearly total degree days are listed in these
temperatures. The median of annual extremes tables, but only the months from September to
is the average of the lowest winter temperatures May are included here because very little heat-
recorded in each of the past 30 to 40 years. The ing is needed in summer. The yearly total de-
“YY% ” and”Y7 I/2% ” design temperatures arc gree days are the sum over all I2 months. More
the temperatures which arc normally exceed- complete listings of monthly and yearly degree
cd during those percentages of the time in days can be found in the ASHRAE Gui& utuf
December. January and February. We list the Dater Book or Hatuihoctk of Ftttt~krtttc~tttols.
“Y7 l/2’% ” temperatures here together with the (Sources: ASHRAE. G’uidt~utrd Duta Book. 1070;
average winter temperatures. For example, the ASHRAE. Hatulbaok rtj Ftut~crtttetttcrls.19X1,
temperature will tall below IY”F for 2 I/2 per- reprinted by permission. )
172
Degree Days and Design Temperatures
- - - - - - -
rrg.
inrer csign CUlY
:.I.8 Cit) Jar )CC JP” :cb HU \P’ fl.Y
=w .Olll
=mp
Rapd CII) JI P F Liii y97 i-z I. iz zi- 615 Ei zz-
5O”X balls 06 I4 ltl 162 ‘T2 361 I! 185 082 573 270 7839
Urfrlul 02 11 il !Jb 573 528 I528 700 598 261 tin 4143
Chrrranoo~a UJ I3 I8 143 468 !I98 722 577 453 !5U 25 3254
lin”avdlr .9 2 I3 30 171 4nv 725 i32 513 493 I9LI 43 3494
Mcmphtr us t- II) l3U 447 b9B 72V 5n5 45b 147 22 3232
%‘rrh~,llc 8 9 12 30 i5n 495 732 ;:a 544 512 I89 40 35711
01, mp,, i4 2 LI 1)x 12.2 h3b n34 075 045 45U 3,); 3230
\CII1IC lb v 2x 29 329 543 738 5v9 577 3Vb ,242 4424
\pdU”C lb 5 2 bn $93 “79 ! I 231 VW w34 53t LWI bb55
Hall4 Nrllr ,3 tt I2 w: 3tu OHI 1 YHE 745 342 17: 4ttll3
\ Ahlmr IV , 6 44 +5t1 H2X 1 I lb3 Hhtt 713 435 22( 594,
a\,, < .r\prr I3 4 -II 92 524 042 3 I 20, uni 657 3x 7410
6 hr, Cnnr 54 2 b IV 543 VU9 5 t 21. 04: 7112 421 73wt
t 4n.h II 4 ~I6 04 555 ox 4 ; 41’ I4! 054 3H 7tt:It
\hC,I.,A” 3: 5 -I? IV 53u V4H 1, t 35’ I52 042 301 :o(Lu
- - - - - - - -
175
The conduction heat flow through a wall. win- values are quoted for a temperature of 75°F.
dow. door. roof. ceiling. or hoor decreases as Further tables list R-values for surface air
more rrsistonce is placed in the path of the how. films and for air spaces, both of which have
All materials have some resistance to conduc- insulating values. These R-values vary mark-
tion heat Row. Those that have high resistance edly with the reflectance of the surfaces facing
are called insulators; those with low resistance the air film or space. Radiation heat flow is very
are called c*ort~~~~tors. slow across an air space with aluminum toil on
Insuiators are compared to one another ac- one side. for example, and the R-value of such
cording to their R-values, which are a measure an air space is correspondingly high. This is
of their resistance. The R-value of a material why tiberglass batt insulation is often coated
increases with its thickness-a Z-inch thick sheet with an aluminized surface. In the tables we
of polystyrene has twice the resistance of a I- have used three categories of surface: non-
inch sheet. And two similar building materials reflective (such as painted wood or metal). fairly-
that differ in density will also differ in R-value. refective (such as aluminum-coated paper). and
Generally. though not always, the lighter ma- highly-reflective (such as metallic foil). The R-
terial will have a higher R-value because it has value of an air film or air space also depends
more pockets of air trapped in it. Finally. the on the orientation of the surface and the direc-
average temperature of a material also affects tion of heat How that we are trying to retard.
its R-va!ue. The colder it gets. the htter most These differences are reflected in the tables.
materials retard the flow of heat. The total resistance R, of a wall or other
Knowledge of the R-values of insulators and building surface is just the sum of the R-values
other components permits us IO calculate the of a!! its components-including air films and
heat trrmsmission through a wall or other build- spaces. The coefficient of heat transmission. or
ing surface. Toward this end, we list the R- U-value. is the inverse of the total resistance
values of many common buliding materials in (U = I/R,). To get the rate of heat loss through
the tirst table. R-values are given per inch of a wall. for example. you multiply its U-value
thickness and for standard thicknesses. If you by the total surface area of the wall and by the
have some odd size I listed in the table. use temperature difference between the indoor and
the R-value per inch thickness and multiply by outdoor air. The next table in this section lists
its thickness. Unless otherwise noted, the R- U values for windows and skylights. Here, again.
176
Insulating Values of Materials
the U-value depends upon the surface orienta- below for hard coat. soft coat and suspended
tion. the direction of heat flow, and the season film. low-e glass
of the year. The U-values in these tables apply
only to 1he glazing surfaces; to include the ef-
fects of a wood sash, multiply these U-values U-Values
by about 80 to 90 percent. depending upon the Cilazing Air Space Winter Su:,,mer
area of the wood.
Recently hard coat, low-e glass. a new kind suspended -3:8” 0.3 0.28
film I/4” 0.3 1 0.35
of low-emissivity (low-e) coated glazing. be-
l/2” 0.23 0.25
came available. It stands up better than soft coat
low-e glass and shares many of soft coat’s en- (Data from the Sealed Insulated Glass Manufactu&
ergy conserving properties. U-values are shown Association.)
177
The New Solar Home Book
BUILDING MEMBRANE
INSULATING MATERIALS
Blanket mad Battd
Mineral Fiber, fibrous form processed
from rock, slag. or glass
approx.e 3-4 in ............................ 0.3-2.0 - IP
approx.e 3.5 in ............................ 0.3-2.0 -
approx.c 5.5-6.5 in ......................... 0.3-2.0 - :$
approx.c 6-7.5 in. ......................... 0.3-2.0 - 22*
approx.c 9-loin ........................... 0.3-2.0 - 3od
approx.r 12-13 in .......................... 0.3-2.0 - 38*
Thermal Properties of Typical Building and Insulating Materials-Design Values’
PLASTERING MATERIALS
Cement plaster, sand aggregate. II6 0.20
Sand aggregate. . . iii;; ii - - 0.0s
Sand aggregate .0.75 in. - 0.15
Gypsum plasfer:
Lightweight aggregate. . 0.5 in. 45 - 0.32
1 ighiweight aggregate ... b:625 in. 45 - 0.39
Lightweight agg. on metal lath. .0.75 in.
Perlite aggregate . . . ... . . . .s 0.67 0.47
-
Thermal Properties of Typical Building and lnsulatiag Materials--Design Values’
MASONRY MATERIALS
Concretes
Cement mortar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II6 0.20 -
Gypsum-fiber concrete 87.5% gypsum,
12.5% woodchips.. . ...... ............... 51 0.60 -
Lightweight aggregates including ex- 120 0.19 -
panded shale, clay or slate; expanded 100 0.28 -
slags; cinders; pumice; vermiculite; 80 0.40 -
also cellular concretes 60 0.59 -
40 0.86 -
1.11 -
:: 1.43 -
Perlite. expanded . ... ...... . . . .... .. 40 1.08 -
1.41 -
:8 2.00 -
Sand and gravel or stone aggregate
(ovendried).. ............................. 140 0.11 -
Sand and gravel or stone aggregate
(notdried)................................. I40
stucco...................................... II6 Z:E -
-~
MASONRY UNITS
Brick, common1 .............................. 120 0.20 -
Brick, face’. ................................. 130 0.11 -
Clay tile, hollow:
lcelldeep.. ........................... .3in. - - 0.80
I celldeep ............................. .4in. - - 1.11
2cellsdeep ............................ .6in. - - 1.52
Zcellsdeep ........................... ..Ein. - - 1.85
2 cells deep ............................ IO in. - - 2.22
3 cells deep ............................ I2 in. - - 2.50
Concrete blocks, three oval core:
Sand and gravel aggregate ................ .4 in. - - 0.71
................. 8 in. - - 1.11
............. I2 in. - - 1.28
Cinderaggregate ..... .::::. ............ .:i;. - - 0.86
........................ - - 1.11
........................ 8 in: - - 1.72
........................ I2 in. - - 1.89
Lightweight aggregate .................... 3 in. - - 1.27
(expanded shale, clay, slate. ............. .4 in. - - 1.50
or slag; pumice): ...................... .8 in. - - 2.00
I2 in. - - 2.27
Concrete blocks, r~k&&l.& core:r:; ..........
Sand and gravel aggregate
Zcore.Bin.36Ib. ......................... - - 1.04
Same with filled cores’ ...................... - - 1.93
Lightweight aggregate (expanded shale,
clay, slate or slag, pumice):
3core.6in. l9lb. ......................... - - 1.6s
Same with filled cores’ ...................... - - 2.99
2core.Sin.24Ib. ......................... - - 2.18
Same with filled cores’ ...................... - - 5.03
3core. 12in.38lb .......................... - - 2.48
Same with filled cores’ ...................... -
Stone, lime or sand. ........................... - 0% 5.82
-
ROOFING”
Asbestos-cement shingles ....................... 120 - 0.21
Asphalt roll roofing ........................... - 0.15
Asphalt shingles .............................. :x - 0.44
Built-up roofing ...................... .0.375 in. 70 - 0.33
Slate ................................. .0.5 in. - - 0.05
Wood shingles. plain and plastic film faced. ......... - - 0.94
SIDING MATERIALS (on flat surface)
Shingles
Asbestos-cement ............................ 120 - 0.21
Wood, I6 in., 7.5 exposure .................... - - 0.87
Wood, double, Idin., 12.in. exposure. ........... - - 1.19
Wood, plus insul. backer board, 0.3 I25 in. ........ - - 1.40
Siding
Asbestos-cement, 0.25 in., lapped ............... - - 0.21
Asphalt roll siding. .......................... - - 0. is
Asphalt insulating siding (0.5 in. bed.). ........... 0.67 1.46
Hardboard siding, 0.4375 in .................... i-o
Wood, drop, I l 8 in. ........................ - - 0.79
Wood.bevel.0.5 l Bin..lapped.. .............. - - 0.81
Wood, bevel.0.75 l IOin.,lapped .............. - - 1.05
Wood, plywood, 0.375 in., lapped. .............. - - 0.59
Aluminum or Steelm, over sheathing
Hollow-backed ............................. - - 0.61
Insulating-board backed nominal
0.375in. ................................ - - 1.82
Insulating-board backed nominal
0.375 in., foil backed. ...................... 2.96
Architectural glass ............................ - - 0.10
WOODS (12% Moisture ContentP-P
Hardwoods
Oak.. .................................... 41.2-46.8 0.89-0.80 -
Birch ..................................... 42.6-45.4 0.87-0.82 -
Maple .................................... 39.8-44.0 0.94-0.88 -
Ash ...................................... 38.4-41.9 0.94-0.88 -
Softwoods
Southern Pine. ............................. 35.6-41.2 1.00-0.89 -
Douglas Fir-Larch. .......................... 33.5-36.3 1.06-0.99 -
Southern Cypress ........................... 31.4-32.1 1.11-1.09 -
Hem-Fir, Spruce-Pine-Fir. .................... 24.5-31.4 1.35-1.11 -
West Coast Woods, Cedars .................... 21.7-31.4 1.48-1.11 -
California Redwood ......................... 24.5-28.0 1.35-1.22 -
PExccpt where otherwise noted. all values are for a mean temperalure of 75 F. Rcprcscmative values for dry materials. selected by ASHRAE TC 4.4, are intended
as design (not specificalion) values for materials in normal use. lnsulatlon malerials in actual service may huvc thermal values that vary from design values depending
on rhelr in-situ propertics (e.g.. density and moisture conlcm). For properties of a particular product. use Ihe value supplied by the manufacturer or by unbiased tests.
bTo obtain thermal conductivirie: in But/h*ftZ*F. divide the Avalue by I2 in./ft.
c Resistance values are the reciprocals of C before rounding off C 10 IWOdecimal places.
*Does not include paper backing and facing, if any. Where insulation forms a boundary (reflective or otherwise) of an air space, see Tables 2A and 28 for the
insulating value of an air spacewith Ihe appropriate effective emirrance and lempcrature conditions of the space.
CConductivity varies with fiber diameter. (See Chapter 20. Thermal Conductivity section.) Insulation is produced in different densities, therefore. rherc is a wide
variation in thickness for the same R-value among manufacturers. No effort should be made 10 relate any specific R-value to any specific density or thickness.
‘Values are for aged, unfaced. board stock. For change in conducrivity with age of expanded urethane. see Chapter 20, Factors Affecting Thermal Conductivity.
alnsuladng values of acoustical rile vary, depending on density of the board and on type. size and depth of perforadons.
hASTM C 855-77 recognizes the specification of roof insulation on the basis of the C-values shown. Roof insulation is made in thickness to vcct these values.
‘Face brick and common brick do noI always have these specific densities. When densily differs from that shown, there will be a change in thermal conductiviry.
‘At 45 F mean tempcralurc. Data on rectangular core concrete blocks differ from the above data on oval core blccks. due IO core configuration, different mean
rcmperatura. and possibly differences in uni1 weights. Weight data on the oval core blocks tested arc not available.
h Weights of units approximarcly 7.625 in. high and 15.75 in. long. These weights are given as a means of describing the blocks ~cstcd. but conducrance values are
all for I h2 of area.
‘Vermiculite, pcrlilc. or mineral wool insulation. Where insulation is used, vapor barriers or other precautions must be considered 10 keep insulation dry.
mValues for metal siding applied over flat surfaces vary widely. depending on amount of ventilation nf air space beneath the siding; whether air space is reflective
or nonreflective; and on thickness. type. and applicarion of insulating backing-board used. Values given are averages for USCas design guides, and were obtained
from several guarded hotbox tests (ASTM C236) or calibrated hotbox (ASTM C 976) on hollow-backed types and types made using backing-boards of wood fiber,
foamed plastic. and glass fiber. Departures of*50% or more from the values given may occur.
“Time-aged values for board slack with gas-barrier quality (0.001 in. thickness or greater) aluminum foil lacers on tow major surfaces.
=‘SecRef. 5.
PScc Ref. 6. 7. 8 and 9. The conductivity values listed are for hear transfer across rhe grain. The thermal conductivi!y of wood varies linearly with the density and
the density ranges listed arc those normally found for rhe wood species given. If the dcnsify of Ihe wood species is not known. use the mean conductivity value.
Insulating Values of Materials
*Winter conditions.
t Summer conditions.
SOUKCE: ASIIKAI:. Ilumfhook o/‘~undunrc~r~k?~s. 1972. Reprinted by permission
183
The New Solar Home Book
Description U-values’
Winter Summer
Vertical panels:
Single pane flat glass 1.13 1.06
lnsularing glass-double2
3/l 6” air space 0.69 0.64
l/4” air spa0: 0.65 0.61
l/2” air space 0.5 8 0.56
Insulating glass-trlple2
l/4” air spares 0.47 0.45
l/2” air spaces 0.36 0.35
Storm windows
l-4” air space 0.56 0.54
Glass blocks”
6 X 6 X 4” thick 0.60 0.57
8 X 8 X 4” thick 0.56 0.54
same, with cavity divider 0.48 0.46
Single plastic sheet 1.09 1.00
I lorizontal panels:4
Single pane flat glass 1.22 0.83
insulating glass--double’
3/l 6” air space 0.75 0.49
l/-C” air space 0.70 0.46
l/2” air space 0.66 0.44
Glass blocks-
11 X 11 X 3” thick,
with cuvity divider 0.5 3 0.35
12 X 12 X 4” thick,
with cavity divider 0.5 1 0.34
Pl;lstIc bu hblJ
single-walled 1.15 0.80
dout,le-walled 0.70 0.46
’ in unit\ of Ktu/hr/fr’PI;
-I
&ulde and triple rrfcr to thr number of lights of glass
.l
nc~m~nsl Jimcn\icln\
4~~-valucs for horirontal panels arc for heat flow U/I in
writer and Ilorcvt in summer.
Sl~awd cm arca of opening. not surface.
SOl’Kt:IC. ASI IKAbl. tlutrllbrJok O] Furrllul?llvrruls. 1972.
I<cprintcJ by pernwsion.
The Heat Conduction Cost Chart provided here (2) Real environmental cost of using fossil
simplifies the calculation of total seasonal heat fuels-this particularly includes pollution
loss through wall, roof, or floor. It also facili- and the depletion of natural resources, both
tates the study of alternative constructions and directly as fuels bum and indirectly as they
possible savings due to added insulation. An are brought to the consumer from the source.
example of the use of the chart is included: (3) Initial investment cost--use of the proper
multiplication factor would give the quan-
* For a building surface with a U-value of 0.58.
tity of increased investment made possible
start at point ( I ).
by resultant yearly fuel savings.
* Follow up the oblique line to the horizontal
line representing the total heating degree days For example, heat costs may increase by a factor
for the location, in this case 7.000 degree days of IO. Continue down from the last point until
(2). you intersect the oblique line representing the
* Move vertically from this point to find a heat multiplication factor IO (8). Then move hori-
loss of 95.000 Btu/ft’ per season for the sur- zontally left to arrive at the adjusted seasonal
face (3). heating cost through the building surface of $862
9 Continue vertically to the oblique line rep- (9).
resenting the total area of the surface, 100 The numerical values of the chart can be
square feet (4). changed by a factor of ten. For example, to
l Moving horizontally from this point, the total determine the heat transfer through a really good
heat loss through the entire surface for the exterior wall, U = 0.05. use U = 0.5 on the
season is 9.SOO.000 Btu (5). chart and divide the final answer by ten. Each
* Continue horizontally to the oblique line rep- of the graphs can be used independently of one
resenting the cost per million Btu of heat en- another. For example, knowing a quantity of
ergy, in this case $9 per million Btu (6). energy and its price, the upper right graph gives
* Moving vertically down from this point. the the total cost of that energy.
total cost for the season of the heat through The Heat Conduction Cost Chart can help
that surface is $86 (7). you compare the energy costs of two different
methods of insulation. For example, an insu-
lated stud wall has a U-value of 0.07 and an
The lower right graph converts the apparent
uninsulated wall has a U-value of 0.23. The
cost to a “real cost of energy” through the use
d#hxv~ce 0.23 - 0.07 = 0.16 can be run through
of a multiplication factor. This factor might re-
the chart in the same way as done for a single
Hect:
U-value. Assuming 5000 degree days. 100 square
! I ) Estimated future cost of energy-design de- feet of wall. and $9 per million Btu. the savings
cisions based on present energy costs make in heating costs for one year is about $21. or
little sense as costs soar. rnore than the cost of insulation.
185
r---m--r-
J / 1/’ l/i+7 I
P
The use of this chart to calculate the costs of As with the Heat Conduction Cost Chart. the
heat loss through air intiltration is similar to the bottom right graph permits a conversion of this
USC‘of the Heat Conduction Cost Chart. An ex- apparent cost to a “real cost of energy” through
ample of it5 use is included: the use of a multiplication factor. In this ex-
ample. a factor of IO is used. Contintie down
l Start at point t I) for an air infiltrution rate ot from the last point until you intersect the oblique
45 ft’ithr ft). line representing a multiplication factor IO (8).
l Follow up the oblique line to the horizontal Then move horizontally left to arrive at an ad-
line representing the total heating degrer days justed heating cost of about $270 per heating
I’or the location. in this case 7O(liI degree days season (9).
(2). As with the previous chart. you can use this
l Move vertically from this point to tind that Air intiltration Cost Chart to make quick eval-
l4-1.tHW) Btu are consumed each heating sea- uations of the savings resulting from changes
son per crack foot (3). in the rate of air infiltratrion. For example. if a
l Continue vertically to the oblique lint car- wood-sash. double-hung window is weather-
rcxponding to the total crack length, in this stripped. the air intiltration ratr will drop from
case 30 feet (3). 39 to 2-I cubic feet per hour per crack foot. By
l Move horizontally from this point to the total moving through the chart from a starting point
seasonal heat loss through the window crack- of IS ft ‘/(hr ft). you arrive ultimately at the
4.4oo.ooo Htu (5). savings resulting from weatherstripping. As-
l (‘ontinue hori/.ontally tu the oblique line rtp- suming 5000 degree days. IS feet of crack. and
rcscntiq the cost per million Btu of heat en- $9 per million Btu. we get an immediate savings
ergy. in this case Ir;h per million Btu (h). of about $6 in the tirst heating season. Since
. Move vcrticully down from this point to the weatherstripping costs a ftw cents per foot, it
total cost for heat lost through the crack during can pay for itself in fuel savings within a few
an entire heating season. or !$%.75. ,veeks.
187
il;: 6 : c p1. 3 ( !
p !. .i .: i ef:
.., ;_ :, f
, , ,. (.!. . , *
-.
$8
. . . . . . . * + 3
I 3
. . . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . . t.+
K.
. r++
* . . . . . .
Radiation is an important method of heat trans- a = I,/1 = absorbed solar energy!
fer between two surfaces. As explained earlier, incident solar energy
any warm body emits energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. We might say every The reflectarrce (represented by the Greek letter
warm object has an “aura” that is invisible to Rho, or p) and transtnittmm (represented by
our eyes. the Greek letter Tau. or 7) are similarly defined
Sunlight is one form of electromagnetic ra- ratios:
diation and thermal radiation is another. They
differ only in wavelength. Sunlight comes in p = 141 = re fleeted solar energy/
wavelengths ranging from 0.3 to 3.0 microns. incident solar energy
The wavelengths of thermal radiation from warm
bodies (say 1OC”F) range from 3 to 50 microns
When radiation strikes a surface, of any ma- T = 1,/I = transmitted solar energy/
terial, it is either absorbed, refiected. or trans- incident solar energy
mitted. Each material absorbs, reflects, and
transmits radiation differently-according to its Because all the sunlight is either absorbed, re-
physical and chemical characteristics and the flected, or transmitted, a t p + T = I. For
wavelength of the incoming radiation. For ex- opaque solids, no energy is transmit!ed, so that
ample, glass transmits most of the sunlight hit- a + p = I or p = I - a. If we know the
ting it but absorbs almost all thermal radiation. absorptance of an opaque material. we also know
We can assign numerical ratings that gauge its reflectance.
the percentage of radiation absorbed, reflected, Once absorbed, this radiant energy is trans-
or transmitted by a material. These numbers formed into heat energy-the motion of mol-
depend upon the temperature of the material and ecules. The body becomes warmer and emits
the wavelength of the radiation. We usually de- more radiation of i!.; own. The emittance (rep-
fine the absorptance (represented by the Greek resented by the Greek letter Epsilon, or E of a
letter Alpha, or a) of a material as the ratio of material is a numerical indicator of that mate-
solar energy (in the wavelength range 0.3 to 3.0 rial’s propensity to radiate away its energy. The
microns) absorbed to the total solar energy in- emittance is defined as the ratio of the thermal
cident: radiation emitted from a material to the thermal
189
The New Solar Home Rook
radiation emitted iy a hypothetical “black- one who has walked barefoot from parking lot
body” with the same shape and temperature: to beach can testify
The ratio a/e of the absorptance (of short-
E = R,/R,
wave solar radiation) to the emittance (of long-
= radiation from material/
wave thermal radiation) has special importance
radiation from blackbody
in the design of solar collectors. In general, you
With t = 1. the blackbody is a theoretically want materials with high values of Q/E for the
“perfect” emitter of thermal radiation. absorber coating. Then a large percentage of
A knowledge of the absorptances and emit- solar radiation is absorbed, but only a small
lances of materials helps us to evaluate their amount lost by re-radiation. Materials with high
relative thermal performance. For example, brick. values of both a and a/r are called “selective
masonry and concrete have emittances around surfaces. ”
O.%--so they are better heat radiators than gal- The ensuing tables list absorptances and
vanized iron, which has an emittance between emittances of many common and some uncom-
0. I3 and 0.28. With an absorptance greater than mon materials. They are grouped into two cat-
0.9. asphalt paving absorbs much more of the egories according to whether a/c is less than or
sunlight than sand (a = 0.60 to 0.75). as any- greater than I .O.
Different matcrlais abosorb different amounts sorbed per pound per “F temperature rise at a
of heat while undergoing the same temperature tixed temperature. Over a wider temperature
rise. F<,r example. ten pounds of water will range. the mean specific heat Is the average
abso~l) 100 Btu during a 10°F temperature rise, number of Btu’s absorbed per pound per “F
but IO pounds of cast iron will absorb only I2 temperature rise. In the following table only true
Btu over the same range. There are two com- specitic heats are given-for room temperature
mon measures of the ability of material to ab- unless otherwise noted.
sorb and store heat-its specific heat and its The heat capacity of a material is the amount
heat capacity. of heat absorbed by one cubic foot of that ma-
The specific heat of a material is the number terial during a 1°F temperature rise. The heat
of Btu absorbed by a pound of that material as capacity is just the product of the density of the
its temperturc rises 1°F. .All specific heats vary material (in Ib/ft ‘1 times its specitic heat (Btu!
with temperature and a distinction must be made (Ib”F)). Specitic heats. heat capacities, and
between the true and the mean specilic heat. densities of common building materials and other
The true specilic heat is the number of Btu ab- substances are given in the following table.
192
Spc- ific Heats and Heat Capacities of Materials
-
Material Specific tiedt Density Heat Capacity
(Btu/lb/‘F) (Iblft’ ) (Btu/ft310F)
-- -
Ilay 0.22 65 13.9
:oal 0.3 90 27.0
bicrete (stone) 0.22 144 31 7
:oppr- (elcctrulytic) 0.092 556 51.2
.:ork cgrdnuiated) 0.485 5.4 2.6
‘:otion (f&m) 0.319 95 30.3
lithyl dct:hol I 0.68 49.3 33.5
Flreclav brlcii 0.198 (2121 112 22.2
‘;iars, crown tsoda-hmc) 0.18 I54 27.7
Xlass, flmt (lead) 0.117 267 31.2
3lass. pyrcx 0.20 139 27.8
:;Ll\s. ‘WCNII” 0.157 3.25 0.5
C;vvutnI’ 0.25Y 78 20.2
I I~~P:~ ! fl!wr1 0.323 93 30.0
ICC 0.487 1321 57.5 28.0
Irlln. i.w it I’l2l2l 450 54.0
! .CJII 0.03 1 707 21.8
I.llllrsrllne 0.2 17 103 22.4
%la~gnc\wm 0.241 1on 26.0
%larldc 0.2 1 162 34.0
N,<kCl 0.105 555 58.3
.lctdnc 0.5 I 43.9 22.4
?apcr 0.32 58 18.6
Pdrafiln 0.69 56 38.6
P~wceldui 0.1 H I62 29.2
IZ,)Cl \JIl 0.2 I9 136 29.8
i;.llt w.Ircr 0.75 72 54.0
L(.IIl,l 0. I4 I Y4.6 18.1
SIIIC.1 1; 316 I40 44.2
Silver 0.056 654 36.6
Srccl (Illllll) 0. I2 -MY 58.7
Sronc tquxrwl) 0.2 95 19.0
‘rlfl ().I156 455 25.5
I’unprrn 0.032 12lrb 3H.7
Wdtrr I.0 1391 02.4 62.4
\V,,cd. whnc c~li 0.5 70 47 26.8
\VOI~. whnc fir 0.65 27 17.6
W~Nld. \vhltc pnr 0 67 27 18. I
Zinc 0.092 445 40.9
193
METRX J ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS
TEMPERATURE
20 3,7 80 80 100
I
I I I I I
8o 160 212
water ::A: water
freezes temperature boils
VI
..
5
.-
2 3
D2
= x
g
absorbent--the less volatile of the two balance of system--the components other
working fluids used in an absorption cooling than the photovohaic cells that make up a
device. photovoltaic system.
absorber--the blackened surface in a col- British thermal unit, or Btu--the quantity
lector that absorbs the solar radiation and con- of heat needed to raise the temperature of I
verts it to heat energy. pound of water 1°F.
absorptance--the ratio of solar energy ab- calorie--the quantity of heat needed to raise
sorbed by a surface to the solar energy strik- the temperature of I gram of water 1°C.
ing it. closed-loop-any loop in the system sepa-
active system--a solar heating or cooling rated from other loops by a heat exchanger;
system that requires external mechanical power often closed to the atmosphere as well.
to move the collected heat. coefficient of heat transmission, or U-value
air-type collector-a collector with air as --the rate of heat loss in Btu per hour through
the heat transfer Huid. a square foot of a wall or to the building
altitude--the angular oistance from the ho- surface when the difference between indoor
rizon to the sun. and outdoor air temperatures is 1°F. meas-
ambient temperature--the temperature of ured in Btu/‘hr ft’“F).
surrounding outside air. collector-any of a wide variety of devices
aperture-solar collection area. used to collect solar energy and covert it to
RAE--abbreviation for the American heat.
Society of Heating. Air-Conditioning and collector efficiency--the ratio of heat energy
ltefrigerating Engineers. extracted from a collector to the solar energy
auxiliary heat--the extra heat provided by striking the cover, expressed in percent.
a conventional heating system for periods of collector tilt--the angle between the hori-
cloudiness or intense cold, when a solar heat- zontal plane and the collector plane.
ing system cannot provide enough. concentrating collector-a device which uses
azimuth--the angular distance between true reflective surfaLes to concentrate the sun’s
south and the point on the horizon directly rays onto a smaller area, where they are ab-
below the sun. sorbed and coverted to hear energy.
196
Glossary
197
The New Solar Home Book
198
Glossary
I99
Ahsorbcnt. Yl ASHRAE Hatullmd o/’ ~rtrrckrnrc,rrrc!Is. 50
Absorber coatings. IOI-10.3. 107 Attic insulation. 43
Absorhcr &sip. OX. YY Autumnal cquinclx. IO
Absorber cflicicncy. IOtt Auxi1i.q heating. 5. 136. IJS
Absorber platch. X-l. IW 101. IO5 Arimuth angle. 50
Absorbers. 5: Arimuth. solar. IO, I I
ahsorptancc. rcllsctancc and cniittancc. 32. 32: tlat-
plate collector. OX; Thoma>on. YY: tube silt. YY- I()():
Backup hcatcr. X4
air blat-plate collector. 105; hcnt loss. I I-I. I 15. S&J t~/.~,~
Batch hcatcrs. 7 l-73
Absorber coatings. Ahsorbcr &sign: Ahsorbcr cfh-
Bimfy \toragc. 112
ciency: Ahsorbcr pla~rs: Absorbers, ;ltr typ
Bread box hatch hcatcr. 71-72
Ahsorbcrs. au type. 105. I07
Brick. Sh. hh. hX
Ahsorptancc. 3 I-33
British Thcrmd Vnit. 3
Absorption coohng. Yh. 07
Act& heating \y\tcm. YO-0’
Active dnr DHW \y\trms. 7h Calorie. 3. I2
Actlvc \olar systsmh. X7 c’cllulosc lihcr. -13
ACtIvc systems. 4 Ccntrc Nation& dc Ia Rcchcrchc Scicntiliquc (CNRS).
Xlhrhc. I. 2x. 5h 67
Air harrier. ?(, Chimney cffcct. 5Y
Air Ilat-plate collector\. 105. IOh Clear day msolation. rd. IJO
Air Ilow. ItK. It17 Clear day insolation data. 1% IS. I I7
Air mhltmtion. 21.23. 34. 35 Climatic Atlas of the llnitcd States. 19. 23. 37. 139
Air leakapc. 107 Closed-loop DHW syhtcms. 74. 76. Srr dsn Domestic
Air quality. 36 hot war (DHW)
AII svstcms. Y2 Cloud-loop sy\tcni. 7X
Air-to-air heat cxchangcrs. 36 C’NRS wall collector. h2
Atr-to-lquid heat crchangcr\. X2 Cocflicicnt of heat transmission. IH. I9
Air-type ccdlectors. IO7 Cocfliclcnt of Performance (COP). 136. I37
Altitude. dar, IO. I I. 50 (‘old-wall cffcct 4 I
Antlfrccre \y\tcms. 82 Collector cfticicncy. I 14-l 15;
Antgfrcczc. Y I. OZ. 04 two-tank system, K-I: effect of heat exchanger. 94; ab-
Argonne National I ,ahrr;ltom sorber cflictency. I(W)- IO1 : effect of temperature. I33
ASHRAE. 14. IH. 22. 30. ;i ‘t)” Collector orientation. X3. I I7- I I9
201
Index
Collector performance. 114-I 19: estimating performance, Estimating collector performance. See Collector perform-
121, 122 ance
Collector. size. 114. 119. 120-124 Estimating collector size, I24
Colcr of roofs and walls 31 Estimating storage size, I34
Compound parabolic concentrator (WC). 109-l IO Eutectic salts, 74. 126. 132
Concentrating collectors. 5. 96. 109. I IO Evacuated closed-loop system, 75
Concrete collector, 63 Evacuated-tube collectors, 96, I IO- I I2
Concrete slab, 57. 95 Evacuated-tube &sign, I I I. I I2
Concrete wall collectors. 62
Concrete walls. 63 F-Chart. 6X
Concrete. 66. 6X. X9 Fans, 60. 66, 91
Conductance. I7- I9 Flat-plate collector. 5. 72. 73, 9X
Conduction. I6 I Y Focusing collectors, 107
Conduction heat How. 21 Forced-air panels (FAP), 60
Conduction heat loss. 24 Forced-air systems, 89. 90
Conductivity. 17 Forced conveciion. I7
Conservatory. 6X Freeze protection, 75. 79
C~rnstruction industry. I-17 Freeze snap switch, 76. 79
Controls, YS
Convection. 2. 16; heat loss . 2 I-23; thcmmsiphoning. SY Glass. 7;
Cooling. solar. I2Y heat loss through windows. 3Y; in high-performance
Corrosion. X6. YJ. YY glazing. 40. 41; history, 44; solar benefit values, 45;
Corrosion prcvcntion. I(X) specialized types, 47: shading, SO; cover plates. 102
Cover plates. 5: Glaubers salt, 128. 132. 133
iiqutd hat-plutc collectors. IOI- 103: air hat-plate col- Glazing properties. -I I
Icctors. 107; evacuated tube collector. III Glazing: greenhouse effect. 3:
CPC cva;ualrd tube collector. I I3 solar heat gain and loss, 47. 4X: sunspaccs. 65. 66:
Crack Icnpth. 23 cover plates, I03
Government incentives, 14X
Danipcrs. 61. Y I Gravel heat storage. 130. I32
1)cclination angle. Y Greenhouse effect. 3. 28
Dcgrcc day. IY. 20 Grcenhou\es. 6X. 71. 74
Dcgrcc d;iy4 and dcstgn tcmpcraturcs. 20
Dcgrcc hrjurs. 20 Hard-coat glass. 40
Dcstpn heat load. 24. 26 Heat capacities of common materials. 56
I)rsign tcmpcraturcs. I 9. 2-l Heat capacity, 56
Diffcrcntial cturtrollcr. 76. 7Y-X7 Heat distribution. 135 I36
Ihll’uw rad(at(on. I?. I? HcJt cxchangcrs:
Direct pain systems. -1. 4-t. 6X thermosiphoning water heaters, 73; drainback systems.
Direct mass. 5X 70-X2; space heating. XY, 94: with a water tank. I30
Direct radiation. I. I3 Heat how. I6IX;
Dtrccl-mount PV may. I43 radiation, 23-24: calculations. 24
IIomcstrc hot watsr IIIHWI. S. 6Y. 70; Heat Illad calculations. 2-t-25
~WAIVC solar. 7 I. XIIVC solar. 76-77; wtth qcc hcat- Heat loss. 34;
Ill&!. XY conduction, 17. IX; convection , 21: radiation. 23-24;
I)rainback systems. 70-X2. YY windows. 3X-40: insulation to reduce, 41
Draindown systems. X0 Heat Mirror’*. 40
Heat pipe cvacuatcd tube. I I2
t+ctromapnctic qh2ctrur11. 2 Heat pump. 136. lY6
fmittancc (c ). 3 I-33 Heat storapc. 3. 2X. 12X-135;
Fncrgy conservation. 27; nicasurcmcnt of, 4: capacities of materials. S4
an mliltrutnnr. 35; auxihary hcatmg. 136; photovolta- Heat storage bm. 60
I<\. I-80 Hcaf storage capacity. S-1, 62. 17X
Energy-cflicient conWuchon. 66 Hsat storage materials, I 29
Estimating array LIIIC. I40 Heat transfer. IOS- I07
202
Index
203
Index