Antwerp Maritime Academy

H I G H V O LTA G E S A F E T Y
ANTWERP MARITIME ACADEMY

Contents
Marine Legislation 11
High Voltage in a Marine Environment 15
Fundamentals of Electricity 21
Basic Fault Level Calculations 29
Equipment 39
Cables 63
Electrical Safety Rules 71
Risk Assesment, Risk Analyses, JHA 73
Permit To Work Systems 89
The Electric Permit to Work System 91
Sanction-to-test system 97
Limitation of Access form 99

4
High Voltage Access 101
Seven steps that save lives 111
Lock out - Tag out 113
Electrical insulation Testing 131
High Voltage Safety 145
General safety instructions for High Voltage Machines 155
Bibliography 159
List of Figures
1 Herald of Free Enterprise 13
2 Low voltage cabletray 15

3 High voltage cabletray 16
4 A resonant frequenty destroyed the Tacoma Narrows bridge 16
5 View of a Low voltage fuse with a loose connection 17
6 Cramped working conditions 17
7 Diesel electric propulsion 17
8 Dual motor electric propulsion unit 18
9 Azipod propulsion 18
10 Dual pod propulsion 18
11 Direct Current (red curve). The horizontal axis measures time; 21

12 Nikola Tesla, inventor, physicist, and electromechanical engineer 21
13 A scrapyard magnet, the induction creates a magnetic forces that
can lift heavy loads 22
14 Instantaneous and average power calculated from AC voltage and
current with a lagging power factor (cosΦ ). The blue line shows
some of the power is returned to the grid during the part of the cy-
cle labeled f. 23
15 The complex power is the vector sum of real and reactive power.
The apparent power is the magnitude of the complex power. Real
power, P Reactive power, Q Complex power, S 23
16 1. Reactive Power Control Relay; 2. Network connection points; 3.
Slow-blow Fuses; 4. Inrush Limiting Contactors; 5. Capacitors (single-
phase or three-phase units, delta-connection); 6. Transformer (for
controls and ventilation fans) 24
17 R S T 120 degrees out of phase 25
18 Graph of a waveform and some distorted versions of the same wave-
form 26
19 Graph of a sine wave’s voltage vs. time (in degrees), showing RMS,
peak, and peak-to-peak voltages 26
20 equipotential grounding to create a protective earth 27
21 ground, earth-ground and signal-ground symbols 28
22 A: Open circuit fault, B: earth fault, C: short circuit fault 29

23 Breaking capacity list 30
24 The IEC 61363 standard 30
25 A typical short circuit waveform for a generator 31
6
26 A short circuit waveform for a generator as for IEC 61363 31

27 A short circuit waveform for an asynchronous motor as for IEC 61363 31
28 Insulated neutral earthed HV generator 32
29 equivalent representation of a cable 33
30 Cable shielding with perforations reduces capacitive coupling 33
31 Neutral earthing transformer 34
32 This could well be the result of a steering gear problem 34
33 arcing damage on a circuit breaker 35
34 hydraulic analogy of a short circuit current 36
35 In general short circuit calculation is done by software 36
36 Circuit to determine the impedance of a transformer 37
37 Electrical distribution system 39

38 High Voltage Marine Switchboard 39
39 16 Ampere circuit breaker can interrupt a short-circuit current of
6000A 40
40 12A contactor can switch on the starting current of 120A of a 12A
nominal motor thousands of times 40
41 current versus time characteristic 41
42 5000A circuit breaker 41
43 6.6Kv generator 43
44 Stator 43
45 Salient Pole Rotor 44
46 brushed excitation 44
47 brushless excitation 45
48 circuit no load saturation 45
49 no load saturation curve 46
50 equivalent circuit of an AC generator 46
51 Isolated Load lagging power factor 48
52 Generator floating on an infinite bus 49
53 Generator floating on an infinite bus 49
54 Over Excited generator on infinite bus 49
55 Over Excited generator on infinite bus 50
56 Under Excited generator on infinite bus 50
57 Under Excited generator on infinite bus 50
58 Varying mechanical torque 50
59 phasor diagram varying torque 51
60 Physical interpretation of alternator behavior 51
61 The N poles of the rotor are ahead of the S poles of the stator 51
62 Automatic Voltage Regulator 52
63 dry type transformer 52
64 single phase voltage transformer 53
65 single phase voltage transformer 54
66 High Voltage current transformer 59
67 The windings of the transformers are offset to cancel the largest
harmonics from the variable frequency drive or VFD. 59
68 High Voltage transformer 60
69 HV drive for asyncronous propulsion motor 61
70 Small frequency drive for asynchronous motors 61
high voltage safety 7
71 Shaft generator inverter 62
72 Cable ratings at 45 C 64
73 Correction factor for ambient air temp of 45 C 65
74 Codes are printed on the outside, according to the production stan-
dard. 65
75 fixed cable trays. 65
76 Telescopic supported wheelhouse. 69
77 Multiple glands with rubber sealing blocks 69
78 Additional fire protection 70
79 Taking a well known risk 71

80 Even 12V battery can pose an enormous risk 71
81 Think Safety 72
82 personel protective equipment 82

83 use robust and insulated tools 84
84 supervision and communication 85
85 LV secure isolation by removing fuses 86
86 low voltage proprietary voltage detector 86
87 additional earth system 87
88 Even 12V battery can pose an enormous equipment to prove a sys-

tem dead 92
89 To use an insulation-tester most of the time we have to remove the
circuit main earth and as a result hereof we need a sanction to test 95
90 With excessive force almost any lock can be opened 114
91 Typical behavior of insulation resistance over a period of months

under varying operating conditions, (curves plotted from spot read-
ings). 132
92 curves showing components of current measured during DC test-
ing of insulation. 133
93 typical curve of insulation resistance (in megohm) with time for
the "short time" or the "spot reading" test method. 134
94 Typical curves showing dielectric absorption effect in a âĂIJtime-
resistanceâĂİ test, made on capacitive equipment such as a large
motor winding. 134
95 Typical card plot of a time-resistance or double-reading test. 134
96 Typical curves with the "step-voltage" test. 135
97 Test curves by the step-voltage method, comparing results with good
and bad insulation. Curve 1 (lower plot) shows definite drop in re-
sistance with increasing voltage, indicating a problem. Curve 2 (up-
per plot) shows conditions found in the same motor winding af-
ter cleaning, baking and impregnating operation. 135
98 Typical drying curve where one-minute readings of insulation re-
sistance are taken every four hours. 137
99 AC- motors /starting equipment 141
100 DC- generators /motors 141
101 Power transformers 142
8
102 The effect of panic 145

103 normal heart rhythm 146
104 A person can be blinded by UV light 146
105 deafness can result... 147
106 The effect of electric current on the human body 147
107 Low currents (70 to 700 mA) usually trigger fibrillation in the heart,
which is reversible via defibrillator but can be fatal without help. 150
108 effect in relation with frequenty and current 150
109 The effects of an arc flash 151
110 arcblast 151
111 equipotential bonding 157

List of Tables
1 source ABB 16
2 Risk Assesment Matrix (Consequences x Likelihood = Risk score). 78

3 Risk scores and actions to be taken. 78
4 Risk Assesment Matrix (Consequences x Likelihood = Risk score). 81
5 Risk scores and actions to be taken. 82
Marine Legislation
Regulations
Competence requirements
STCW Convention International Convention on Standards of
Training, Certification and Watch-keeping for seafarers, known
as the 1978 STCW Convention. Established basic requirements
on Training Certification and Watch-keeping for seafarers on an
international level. Prior to this date individual governments had
their own requirements, as a result standards of competence and
procedures used to vary widely. The STCW convention prescribes
minimum standards which countries are obliged to meet or exceed.
STCW (95) and (2010) amendments The significant changes made

in 1995 on the STCW by the IMO where an amendment to the
original convention and did not have to be ratified as the original
convention as they are only an amendment to it. The most impor-
tant addition to the convention was the creation of the STCW Code
that set stringent standards for seamen to meet. The Manila amend-
ments to the STCW Convention and Code were adopted on 25 June
2010, marking a major revision of the STCW Convention and Code.
The 2010 amendments are set to enter into force on 1 January 2012
under the tacit acceptance procedure and are aimed at bringing
the Convention and Code up to date with developments since they
were initially adopted and to enable them to address issues that are
12
anticipated to emerge in the foreseeable future.

Amongst the amendments adopted, there are a number of im-
portant changes to each chapter of the Convention and Code,
including:
• Improved measures to prevent fraudulent practices associated

with certificates of competency and strengthen the evaluation
process (monitoring of Parties’ compliance with the Convention)
• Revised requirements on hours of work and rest and new re-

quirements for the prevention of drug and alcohol abuse, as well
as updated standards relating to medical fitness standards for
seafarers
• New certification requirements for able seafarers
• New requirements relating to training in modern technology

such as electronic charts and information systems (ECDIS)
• New requirements for marine environment awareness training

and training in leadership and teamwork
• New training and certification requirements for electro technical

officers
• Updating of competence requirements for personnel serving

on board all types of tankers, including new requirements for
personnel serving on liquefied gas tankers
• New requirements for security training, as well as provisions to

ensure that seafarers are properly trained to cope if their ship
comes under attack by pirates
• Introduction of modern training methodology including distance

learning and web-based learning
• New training guidance for personnel serving on board ships

operating in polar waters
• New training guidance for personnel operating Dynamic Posi-

tioning Systems
The above mentioned points are just a bird’s eye view of the discus-
sion held in Manila conference.
STCW Code Part A Part A of the STCW, the mandatory part gives
in detail the minimum standards required to be maintained by
Parties in order to give full and complete effect to the provisions of
the STCW convention.(annex of the STCW convention).
STCW Code Part B Part B gives guidance to assist parties to the

STCW Convention on the implementation and enforcement to
give the STCW Convention full and complete effect in a uniform
manner.
IMO Model Courses In approving training courses and programs,

parties should take into account that the relevant IMO Model
Courses can assist in the preparation of such courses and programs
and ensure that the detailed learning objectives recommended
therein are suitably covered.
ISM code
The general frustration in the shipping industry following the cap-
sizing of the Herald of Free Enterprise on the evening of March
6, 1987 is typical of the kind of accident that precipitated in a
paradigm shift in maritime safety administration and the develop-
ment of the ISM Code. The International Safety Management Code
for the safe operation of ships and for pollution prevention was
adopted by the IMO in 1993 and by the SOLAS conference in 1994.
The text has been amended during the following years and the
amendments came into force in juli 2010.
The code’s purpose is to provide an international standard for
the safe management and operation of ships and for pollution
prevention.
The code was to apply to all commercial ships in the world over
500 ton.
The code gives the freedom to individual shipowners to develop
there own Safety Management System (SMS).
Although the ISM Code takes hazards, accidents and emergency
situations into account there are no specific references to electricity
or electric safety in the text. This does not mean that the code
considers electric safety unimportant, it just gives the shipping
companies the freedom to frame a safety management system
that suits them best and which make them still follow the SOLAS Figure 1: Herald of Free Enterprise
regulations.
High Voltage in a Marine Environment
Important considerations in marine electrical installations
Marine installations almost always have a floating ground (Isolated

neutral or high impedance earthing).
We have to take into consideration the vibrations on a ship.
Technical spaces can be very small.
The temperature is most of the time high but can also be very
cold.
We can have a humidity of near to 100 pro cent.
A ship is completely constructed out of steel which is a excellent
conductor for electricity and heat.
An electrical network in ship application is called an island
network or isolated network meaning that the electrical power is
generated, distributed and consumed in a closed area, the ship.
If failure occurs in the island network only consumers connected
to that network suffer the consequences.
The exception is the shore to ship connection.
Shore to ship arrangements will increase in the future due to
stricter port emission rules.
Why High Voltage on Board of Ships
As the demand for electrical power increases on vessels the supply

current ratings becomes too high for the usual 3 phase 440 V.
To reduce the size of both steady state and fault current levels it
is necessary to specify a higher power system voltage at the higher Figure 2: Low voltage cabletray
power ratings.
In marine practice voltages below 1000 V are considered LV (low
voltage). HV (high voltage) is any voltage above 1 KV.
Typical marine HV system voltages are 3.3 KV and 6.6 KV. 11
KV Systems are emerging with the still increasing power demands.
Low voltage side of the network the voltage levels are 440V, or
680V. By generating electrical power at 6.6 KV instead of 440 V
the distribution and switching of power levels above about 6 MW
becomes more practicable and manageable.
16
Table 1: source ABB

Voltage CB Max.Rating Source or Load % Increase Vs.
(KV) (KA) (MW) 480 V
0.480 4 2.7 -
4.16 3 17.3 6.5 times
6.6 3 27.4 10.3 times
13.8 3 57.4 21.6 times
A high voltage distribution system has low current levels. Lower

current reduces the size of the cables and lower the cost of the
network. Low current levels also lower the losses in the distribution
system. By generating electrical power at 440V from 3 x1 megawatt,
0.8 power factor diesel generator sets, each generator main cable
and circuit breaker has to handle a full load current of:
Figure 3: High voltage cabletray

√
Power (watt) = 3 × Voltage(volt) × Current( amp) × Power f actor (cosφ)
√
P= 3 × U × I × cosφ
Which returns a current of:

1000000
√ = 1640A
3 × 440 × 0.8
If a short circuit fault occurs on one of the outgoing feeder cables

from the main switchboard the feeder circuit breaker would need to
be rated to break a prospective fault current of about 65 KA.
For the same system at 6.6 KV the full-load current of each
generator is:
1000000
√ = 109A
3 × 6600 × 0.8
Also, the fault level at the main board would be as low as 4.5
KA.
In addition to the above, the power loss in an HV installation
may be calculated by:
P = I2 × R
Power loss is reduced if the voltage is stepped up and thus it is

always efficient to transmit power at a higher voltage. These are a
few mayor reasons why vessels have shifted towards high voltage
systems.
Figure 4: A resonant frequenty de-

Vibrations stroyed the Tacoma Narrows bridge
Engine vibrations can create problems of loose connections and in

consequence of mechanical resonance things can extremely move
and even break apart. Loose connections can cause damage. A
loose connection has a resistance and accordingly produces heat.
In the extreme the heat can be so high that it can cause fire. A
loose connection can completely interrupt a circuit and produce
dangerous transients in case of an inductive load. In order to
identify potential overheating problems and or loose connections
the use of thermal imaging equipment for preventive maintenance
can be advised.
Limited Space
On board we find ourselves sometimes working in very small and
Figure 5: View of a Low voltage fuse
even confined spaces. We always have to take into account the with a loose connection
proximity of hot and even live parts. On a ship it can be necessary
to put additional physical barriers, locks and screens, not only to
keep out bystanders but also to prevent ourselves from accidentally
touching hot or live parts.
Confined Space
Working in a confined space asks for a special permit to work (gas
test). A space is classified as confined if a person can enter and
work in it and if the space has restricted means for entry or exit and Figure 6: Cramped working conditions
if the space is not designed for continuous employee occupancy.
One can consider any normal space on board as confined if an
entrance and or exit is completely or even only partially blocked.
Ship to Shore Connection

We have to consider special precautions in case of two sources of
power during ship’s repairs. We can have the ships generators
running and the same time have power connections for lighting and
welding from the shore. The same situation can arise when we have
a shore crew cleaning holds.
Electrical Propulsion
Figure 7: Diesel electric propulsion
Electrical propulsion systems are now a well proven and ac-

cepted solution in the global marine market. Especially in the last
decade the number of ships built with electrical propulsion systems
18
Figure 8: Dual motor electric propul-

sion unit
has increased considerably, and for the majority of new ships this
type of propulsion system is considered. This is because it has been
shown that for most types of vessel a diesel-electric propulsion
system is superior to a conventional diesel system with respect to
the technical, operational and economical aspects.(Siemens website)
There are many advantages of electrical propulsion over typical
mechanical propulsion. One is the improved life-cycle costs by
reduced fuel consumption and maintenance, this however is only
true when there is a considerable variation in load demand. With
electrical propulsion, vulnerability to single failure is reduced
substantially over a single engine shaft-line propulsion.
Among the numerous benefits of an electric propulsion system,
better redundancy and improved operational safety certainly rank
right at top. In addition, depending on the operational profile,
an electric propulsion system is in many cases able to provide
considerable fuel savings and lower maintenance costs.
Environmental benefits from an electric propulsion can be a
cleaner combustion of your prime movers as they run most of the Figure 9: Azipod propulsion
time at there best efficiency.
Electrical propulsion gives more flexibility for use of the avail-
able on-board space as it requires less space compared to a two
stroke diesel or a boiler in conventional propulsion system. Electric
propulsion creates less noise and vibration since rotating shaft lines
are shorter and prime movers are running on fixed speed.
Over the last few years, ships designed for a wide range of
tasks have been increasingly equipped with diesel-electric drives.
On the world market three drive concepts, which fully utilize the
advantages of AC over DC technology, have become predominant.
The main differences can be found in the kind of application and
in the type of converter connections:
Figure 10: Dual pod propulsion
• Cycloconverter with synchronous or asynchronous machine or

permanently excited synchronous machine:
• Synchro converter (load-commutated inverter) with synchronous

machine:
• Pulse width modulated converter with synchronous or asyn-

chronous machine of low-voltage or medium-voltage design:
Fundamentals of Electricity
Current and Voltage
Current
Current is the quantity of electrons which flow through a material.
The symbol for current = I and its unity is ampere A. For power
distribution we have two different kinds commonly used: DC or
direct current and AC or alternating current.
DC Electrons flow constantly in one direction. The electrical

pressure on the electrons is always oriented in one direction or one Figure 11: Direct Current (red curve).
The horizontal axis measures time;
polarity.
AC Electrons flow alternately in both directions. Alternating

current and voltage has a frequency, whose value can change.
Frequency f is defined with value hertz Hz with one Hz is one
alternance per second.
Voltage
Voltage is the force that moves the electrons from one end to the
other. Volt is the measure for the electrical pressure that forces elec-
trons to flow, exactly like the pressure in a water pipe forces the
water flow. The higher the voltage the harder it can push electrons
trough a resistance. If the voltage is high enough it can even push
electrons trough air. Voltage is a measure of a difference in poten-
tial between two points. Voltage symbol is U (also used is E) and
the unit is volt V. Specifying a voltage measurement requires ex-
plicit or implicit specification of the points across which the voltage
is measured. When using a voltmeter to measure potential differ-
ence, one electrical lead of the voltmeter must be connected to the
first point, one to the second point.
A common use of the term voltage is in describing the voltage
dropped across an electrical device (such as a resistor). The voltage
drop across the device can be understood as the difference between
measurements at each terminal of the device with respect to a
common reference point (mass not to be confused with ground).
The voltage drop is the difference between the two readings. Two
points in an electric circuit that are connected by an ideal conductor
without resistance and not within a changing magnetic field have
Figure 12: Nikola Tesla, inventor,
physicist, and electromechanical
engineer
22
a voltage of zero. Any two points with the same potential may be
connected by a conductor and no current will flow between them.
Different types of loads
Resistive load
Electrical resistance is defined as the resistance to the flow of elec-
tricity trough a material. Every material has resistance, even the
best conductors. When current flows through a material energy will
be dissipated in the form of heat. The symbol of resistance is R and
its unit is Ω. Resistance depends on various factors:
• Length: of the conductor.
• Section: of the conductor.
• Material: Every material has its own characteristic resistance

value.
• Physical condition of the conductor.
The value of resistance can be calculated with voltage and current,

from Ohm’s law:
U
R=
I
where resistance = R, voltage = U and current = I. Resistive loads
can be lighting, heating but also the losses from slip rings and bad
connections are resistive loads and therefore dissipate heat energy.
P = I 2 .R
where the power dissipated is P, I is the current and R the resis-

tance.
Inductive load
Inductance is the property of a conductor by which a change in
current flowing through it induces (creates) a voltage (electromotive
force) in both the conductor itself (self-inductance) and in any
nearby conductors (mutual inductance).
Figure 13: A scrapyard magnet, the
di induction creates a magnetic forces
v(t) = L ∗ that can lift heavy loads
dt
• Inductance L is measured in Henry’s.
• di = the change of current in a certain time frame.
• dt = the change of time or the time frame.
Inductance is the ability of an induction to store magnetic energy

and is typified by the behavior of a coil of wire in resisting any
change of current through the coil, in other words any change of
current in a coil takes time. Examples of inductive loads are coils
motors generators and transformers.
Capacitive load
1 1
Every power cable has a certain
Capacity is the ability of a capacitor to store energy in an electric capacitance and can therefore store a
certain amount of energy, this amount
field. A capacitor can store an electric field potential, and will thereof energy equals
fore resist to any change of voltage, it takes time for the voltage Q = 1/2CV 2
on a capacitive load to change. Examples of capacitive loads are
where Q is in joules with one joule is 1
capacitor banks and power cables. ampere * 1 second, V is in volts and C
is in farad. Note that the voltage is the
most important factor in this equation
Power as it is squared
Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by

a circuit. In direct current (DC) resistive power is calculated with
joule’s law:
P = U.I
. In alternating current(AC) circuits, energy storage elements as
there are inductance and capacitance may result in temporary
storage and reversal of the power flow. The portion of power flow
that in average over one cycle of an AC waveform flows in one
direction is known as real power (also referred to as active power).
The portion of power flow due to stored energy which returns to
the source in each cycle is known as reactive power.
Active Power
Figure 14: Instantaneous and average
Alternative words used for Active Power (Actual Power, True Power, power calculated from AC voltage and
Watt-full Power, Useful Power, Real Power, and Active Power) In a current with a lagging power factor
(cosΦ ). The blue line shows some
DC Circuit, power supply to the DC load is simply the product of of the power is returned to the grid
Voltage across the load and Current flowing through it i.e., P = U I. during the part of the cycle labeled f.
because in DC Circuits, there is no concept of phase angle between
current and voltage. In other words, there is no Power factor in
DC Circuits. But the situation in Sinusoidal or AC Circuits is more
complex because of phase difference between Current and Voltage.
Therefore average value of power (Real Power) is P = UI cosφ is
in fact supplied to the load. In AC circuits, When circuit is pure
resistive, then the same formula used for power as used in DC as
P = U I because cos of 0 degrees equals 0. Active power in a single
phase system can be calculated as the product of the voltage, the
current and the cosine of the phase angle between them. In three
phase systems we can write:
√
P = 3.U.I.cosφ Figure 15: The complex power is the
vector sum of real and reactive power.
The apparent power is the magnitude
where U is the line voltage, I is the line current and cosφ is the
of the complex power. Real power, P
power factor. Active power is denoted by the symbol P and is Reactive power, Q Complex power, S
measured in watts W.
Reactive Power
Also known as (Use-less Power, Watt less Power) The powers that
continuously bounce back and forth between source and load is
24
known as reactive Power (Q) Power merely absorbed and returned

in load due to its reactive properties is referred to as reactive power
Reactive power represent that the energy is first stored and then
released in the form of magnetic field or electrostatic field in case of
inductor and capacitor respectively. Reactive power is given by Q
= U I sinφ. The unit of reactive power is Volt-Ampere reactive. I.e.
VAR where 1 VAR = 1V x 1A. In more simple words, in Inductor
or Capacitor, how much magnetic or electric field made by 1A
x 1V is called the unit of reactive power. The reactive power is
the product of the voltage current and the sin of the phase angle
between them. In three phase systems the reactive power is defined
with the equation: √
Q = 3.U.I.sinφ
where U is the line voltage I is the line current and φ is the phase
angle. The symbol for reactive power is Q and the unit is volt
ampere reactive VAR.
Apparent Power
The product of voltage and current if and only if the phase angle
differences between current and voltage are ignored. Total power in
an AC circuit, both dissipated and absorbed/returned is referred
to as apparent power The combination of reactive power and true
power is called apparent power In an AC circuit, the product of the
r.m.s voltage and the r.m.s current is called apparent power. It is
the product of Voltage and Current without phase angle The unit
of Apparent power (S) VA i.e. 1VA = 1V x 1A. When the circuit is
pure resistive, then apparent power is equal to real or true power,
but in inductive or capacitive circuit, (when Reactances exist) then
apparent power is greater than real or true power. Apparent power
is calculated from the voltage and the current, taking no account of
the phase angle. It is useful for specifying the rating of components
as these have to endure both the active and reactive power. In three
phase systems the apparent power can be calculated with equation:
√
S = 3.U.I
where U is the line voltage and I is the line current. The symbol for
apparent power is S and the unit is volt ampere VA.
Note
Resistor absorbs the real power and dissipates in the form of heat
and light. Inductor absorbs the reactive power and dissipates in the
form of magnetic field. Capacitor absorbs the reactive power and
dissipates in the form of electric or electrostatic field.
Power Factor Figure 16: 1. Reactive Power Control

Relay; 2. Network connection points;
3. Slow-blow Fuses; 4. Inrush Limiting
The power factor (cosφ) of an AC electric power system is defined
Contactors; 5. Capacitors (single-phase
as the ratio of the active to the apparent power in the circuit and is or three-phase units, delta-connection);
6. Transformer (for controls and
ventilation fans)
a dimensionless number between 0 and 1. The power factor can be

calculated from the power triangle with equation:
P
cosφ =
S
Three Phase Power

Three Phase power refers to three wire Alternating Current (AC)
power circuits. Typically there are three (Phase R, Phase S, Phase
T) power wires (120 degrees out of phase with one another) and
sometimes one neutral wire.
Figure 17: R S T 120 degrees out of

phase
Line Voltage Phase Voltage

* Voltages VRS , VST andVTR are Line Voltages or the voltage be-
tween two phases.
* Voltages VRN , VSN and VTN are Phase Voltages or the voltage
between a phase and the generator’s or transformer’s star-point.
* Currents IRN , ISN and ITN or INR , INS and INT who are
coming from or going to a star or neutral-point are called Phase
Currents.
* Currents VRS , VST andVTR who run between two phases are
called Line Currents.
√
* Line Voltage = 3 Phase Voltage
√
* Line Current = 3 Phase Current
26
Power Quality
2 2
The electromagnetic waves that
compose electromagnetic radiation
can be imagined as a self-propagating
Electromagnetic field When there is a potential difference or a transverse oscillating wave of electric
and magnetic fields.
voltage in a circuit an electric field was created. When we have
a current flowing in an electric circuit a magnetic field is being
created. These two phenomena together create what is called an
electromagnetic field, which is emitted by electrical equipment
when energized and by alternating and varying voltages and
currents.
Power Quality refers to a wide variety of electromagnetic phe-
nomena that characterize the voltage and current at a given time
and at a given location on the power system.
• Network harmonics are generated by power electronics equip-

ment. Low order harmonics up to the 40th harmonic can cause Figure 18: Graph of a waveform and
some distorted versions of the same
undesirable effects. waveform
• Non linear loads draw harmonic currents from the power system,
even if the power system voltage is a perfect sine wave. These
currents produce harmonic voltage drops by way of the network
impedance.
• 7.21 ABS rules state: The total harmonic distortion (THD) in the
voltage waveform in the distribution systems is not to exceed 5%
and any single order harmonics not to exceed 3%. Other higher
values may be accepted provided the distribution equipment and
consumers are designed to operate at the higher limits.
RMS value
Or the root mean square. In the field of electrical engineering,
the RMS value of a periodic current is equal to the DC current
that delivers the same average power to a resistor as the periodic
current.
√
PeakVoltage = RMSvoltage ∗ 2
Figure 19: Graph of a sine wave’s
voltage vs. time (in degrees), showing
RMS, peak, and peak-to-peak voltages
Internal Resistance
A practical electrical power source which is a linear electric circuit
may, according to Thevenin’s theorem, be represented as an ideal
voltage source in series with an impedance. This resistance is
termed the internal resistance of the source. When the power
source delivers current, the measured voltage output is lower
than the no-load voltage; the difference is the voltage drop (the
product of current and resistance) caused by the internal resistance.
The concept of internal resistance applies to all kinds of electrical
sources and is useful for analyzing many types of electrical circuits.
The internal resistance or impedance will determine the short
circuit current capacity of a power source. 3 3
Any black box containing resistances
only and voltage and current sources
can be replaced to a Thevenin equiva-
About Ground, Earth-ground, Signal-ground, Mass Ground potential lent circuit consisting of an equivalent
is the reference for our voltage measurements in an electric or voltage source in series connection
with an equivalent resistance.
electronic circuit.
The symbol for ground is an inverted T.
In principle everywhere we put the black or com. measuring pin
of our voltmeter, becomes ground potential.
The chassis of a car is considered 0 volts or ground potential
because it is connected to the 0 volt connection of our 12 volt bat-
tery, but in reference to the earth our chassis can have a very large
potential difference so ground is not equal to earth potential.
If we make a connection between ground and the earth our
ground becomes earth-ground.
By absense of the earth on board of a ship, the ship’s hull can be
used as a substitute for the earth.
Figure 20: equipotential grounding to

create a protective earth
28
Figure 21: ground, earth-ground and

signal-ground symbols
Basic Fault Level Calculations
Electrical faults
Basicaly there are three different kind of electrical faults.
• Earth Fault
• Open Circuit Fault
• Short Circuit fault
Earth fault
An earth fault is caused by loss of insulation allowing the current
to flow to earth potential. Causes of earth faults are typically break-
Figure 22: A: Open circuit fault, B:
down or wear of insulation. The majority of earth faults occur earth fault, C: short circuit fault
within electrical equipment due to an insulation failure or a loose
wire, which allows a live conductor to come into contact with its
earthed metal enclosure.
To protect against the dangers of electric shock and the fire
that may result from earth faults, the metal enclosures and other
non-current carrying metal parts of electrical equipment must be
earthed. (see fig.20 on page 27) The earthing connector connects
the metal enclosure to earth (the ship’s hull) to prevent it from
attaining a dangerous voltage with respect to earth. Such earth
bonding of equipment ensures that its voltage in reference to earth
always remains at zero.
Open circuit fault

An open circuit fault occurs when a phase conductor is completely
or even partially interrupted. Causes of open circuit faults are bad
connections or a break in the wire. Open circuit faults when inter-
mittent can cause flashes. Open circuit faults when not completely
open (bad connection) can cause a lot of heat and are a fire hazard.
Open circuits in three phase circuits can cause motors to run on
only two phases and create a motor overload.
Short circuit fault

Short circuit faults occurs where two different phase conductors
are connected together. This can be caused by double break loss
30
of insulation, human error or another abnormal situation. A large

amount of current is released in a short circuit, often accompanied
by an explosion.
Short Circuit Current Analysis

The welding current of a welding
A short circuit analysis is used to determine the magnitude of transformer is limited to a set value
the short circuit current the system is capable of producing and and will not trip any protective
devices, this short circuit current is
compare this short circuit current with the interrupting rating of the capable of melting metal, consider a
over-current protective devices. HV generator with the same current
and not being able to interrupt a short
When the generator is not able to produce this current the circuit circuit current.
breaker or fuse will not disconnect a short-circuit. When a short
circuit is not interrupted in time this may lead to a fire. Short circuit
capability is therefore an essential feature of a ship’s generator.
Figure 23: Breaking capacity list
A generator with a low internal reactance is capable of supplying

large starting currents without excessive voltage dips, when starting
a large consumer. A low-reactance generator will also produce large
short-circuit currents and this requires more expensive switch-gear.
A high-reactance generator is not capable of producing the start-
ing currents of large motors. This type of motor will then require
reduced voltage starting methods as there are autotransformer,
star-delta or soft starters to keep the voltage between the limits.
Voltage dips caused by starting and stopping of large consumers
have to be limited to the minimum figure that causes failure of
other consumers.
The IEC 61363 standard describes procedures for calculating
short-circuits currents in three-phase ac radial electrical installations
on ships and on mobile and fixed offshore units.
For a typical short circuit current waveform of a generator the
initial current has a significant DC component, which together
with the sub-transient short circuit current may give a high peak
value typically in the order of 10 times nominal current for the Figure 24: The IEC 61363 standard
generators.
The short circuit currents are being reduced, as the DC compo-
nent decays rapidly, typically with a time constant of 20-100 ms.
Figure 25: A typical short circuit

waveform for a generator
After 300-500 ms, the transient short circuit current is typically
reduced to 3-5 times nominal generator current, and dependent on
the system design, this is normally the breaking current for a circuit
breaker for a branch.
A sustained short circuit current will after a second or more,
reach a stationary value, which according to rules and regulations
shall be at least three times the nominal current for a generator in
order to detect faults reliably, for clearing faulty branches.
Figure 26: A short circuit waveform for

a generator as for IEC 61363
Figure 27: A short circuit waveform

for an asynchronous motor as for IEC
The short circuit current is found by numerical simulation or by 61363
analytical methods. IEC 61363 is normally applied for short circuit
calculations in ships.
32
Ground fault calculations
In electrical engineering, the ground means the reference from

which other voltages are measured.
The earth point means a solid connection to the earth, which
due to its massive section and mass has almost no resistance for
electrical current.
System grounding in ships is normally either low or high resis-
tance grounding of the system’s neutral point or, it’s ungrounded.
It might also be a combination of these in different parts of the
distribution system.
Ground fault calculations are done to ensure that the fault cur-
rent is low enough to reduce the risk of damaging equipment, and
to determine the levels needed to adjust ground fault detection
relays.
In medium-voltage marine networks the focus of earthing system
design is based on reliability of supply, reliability of protection, and
impact on the equipment in presence of a short circuit.
Only the magnitude of phase-to-ground short circuits, which
are the most common, is significantly affected with the choice of
earthing system, as the current path is mostly closed through the
earth. If one phase is short-circuited to ground, there will flow a
ground fault current. Its magnitude depends heavily on the method
of system grounding, which are:
• Ungrounded:
Figure 28: Insulated neutral earthed

HV generator
For some ships (especially tankers),

there might be desired or required to
operate with isolated neutral point
(also in HV systems) in order to reduce
fault currents and the associated arcing
to a minimum.
Due to system capacitance, a fault
current with a typical magnitude of
a substantial current will still flow
through the ground fault.
The power system may be allowed to
continue operation with such low fault
currents until it is possible to discon-
nect and repair faulty parts without
large disturbances in operations.
The disadvantages with this ground-
ing method is that one can experience
high over-voltages due to resonance in
the fault current circuits, and it might
also be difficult to identify the location
of the ground fault current.
In unearthed, isolated or floating neutral system, as in the A solution to the over-voltage on
IT system, there is no direct connection of the star point (or phases in regard to the ground can be
the use of Over-voltage Surge Absorbers.
any other point in the network) and the ground. As a result,
ground fault currents have no path to be closed and thus have
negligible magnitudes. However, in practice, the fault current
will not be equal to zero, conductors in the circuit, particularly
cables close to the hull or other structure close to earth, have an

inherent capacitance towards the earth, which provides a path of
relatively high impedance for alternating current.
Figure 29: equivalent representation of

a cable
Systems with an isolated neutral may continue operation and
provide uninterrupted supply even in presence of a ground fault.
However, while the fault is present, the potential of other two
√
phases relative to the ground reaches 3 of the normal operating
voltage, creating additional stress for the insulation; insulation
failures may inflict additional ground faults in the system, now
with much higher currents.
The benefit of the low fault current and continued system
operation thereafter is offset by inherent drawback that the fault
location is hard to detect.
Ground fault currents will still flow due to capacitive coupling
between healthy phases and ground, typically in the order of a
few amps in a ship installation.
• Low resistance grounding: Ground fault currents will flow through
the ground fault, with a low resistance ground resistor limiting
the fault current to not less than 100A.
Figure 30: Cable shielding with perfo-
• High resistance grounding: A high impedance neutral point rations reduces capacitive coupling
grounding limits the ground fault currents typically to less
than 20A. Also with this fault current it might be allowed to
continue operation with a fault for a limited period of time. The
grounding resistor will reduce the risk of resonance oscillations
and it is easier to detect and disconnect the faulty branch of
the power system. High impedance neutral point grounding is
normally the preferred method in medium voltage systems if its
allowed by your classification society.(tankers)
• Bolted ground: In solid or directly earthed neutral, transformer’s
star point is directly connected to the ground. In this solution, a
low-impedance path is provided for the ground fault current to
close and, as result, their magnitudes are comparable with three-
phase fault currents. Since the neutral remains at the potential
close to the ground, voltages in unaffected phases remain at
levels similar to the pre-fault ones; for that reason, this system
is regularly used in high-voltage transmission networks, where
insulation costs are high. Create a high ground fault current, in
34
the order of a short circuit current.

• Coil grounding: Low impedance neutral point grounding gives
high ground fault currents and a ground fault must be cleared
by disconnecting faulty parts immediately (typically less then
200ms). Compared to isolated and high impedance grounded
neutral point, this method will reduce the voltage stress on the
healthy phases during the fault.
With a proper tuned coil grounding, the fault current is theo-
retically very low. Not commonly used in ships, mainly since the
network configuration varies, and tuning of the coil is impracti-
cal.
• Transformer grounding:
Earthing Transformer or grounding transformer ,the neutral
grounding transformer is star connected on the primary and has
an open delta on secondary. The Open Delta has two terminals.
A resistor is connected across these two terminals.
Whenever a fault occurs, voltage will be induced in the open
delta and there will be a voltage drop in the resistor connected.
This voltage drop will be sensed by the earthing transformer Figure 31: Neutral earthing trans-
connected across this resistor. At the secondary of the earthing former
transformer we have the neutral displacement relay which will
give a trip signal or an alarm whenever its settings exceed a
particular value.
An earthing transformer can also be called a large Potential
transformer or Open delta Power Transformer.
Overview
Characteristics of different grounding systems
Characteristics Solid Isolated High resistance
High ground fault current Yes No No
Possibility of multi-phase fault High Low Low
Arc flash hazard risk level High Very low Very low
Relative safety level (equipment
and personnel) Low High Very high
Fault location Yes No Yes
Continuity of service No Yes Yes
Possible selective tripping Yes No Yes
Alarming without tripping No Yes Yes
Cable insulation level (IEC 60502-2) 1.0 1.73 1.73
Surge protection level 1.0 1.73 1.73
Transient over-voltage level 2.5x 6x 2.7x
Significance of Earth Faults

If a single earth fault occurs on the live line of an earthed distribu-
tion system it would be the equivalent to a short-circuit fault across
Figure 32: This could well be the result
the generator through the schip’s hull. of a steering gear problem
The resulting large current would immediately cause the line

protective device (fuse or circuit breaker ) to trip out the faulty
circuit. The faulted electric equipment would be immediately
isolated from the supply and so rendered safe. However, the loss of
power supply, could create a hazardous situation, especially if the
equipment was classed essential (ABS part 4 chapter 8 table 1 and
2), e.g. steering gear.
The large fault current could also cause arcing damage at the
fault location.
In contrast a single earth fault occurring on one line of an in-
sulated distribution system will not cause any protective trip to
operate and the system would continue to function normally. This
is the important point: equipment continues to operate with a sin-
gle earth fault as it does not provide a closed circuit so no earth
fault current will flow.
However if a second earth fault occurs on another line of the
insulated system, the two faults together would be equivalent to
a short- circuit fault (via the ship’s hull) and the resulting large
current would operate protection devices and cause disconnection
of perhaps essential services creating a risk to the safety of the ship.
An insulated distribution system therefore requires two earth
faults on two different lines to cause an earth fault current to flow.
In contrast, an earthed distribution system requires only one
earth fault to cause an earth fault current to flow. Figure 33: arcing damage on a circuit
An insulated system is, therefore more effective than an earthed breaker
system in maintenance continuity of supply to essential services.

Hence its adoption for most LV and some HV marine electrical
systems.
Note: Double-pole switches with fuses in both lines are neces-
sary in an insulated single-phase circuit.
Relay Coordination / Selectivity Study
Each feeder in and out from a switchboard is equipped with protec-

tion relays or fuses for detection and disconnection at short circuit,
sustained overload conditions, and ground fault.
Ground faults with low fault currents may sometimes be ac-
cepted for continuous operation.
An over-current / short circuit relay is typically adjustable by
level of fault currents and time to disconnect.
Fuses have correspondingly a certain current-time characteristic
selected for the application.
A normal load condition shall not initiate a disconnection.
If the load current is higher than the defined normal condition,
i.e. in overload, the relay starts a time counter, and disconnects after
a certain, and preset time delay.
If load current is even higher, the relay starts another time
counter, that disconnects the branch after a shorter time period,
defined by the selectivity study in a way that protection devices in
36
lower parts of the system shall be activated first, and protection in

higher parts later.
Adjusting these settings or selecting of fuses shall according to
rules and regulations clear any fault selectively, by disconnecting
a minimum of the distribution system limited to the parts that are
directly affected by the fault.
High Voltage Faults and Protection
Figure 34: hydraulic analogy of a short

circuit current
A very basic short circuit calculation
The amount of current that will flow through a short circuit de-
pends on two variable values: The system voltage and the connected
total impedance of the current flow path from the source to the point
of the fault. Figure 35: In general short circuit
The typical system voltages are very familiar to all of us. The calculation is done by software
connected total impedance of the short-circuit current flow path

needs a little clarification, however. This impedance normally
includes the feeder conductors’ resistance and reactance, any trans-
formers impedance (going from the point of fault back to the
energy source), and any other equipment connected in the path of
current flow.
Imagine a very simple one-line with the following: a power
source, transformer, and an over-current protective device (OCPD)
having a specific short-circuit current interrupting rating.
Let’s talk about the power source first. In many short-circuit
current calculation examples, you’ll see references like "Assume the
power source has infinite capacity" or "The source has an infinite
bus." What does this mean, and why is it important to our sample
calculation? All that is being said is the source voltage has no
internal impedance. As a result, the sample calculation becomes
very conservative. Since the source has been assumed to have no
impedance of its own, the corresponding short-circuit current will

be at its worst case.
Now let’s look at the transformer. The impedance determin-
ing the amount of short-circuit current on its secondary is made
up of two separate impedance: its own impedance plus that of
the secondary conductors run to the point of the fault. The trans-
former’s own impedance is the amount of its opposition to the flow
of short-circuit current through it.
Now, all transformers have impedance, and it’s generally ex-
pressed as a voltage percentage. This is the percentage of normal
rated primary voltage that must be applied to the transformer
to cause full-load rated current to flow in the short-circuited sec-
ondary. For instance, if a 480V/120V transformer has an impedance
of 5% , this means that 5% of 480V, or 24V, applied to its primary
will cause rated load current flow in its secondary. If 5% of primary
voltage will cause such current, then 100% of primary voltage will
cause 20 times (100 divided by 5) full-load-rated secondary current
to flow through a solid short circuit on its secondary terminals. Ob-
viously, then, the lower the impedance of a transformer of a given
kVA rating, the higher the amount of short-circuit current it can
deliver.
Let’s take another example for clarification. Suppose we have
two transformers, each rated at 500kVA. Since they have the same
rating, each has the same rated secondary load current. Suppose
one of the units has a 10% impedance. It, therefore, can supply 10 Figure 36: Circuit to determine the
times (100 divided by 10) its rated secondary load current into a impedance of a transformer
short circuit on its secondary terminals. Now suppose the second
unit has an impedance of 2%. This unit can supply a much greater
multiple of its rated secondary load current into a short circuit
on its secondary terminals: 50 times (100 divided 2) this value.
Comparing both units, the latter transformer can deliver five times
as much short-circuit current as the former unit.
Now that we understand the basic variables that determine short-
circuit currents, let’s do a sample calculation. Suppose we have
a simple distribution system with a fault condition. For the sake
of clarity and simplification, let’s assume there is a negligible line
impedance between the transformer secondary and the fault.
Step 1. Determine nominal secondary current (InomS).
InomS = 100kVA/240V = 417A
Step 2. Determine the short-circuit current (Isc) at the trans-

former’s secondary terminals per its impedance.
100% 100
Isc ∗ xInomS = ∗ 417 = 16680A
%Zt 2.5
Therefore, the OCPD must be capable of safely interrupting
this amount of current, along with the asymmetrical current value
(usually a multiplier times the symmetrical value).
Admittedly, this is greatly simplified. In reality, the calculation
would consider all impedance and the distance of the fault relative
38
to the transformer. Nevertheless, it gives you a feel for what is

involved in short-circuit current analysis.
Equipment
Main Switchboard
Figure 37: Electrical distribution

system
The function of a ship’s electrical distribution system is to safely
convey electrical power to every item of equipment connected to it.
The most obvious element in the system is the main switchboard.
The main switchboard is divided into two or more sections to Figure 38: High Voltage Marine
make the system redundant. The main board supplies bulk power Switchboard
to motor starter groups (often part of the main board), section

boards and distribution boards.
Transformers interconnect the HV and LV distribution sections of
the system. Circuit breakers and fuses strategically placed through-
out the system automatically disconnects a faulty circuit within the
network.
The main switchboard is placed in the engine control room and
from there engine room staff monitor and control the generation
and distribution of electrical power.
40
It is very important that every engineer has a profound knowl-

edge of the electrical distribution of the ship’s power. The only way
to acquire this knowledge is to study the ship’s power diagrams.
Almost all oceangoing ships have an A.C. distribution system in
preference to a direct current D.C. system. Usually a ship’s electri-
cal distribution scheme follows shore practice. This allows normal
industrial equipment to be used after being adapted and certified
where and if necessary, so it can withstand the conditions on board
of a ship (e.g. vibration, freezing and tropical temperatures, humid-
ity, the salty atmosphere, etc. encountered in various parts of the
ship).
Most ships have a 3-phase A.C., 3-wire, 440V insulated-neutral
system. This means that the neutral point of star connected-
generators is not earthed to the ship’s hull. Ship’s with very large
electrical loads have generators operating at high voltages (HV) of
3.3KV, 6.6KV, and even 11KV.
By using these high voltages we can reduce the size of cables and
equipment. High voltage systems are becoming more common as
ship size and complexity increase. The frequency of an A.C. power
system can be 50 Hz or 60Hz. The most common power frequency
adopted for use on board ships is 60Hz. This higher frequency
means that generators and motors run at higher speeds with a
consequent reduction in size for a given power rating.
Lighting and low power single-phase supplies usually operate
at 220 V. This voltage is derived from a step down transformer
connected to the 440 V system.
Circuit Breakers and Contactors
Properties
• A circuit breaker is designed to detect and switch a short-circuit

current and overload current when applicable.
Figure 39: 16 Ampere circuit breaker
can interrupt a short-circuit current of
• A contactor is an automated switch. 6000A
• A small miniature circuit breaker with a nominal rating of 16A

can interrupt a short circuit current of 6000A, which is nearly 400
times the nominal current, however this can only be done a few
times.
• A contactor of 16A can switch on the starting current up to 160A

of a 16A nominal current motor thousands of times.
A circuit breaker is therefore not very suitable to start a motor and

a contactor is not suitable for interrupting large currents.
Some circuit breaker are capable of interrupting a fault current
one time only and have to be replaced like a fuse. Consequently for
this type of circuit breakers having spares on board is mandatory.
Figure 40: 12A contactor can switch on

the starting current of 120A of a 12A
nominal motor thousands of times
Figure 41: current versus time charac-

teristic
Figure 42: 5000A circuit breaker

42
Contactors (magnet switches)

The closing mechanism of a contactor is operated by a coil pulling
an iron core and thus closing the contacts.
Opening is by de-energizing of the coil, small springs will open
the contacts.
Power system Protection

Purpose:
• To increase safety
• To avoid black outs
• To prevent machine damage
• To detect and minimize further damage

The extend of the protection system depends on what is to be
protected.
High Voltage Disconnecting Equipment

• Circuit Breaker
• Disconnector
• Switch
• Fuse
• Contactor
• etc.
Circuit Breakers
Main types
• Air insulated
• Oil circuit
• Air blast
• SF6 (sulphurhexa Fluoride Gas)
• Vacuum
Protection Relays
• A relay is an electric switch that opens and closes automatically
under the command of another electrical circuit. It allows a low
power to control a higher one.
• A small current energizes the relay, which closes a gate, allowing

a large current to flow through.
• The modern relays are based on micro processors, also called

Numeric or Digital relays.
Selectivity
The aim of selectivity, or discrimination is to make sure that only
the circuit-breaker upstream of the fault trips and that other parts
of hte installation are not affected.
Generators
Marine generators also called alternators are almost always syn-

chronous generators connected in star and of the brush-less type.
Synchronous machines are exited by DC current. An AVR or au-
tomatic voltage regulator controls the exiting current. The AVR
keeps the generators voltage between the limits demanded by class,
regardless of variations in active load reactive load temperature and
frequency.
Principle of operation
Figure 43: 6.6Kv generator
Number of poles
p.n
f =
120
• f = frequency
• p = number of poles on the rotor
• n = speed of the generator
Main features of the Stator

The winding is always connected in wye.
Figure 44: Stator
44
• The phase voltage is only 58% of the line voltage.
• Line to neutral 3th harmonics cancel each other out in wye but
add up in star.
Figure 45: Salient Pole Rotor
Main features of the Rotor

1. Salient pole rotors
• Salient poles are mounted on a steel frame.

• The Damper winding is a squirrel cage winding for smoothing
sudden load changes.
2. Cylindrical rotors
• High speed generators 2 to for poles.

• Long solid steel cylinder with slots milled out to accommo-
date the windings.
Field Excitation and Exciters
Figure 46: brushed excitation

Figure 47: brushless excitation
No Load Saturation Curve
Figure 48: circuit no load saturation
Synchronous reactance and equivalent circuit of an AC generator

Xs = 2.π. f .L
• Xs = synchronous reactance per phase (Ω)
• f = generator frequency (Hz)
• L = apparent induction of the stator winding, per phase (H)
Equivalent circuit of a generator showing one phase
Synchronous Generator under Load

Type of Loads
• Isolated loads (single generator).
• The infinite bus.

46
Figure 49: no load saturation curve
Figure 50: equivalent circuit of an AC

generator
48
Figure 51: Isolated Load lagging power

factor
Isolated Load lagging power factor
• Ix creates the flux Φ.
• Voltage E0 is generated by flux Φ.
• Current I lags behind terminal voltage E by an angle ϕ.
• cosϕ is the power factor of the load
• Voltage Ex across the synchronous reactance leads current I bij

90deg
• E0 equals the phasor sum of E and Ex
• Both E0 and Ex are voltages that exist inside the stator windings
and cannot be measured directly.
Isolated Load leading power factor
Synchronization of a generator
A generator is said to be synchronized when it meets the following
conditions:
• The generator frequency is equal to the system frequency.
• The generator voltage is equal to the system voltage.
• The generator voltage is in phase with the system voltage.
• The phase sequence of the generator is the same as that of the

system.
Synchronous generator on the Infinite Bus

An infinite bus is so powerful it imposes its own Voltage and
Frequency upon all apparatus connected to its terminals. On our
machine we can only change:
1. The exciting current Ix .
2. The mechanical torque exerted by the driving engine.
Figure 52: Generator floating on an

infinite bus
Figure 53: Generator floating on an

infinite bus
Figure 54: Over Excited generator on

infinite bus
• If we over excite a synchronous generator connected to the

infinite bus we will deliver reactive power to the bus.
• If we under excite a synchronous generator to the infinite bus we

will draw reactive power from the bus.
• If our generator floats on the infinite bus we deliver or draw

nothing.
50
Figure 55: Over Excited generator on

infinite bus
Figure 56: Under Excited generator on

infinite bus
Figure 57: Under Excited generator on

infinite bus
Figure 58: Varying mechanical torque

Figure 59: phasor diagram varying

torque
Figure 60: Physical interpretation of

alternator behavior
Figure 61: The N poles of the rotor are

ahead of the S poles of the stator
52
AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator)

• Is a device that continuously monitors the voltage at the volt-
age regulating point of the system and automatically initiates
corrective actions to maintain the terminal voltage of the gener-
ator. AVR also controls that the synchronous generator operates
within preset limits.
• An auxiliary winding supplies the excitation power to the field

winding of the shaft driven by a three phase exciter under the
control of the AVR. A voltage feedback is supplied by the voltage
transformer and a current feedback is provided by the current
transformer. The transformers are installed in the generator.
• Operational limits, such as over and under excitation, machine

voltage and Volts/Hz, are implemented in the AVR. Static reac-
tive power compensation in parallel operation and several other
software functions are also available.
Marine generators have an adapted AVR to generate a sustained

short-circuit current of 350 percent of the nominal current. This
short circuit is required to allow the circuit breakers to trip in a
Figure 62: Automatic Voltage Regula-
selective way. The ability of ships generators to generate a short tor
circuit current high enough for selectivity or discrimination is
essential and above industrial (shore) standards.
Transformers
Basics
The reason for using a voltage of a much higher level is that higher
distribution voltages implies lower currents for the same power.
These higher AC transmission voltages and currents can then be
Figure 63: dry type transformer

reduced to a much lower, safer and usable voltage level where

it can be used to supply electrical equipment, all this is possible
thanks to the transformer.
A transformer basically is electro-magnetic passive electrical
device that works on the principle of Faraday’s law of induction by
converting electrical energy from one value to another.
The transformer does this by linking together two or more
electrical circuits using a common oscillating magnetic circuit which
is produced by the transformer itself. A transformer operates on the
principals of electromagnetic induction.
By induction a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage into
another coil located in close proximity to it. We can say that trans-
formers work in the magnetic domain, and transformers get their
name from the fact that they transform one voltage or current level
into another.
Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the
voltage and current levels of their supply, without modifying its
frequency, or the amount of Electrical Power being transferred from
one winding to another via the magnetic circuit.
A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two
electrical coils of wire, one called the Primary Winding and another
called the Secondary Winding. We will define the primary side of the
transformer as the side that usually takes power, and the secondary
as the side that usually delivers power. In a single-phase voltage
transformer the primary is usually the side with the higher voltage.
Figure 64: single phase voltage trans-

former
These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but
are instead wrapped together around a common closed magnetic
iron circuit called the core. This soft iron core is not solid but made
up of individual laminations connected together to help reduce the
core’s losses.
The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other
but are magnetically linked through the common core allowing
electrical power to be transferred from one coil to the other. When
an electric current passed through the primary winding, a magnetic
field is developed which induces a voltage into the secondary
winding as shown.
When for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection
between the two coil windings the transformer acts as a galvanic
54
isolator.
Figure 65: single phase voltage trans-

former
The two coil windings are not electrically connected but are
only linked magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate
to either increase or decrease the voltage applied to the primary
winding.
However, a third condition exists in which a transformer pro-
duces the same voltage on its secondary as is applied to its primary
winding. In other words, its output is identical with respect to
voltage, current and power transferred. This type of transformer is
mainly used for impedance matching or the isolation of adjoining
electrical circuits.
The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary
windings is achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the
primary winding ( NP ) compared to the number of coil turns on
the secondary winding ( NS ).
As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists
between the number of turns of the primary coil divided by the
number of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio is called turns
ratio, ( TR ).
It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire
on the primary winding compared to the secondary winding. The
turns ratio, which has no units, compares the two windings in
order and is written with a colon, such as 3:1 (3-to-1). This means in
this example, that if there are 3 volts on the primary winding there
will be 1 volt on the secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt. Then we
can see that if the ratio between the number of turns changes the
resulting voltages must also change by the same ratio, and this is
true.
Transformers are all about ratios. The ratio of the primary to the
secondary, the ratio of the input to the output, and the turns ratio
of any given transformer will be the same as its voltage ratio. In
other words for a transformer: turns ratio = voltage ratio. The actual
number of turns of wire on any winding is generally not important,
just the turns ratio and this relationship is given as:
Np Vp
= = n = turnsratio
Ns Vs
As the input power equals the output power we can also say that:
turns ratio is the inverse of the current ratio.
Np Vp Is
= = =n
Ns Vs Ip
56
Autotransformers
Current transformers
Open Circuit And Short Circuit Test On Transformer
These two transformer tests are performed to find the parameters of

equivalent circuit of transformer and losses of the transformer.
Open Circuit Or No Load Test On Transformer

Open circuit test or no load test on a transformer is performed
to determine no load loss (core loss) and no load current I0. Usually
high voltage primary winding is kept open and the low voltage
secondary winding is connected to its normal supply. A wattmeter
(W), ammeter (A) and voltmeter (V) are connected to the secondary
winding . Now, applied voltage is slowly increased from zero
to normal rated value of the secondary side with the help of a
variac. When the applied voltage reaches to the rated value of the
secondary winding, readings from all the three instruments are
taken. The ammeter reading gives the no load current I0. As I0
itself is very small, the voltage drops due to this current can be
neglected. The input power is indicated by the wattmeter (W). But,
as the other side of transformer is open circuited, there is no output
power. Hence, this input power only consists of core losses and
copper losses. But as described above, short circuit current is so
58
small that these copper losses can be neglected. Hence, now the
input power is almost equal to the core losses. Thus, the wattmeter
reading gives the core losses of the transformer.
Short Circuit Or Impedance Test On Transformer

The LV side of transformer is short circuited and wattmeter (W),
voltmeter (V) and ammeter (A) are connected on the primary
side of the transformer. Voltage is applied to the primary side
and increased from the zero until the ammeter reading equals the
rated current. All the readings are taken at this rated current. The
ammeter reading gives primary equivalent of full load current (Isc).
The voltage applied for full load current is very small as compared
to rated voltage. Hence, core loss due to small applied voltage can
be neglected. Thus, the wattmeter reading can be taken as copper
loss in the transformer.
Transformer Impedance
All transformers have impedance, and it’s generally expressed as a

voltage percentage. This is the percentage of normal rated primary
voltage that must be applied to the transformer to cause full-load
rated current to flow in the short-circuited secondary. For instance,
if a 480V/120V transformer has an impedance of 5%, this means
that 5% of 480V, or 24V, applied to its primary will cause rated load
current flow in its secondary. If 5% of primary voltage will cause
such current, then 100% of primary voltage will cause 20 times (100
divided by 5) full-load-rated secondary current to flow through a
solid short circuit on its secondary terminals. Obviously then the
lower the impedance of a transformer of a given kVA rating, the
higher the amount of short-circuit current it can deliver.
Let’s take another example for clarification. Suppose we have
two transformers, each rated at 500kVA. Since they have the same
rating, each has the same rated secondary load current. Suppose
one of the units has a 10% impedance. It, therefore, can supply 10
times (100 divided by 10) its rated secondary load current into a
short circuit on its secondary terminals. Now suppose the second
unit has an impedance of 2%. This unit can supply a much greater
multiple of its rated secondary load current into a short circuit
on its secondary terminals: 50 times (100 divided 2) this value.
Comparing both units, the latter transformer can deliver five times
as much short-circuit current as the former unit.
Why Transformers Are Rated In KVA?

From the above transformer tests, it can be seen that Cu loss of a
transformer depends on current, and iron loss depends on voltage.
Thus, total transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA). It does
not depend on the phase angle between voltage and current, i.e.
transformer loss is independent of load power factor. This is the

reason that transformers are rated in kVA.
Safety measures when working on transformers
see (General safety instructions for High Voltage Machines) and

following:
Work on a transformer is only permitted in voltage-free and earthed
condition.
Transformer windings can be normally insulated on the outer
surface by means of an epoxy resin layer. This insulation does not,
make them shockproof in terms of the valid standards.
• Every transformer radiates a magnetic field when in operation.
• The magnetic field is not significantly reduced by a housing.
• Any person with a cardiac pacemaker or metal implants should Figure 66: High Voltage current
avoid the area within a radius of 3 meters. transformer
• Housing or housing parts must not be disassembled during

operation.
• Verify that any conductor is de energized before testing for

continuity or resistance
• Uncontrolled release of energy may result if the inductors cur-

rent is suddenly interrupted
Figure 67: The windings of the trans-

formers are offset to cancel the largest
harmonics from the variable frequency
drive or VFD.
• Electromagnets may produce large external forces which may

affect the proper operation of the protective instruments and
controls.
• By suddenly de-energizing a magnet large eddy currents can

be produced in adjacent conductive materials that may cause
excessive heating and hazardous voltages.
60
• A magnetic field can attract nearby magnetic material, including

tools, which could cause injury or damage on impact.
Protection against touch

Transformers supplied as only IP00 must be locked away under
use so that when energized they can never be touched. The trans-
former cast resin surface is not an approved isolator and therefore
is not safe to touch. Accidental touch protection could be provided
through the installation of safety barriers, gates or similar.
Figure 68: High Voltage transformer
Earth connections
• The total resistance of the protective earthing must be dimen-

sioned in such a way that protective systems are in operation all
the time and can act upon an earth-fault.
• The cross section of the earthing connections must comply with

the regulations and on-site conditions and must be maintained at

all times also during repair and maintenance operations.
Electrical and mechanical connections
• The minimum distance (according to the rules) between live

parts and between live parts and earth must never be diminished.
This relates to the distances between cables and high voltage
windings in particular.
• All retaining elements of the screw connections are to be checked

and replaced if necessary before reconnecting.
• All connections must fit tightly and be mechanically secure. The

bolts for the electrical connections are to be tightened using a
torque wrench.
Drives
• Modern frequency converters can control the rotational speed

and the torque of AC motors very precisely.
• Drive has become a general name for a power appliance, made

up of one or several converters. Figure 69: HV drive for asyncronous
propulsion motor
• Function depends on the converter type. Drives often use energy
storage elements as there are inductor and capacitor banks.
Safety measures
Installation and maintenance work
• Only qualified electricians are allowed to install and maintain the

drive.
• The main switch on the cabinet door does not remove the voltage
from the input bus-bars of the drive. Before working on the
Figure 70: Small frequency drive for
drive, isolate the whole drive from the supply. asynchronous motors
• Never work on the drive, the motor cable or the motor when
main power is applied. After switching off the input power,
always wait for 5 min to let the intermediate circuit capacitors
discharge before you start working on the drive, the motor or
the motor cable. Measure the voltage between terminals UDC+
and UDC- (L+ and L-) with a multimeter (impedance at least 1
Mohm) to ensure that the drive is discharged before beginning
work.
• Apply additional earth before working on the unit.
• Do not work on the control cables when power is applied to

the drive or to the external control circuits. Externally supplied
control circuits may cause dangerous voltages to exist inside the
drive even when the main power of the drive is switched off.
62
• Do not make any insulation or voltage withstand tests on the

drive or drive modules.
• When reconnecting the motor cable, always check that the phase
order is correct.
• When joining shipping splits (if any), check the cable connections
at the joints before switching on the supply voltage.
• Live parts on the inside of the doors are protected against direct
contact. Special attention shall be paid when handling metallic
shrouds.
• After maintaining or modifying a drive safety circuit or changing

circuit boards inside the module, retest the functioning of the
safety circuit according to the start-up instructions.
• Do not change the electrical installations of the drive except for

the essential control and power connections. Changes may affect
the safety performance or operation of the drive unexpectedly.
All customer-made changes are on the customer’s responsibility.
Figure 71: Shaft generator inverter
Note:
The motor cable terminals on the drive are at a dangerously
high voltage when the input power is on, regardless of whether the
motor is running or not.
Cables
Cables for Marine use

Cables for marine use differ from those used for on-shore installa-
tions:
• Core is not solid but consist of stranded conductor of 7 or more

wires to cope with the vibrating environment.
• Cables in a marine environment must be fixed to the cable

supports.
• Flexible cables for cranes or telescopic supported wheelhouses

are fixed to movable cable trays.
Flexible Cables
Flexible cables shall consist of flexible conductors, stranded with 19
or more wires and special flexible insulating materials. The cables
must stay flexible at lower temperatures (below 0)
Exception
Cables with solid conductors up to 2.5mm2 can be used in ship’s
accommodations.
Single conductor cables

Single conductor AC cables in systems rated more than 20A ar-
rangements are to be made to account for the harmful effect of
electromagnetic induction:
• the cable is to be supported on non fragile insulators
• The cable armoring or any metallic protection must be non

magnetic and earthed on mid span or supply end only
• When single core cables pass a bulkhead the sum of the currents
trough this penetration must be 0
Fire resistant cables

Must remain functional under fire conditions. Have a similar
construction as other cables, but are provided with an additional
layer of mineral insulation around the conductors, in this case mica.
64
Application of fire resistant cables

When the circuit have to remain in service under fire conditions.
• emergency lighting
• fire detection
• communication circuits
• fire pump
• fire safety shut down circuits
When the circuit have to remain in service under fire conditions.

But also to ensure continuity of service in spaces adjacent to the
space which could be damaged by fire.
Cable selection tables
Figure 72: Cable ratings at 45 C

Correction factors for bunching of cables or when the numbers of
conductors in a cable exceeds 4 may also be applied and class rules
must be consulted for the corresponding values. ABS pg654.
Figure 73: Correction factor for

ambient air temp of 45 C
Figure 74: Codes are printed on the

outside, according to the production
standard.
Cable trays and cable fixing
Figure 75: fixed cable trays.
Cable trays and cable fixing
Pipe and cable tunnel
Minimum internal radius of bends
Minimum internal radius of bends
An average figure of 6 times the overall diameter is a reasonable

rule of thumb. Above 1000V the figure lies between 15 times the
overall diameter for multicore and 20 for single-core cables.
High voltage cables
High voltage cables must be segregated from low voltage cables.

Control cables must be segregated from all power cables.
66
68
Minimum distances cable supports

Cables are normally fixed with Ty-wraps.
• These tie wraps must be UV resistant.
• When cables are mounted on vertical or overhead cable-trays

steel cable band are used.
• When single-core or high voltage cables are involved non mag-

netic materials should be used (stainless-steel).
Paint on cables
Where paint or any other coating is systematically and intentionally
applied on the electric cables, it is to be established...... ABS 4-8-4
21.1.6
High voltage cables
Above 3KV cables have a radial field construction with an earth-

ing screen between the cores and the outside insulation.
These cables have to be terminated with a special 3-pole sleeve.
Flexible cables
Cable penetrations
Cable Penetrations
Standard cable penetrations are A-60 fire resistant and are water-
tight up to a pressure of 50 meters water column.
Cable connections
• Cables are to be installed as far as practicable, in continuous
lengths between termination points.
• Where necessary the use of junction boxes will be permitted.

Figure 76: Telescopic supported

wheelhouse.
Figure 77: Multiple glands with rubber

sealing blocks
70
Figure 78: Additional fire protection
• Cable splices will be permitted during construction for joining

cables between modules, or when extending or truncating the
lengths of cables during repair or alteration.
cable terminations
Electrical Safety Rules
All companies concerned with high voltage work will produce their
own set of electrical safety rules. The rules are to ensure the safety
of all personnel who undertake work on high voltage systems
and will form the base for compliance with the relevant statutory
regulations.
The safe working procedures are defined by International standards,
classification society’s rules, flag state administration rules and laws
as well as company policy and rules. The person carrying out the work
needs to check which procedure is valid in each working place. You must
make yourself familiar with and work to your own company rules
(further training required).
Hazards
The most common reasons for electrical hazards are mechanical

failure, lack of communication, personnel carelessness and person
taking known risk. Most electrical accidents occur because people
are working on or near equipment that is:
• thought to be dead but which is live
• known to be live but those involved do not have adequate train-

Figure 79: Taking a well known risk
ing or appropriate equipment to prevent injury, or they have not
taken adequate precautions.
• switching on a forgotten additional earth
That’s why by following up safety precautions and procedures

many electrical hazards can be avoided.
Maintenance and use of the equipment
• Equipment must be properly designed, constructed, installed

and maintained so that it does not present a risk of electric
shock, burns, fire or explosion when properly used. There are Figure 80: Even 12V battery can pose
many equipment-specific standards that include safety-related an enormous risk
requirements which, if followed, will ensure that the electrical
risks are adequately controlled.
• Some equipment operates at voltages that are so low that they

cannot cause a harmful electric shock but even at these extra-
low voltages an arc can occur, burns can result from overheated
72
conductors, or an explosive atmosphere can be ignited. A short-

circuited battery, for example, may cause the conductors to
overheat and even cause the battery to explode. The following
advice also applies to self-contained sources of electrical en-
ergy, whether the risk is from electric shock, burn, arcing, or
explosion.
• You must assess the situation before work is carried out on or

near equipment. Working on equipment may result in removal of
components and parts that provide protection for people against
electric shock when the equipment is in normal use.
• Where possible, you must avoid live working during commis-

sioning and faultfinding; eg by using suitably designed equip-
ment with in-built test facilities and diagnostic aids. There must Figure 81: Think Safety
be adequate space, access and lighting to work safely. Tempo-
rary systems and equipment should be designed, constructed,
installed and maintained to avoid danger.
Risk Assesment, Risk Analyses, JHA
Introduction
To be able to work safely, it is important to evaluate in advance

what kind of risks might be faced during the work. Risk is a fac-
tor that everyone encounters in maritime operations. Probability
and severity are the main factors of a risk. For some people it has
become a second nature to asses all hazards in every possible situa-
tion, but this is not the case for all of us. In daily live we constantly
asses risks, before crossing a road you evaluate the risk of crossing,
am I fast enough to cross or should I wait for that car to pass, if I pass
now maybe I get hit by the car, what will be the consequences, will I be
injured, I can also wait and there will be no risk. Everyday decisions
do not usually require deeper and formal risk management. But
when we think about our work more people are involved, things
might be more complicated so formal and deep risk management
is reasonable. For each serious accident, there are 10 minor accidents and
as many as 600 near-misses which do not include individual or material
damages The ISM code gives the freedom to individual shipowners
to develop there own Safety Management System (SMS). Risk man-
agement procedures can be a part of the SMS of your shipowner.
Terminologies
There are a few terminologies used for risk management.
• Risk: combination of probability and severity of the consequence

of a specific accident.
• Hazard: the potential to create or contribute to a harmful event.
• Risk analysis: systematic identification of workplace hazards

and their severity.
• Risk assessment: evaluating whether risks are acceptable.
When evaluating the acceptability of a risk following factors should

be identified.
• Voluntary risk ⇔ obligatory risk
• No alternatives ⇔ several alternatives
• Risk at work ⇔ risk at personal live

74
• Affects all people ⇔ affects sensitive people
• Risk in intended use ⇔ risk only if misused
• etc
Risk classification process:

4 4
HSE. Risk assesment a brief guide
to controlling risks in the workplace,
1. Identify the hazards. 2014. URL http://www.hse.gov.uk/
pubns/indg163.pdf. Online; accessed
19-Januari-2016
• One of the most important aspects of your risk assessment
is accurately identifying the potential hazards in your work-
place.
• A good starting point is to walk around your workspace and
think about any hazards. In other words, what is it about the
activities, processes or substances used that could injure your
employees or harm their health?
• When you work in a place every day it is easy to overlook
some hazards, so here are some tips to help you identify the
ones that matter:
– Check manufacturers instructions or data sheets for chemi-
cals and equipment as they can b very helpful in explaining
the hazards and putting them in their true perspective.
– Look back at your accident and ill-health records- these
often help to identify the less obvious hazards.
– Take account of non-routine operations (eg maintenance,
cleaning operations or changes in production cycles).
– Remember to think about long-term hazards to health (eg
high levels of noise or exposure to harmful substances).
There are some hazards with a recognized risk of harm, for ex-
ample working at height, working with chemicals, machinery,
and asbestos. Depending on the type of work you do, there
may be other risks that are relevant to your business.
2. Who might be harmed?
• Then think how employees (or others who may be present,

such as contractors or visitors) might be harmed. Ask your
employees what they think the hazards are, as they may notice
things that are not obvious to you and may have some good
ideas on how to control the risks.
• For each hazard you need to be clear about who might be
harmed it will help you identify the best way of controlling
the risk. That doesn’t mean listing everyone by name, but
rather identifying groups of people (eg people working in the
storeroom or passers-by). Remember:
– Some workers may have particular requirements, eg new

and young workers, migrant workers, new or expectant
mothers, people with disabilities, temporary workers,
contractors, homeworkers and lone workers.
– Think about people who might not be in the workplace
all the time, such as visitors, contractors and maintenance
workers. Take members of the public into account if they
could be harmed by your work activities.
– If you share a workplace with another business, consider
how your work affects others and how their work affects
you and your workers. Talk to each other and make sure
controls are in place. Ask your workers if there is anyone
you may have missed.
3. Evaluate the risks
• Having identified the hazards, you then have to decide how

likely it is that harm will occur, ie the level of risk and what
to do about it. Risk is a part of everyday life and you are not
expected to eliminate all risks. What you must do is make
sure you know about the main risks and the things you need
to do to manage them responsibly.
• Generally, you need to do everything reasonably practicable
to protect people from harm. This means balancing the level
of risk against the measures needed to control the real risk in
terms of money, time or trouble. However, you do not need to
take action if it would be grossly disproportionate to the level
of risk.
• Your risk assessment should only include what you could
reasonably be expected to know you are not expected to
anticipate unforeseeable risks.
• Look at what you’re already doing and the control measures
you already have in place. Ask yourself:
– Can I get rid of the hazard altogether?
– If not, how can I control the risks so that harm is unlikely?
Some practical steps you could take include:
– trying a less risky option;
– preventing access to the hazards;
– organizing your work to reduce exposure to the hazard;
– issuing protective equipment;
– providing welfare facilities such as first aid and washing
facilities;
– involving and consulting with workers.
• Improving health and safety need not cost a lot. For instance,
placing a mirror on a blind corner to help prevent vehicle
accidents is a low-cost precaution, considering the risks.
Failure to take simple precautions can cost you a lot more if
an accident does happen.
76
• Involve your workers, so you can be sure that what you

propose to do will work in practice and wonâĂŹt introduce
any new hazards.
• If you control a number of similar workplaces containing
similar activities, you can produce a model risk assessment
reflecting the common hazards and risks associated with these
activities.
• You may also come across model assessments developed by
trade associations, employersâĂŹ bodies or other organiza-
tions concerned with a particular activity. You may decide to
apply these model assessments at each workplace, but you can
only do so if you:
– satisfy yourself that the model assessment is appropriate to
your type of work;
– adapt the model to the detail of your own work situations,
including any extension necessary to cover hazards and
risks not referred to in the model.
4. Record your significant findings
• Make a record of your significant findings - the hazards, how

people might be harmed by them and what you have in place
to control the risks. Any record produced should be simple
and focused on controls.
• A risk assessment must be suitable and sufficient, ie it should
show that:
– a proper check was made;
– you asked who might be affected;
– you dealt with all the obvious significant hazards, taking
into account the number of people who could be involved;
– the precautions are reasonable, and the remaining risk is
low;
– you involved your employees or their representatives in the
process.
• Where the nature of your work changes fairly frequently
or the workplace changes and develops (eg a construction
site), or where your workers move from site to site, your risk
assessment may have to concentrate more on a broad range of
risks that can be anticipated.
• Identify long-term solutions for the risks with the biggest
consequences, as well as those risks most likely to cause
accidents or ill health. You should also establish whether there
are improvements that can be implemented quickly, even
temporarily, until more reliable controls can be put in place.
• Remember, the greater the hazard the more robust and reli-
able the measures to control the risk of an injury occurring
will need to be.
5. Regularly review your risk assessment
• Few workplaces stay the same. Sooner or later, you will bring
in new equipment, substances and procedures that could lead
to new hazards. So it makes sense to review what you are
doing on an ongoing basis, look at your risk assessment again
and ask yourself:
– Have there been any significant changes?
– Are there improvements you still need to make?
– Have your workers spotted a problem?
– Have you learnt anything from accidents or near misses?
• Make sure your risk assessment stays up to date.
Risk Handling Process
Risk should be addressed in terms of the following three activities:
• Risk assessment
1. Define problems
2. Gather experts
3. Identify hazards
4. Assign probability
5. Assign consequence
6. Calculate relative risk
• Risk management
1. Develop counter measures

2. Estimate benefits
3. Analyze cost-benefit value
• Risk communication
1. Get input from experts and share results with decision mak-
ers when appropriate.
Risk classification process example:
Identify the hazards and potential accidents

As an example: a generator without regular maintenance. A possi-
ble accident can be: loose connections ⇒ heating ⇒ explosion ⇒
fire.
1. Define the frequency or the likelihood that an accident might

happen, how often the hazard might lead to an accident:
• unlikely
78
• possible
• probable
In the case of our generator without regular maintenance the

probability of a loose connection is high. It may take time, but it
is possible due to engine vibrations.
2. Define the consequences, what kind of impact the hazard and

potential accident would have?
• insignificant
• tolerable
• moderate
• serious
• intolerable
In case of our generator without regular maintenance the con-

sequences of a loose connection could be just stopping of the
generator, or more serious explosion and fire. Consequence:
moderate or serious.
Table 2: Risk Assesment Matrix

Severity & Likelihood
(Consequences x Likelihood = Risk
1 2 3 4 5 score).
Consequences
Rare Unlikely Possible Likely Probable
1 Negligible 1 2 3 4 5
2 Minor 2 4 6 8 10
3 Significant 3 6 9 12 15
4 Serious 4 8 12 16 20
5 Life threatening 5 10 15 20 25
Table 3: Risk scores and actions to be

Risk Score Action(s) to be taken
taken.
1-6 Low Monitor and manage changes in the situation.
Be aware of changes in the situation, take
additional precautions if possible
7-12 Medium Review tasks and try to redefine
the tasks to lower the risk to work
As Low As Reasonably Practical (ALARP)
13-25 High Do not start the job before risks
have been reduced to a level below 13.
Steps for decision making:
• Step 1: Defining the problem
• Step 2: Selecting experts
• Step 3: Identifying hazards and potential accidents
• Step 4: Assigning probability

• Step 5: Assigning consequences
• Step 6: Determining risk priority
• Step 7: Developing counter measures
• Step 8: Estimating benefits
• Step 9: Estimating cost
• Step 10: Estimating benefit cost
Give the risks priority which need the most urgent attention or
which need attention over a longer period of time. If the risk prior-
ity level needs to be reduced the following action should be taken.
• Remove the hazard
• Restrict the effects of the hazard
• Isolate the hazard
• Remove the employee
• Moderate the consequences of risk
• Recruit a suitable employee
• Inform the employees of danger
• Train the employee to avoid the danger
• Eliminate the hazard
• etc.
It is good to remember that the final goal for risk management is to

achieve the vision of zero accidents.
80
An example of a Job Safety Plan
Job Safety Plan
• Engineer:....................
• Location:....................
• Date:........................
• Risk score before JSP:.......
• Risk score after JSP:........
Instructions for using the Risk Assessment Matrix
1. Identify the risk factors A of the job.
2. Estimate the residual risks of the job (after measures are taken
according to the Risk Inventory & Evaluation) in terms of:
• likelihood of an accident happening and

• consequences of an accident (use the most severe factor score.
3. Multiply likelihood with consequences to calculate risk score.
4. If tasks have a risk score 7, describe the actions (in writing on the
form) you will take to lower the risk.
A Risk Factors (factors to consider for the risk estimation)
• Nature of the work

e.g. working with electricity, radiation, toxins, flammables.
• Location of the work

e.g. working at height, confined space, little or no escapes routes.
• Working environment
e.g. other work or processes taking place in the vicinity.
• Complexity of the work

e.g. number of people at work, subcontractors, time pressure.
• Working conditions
e.g. weather. lighting, vibrations, noise, physical strain, mechani-
cal impact, dust.
B Likelihood (how likely it is that an accident will happen given the

precautions taken)
• Rare (score = 1)
May occur in exceptional circumstances.
• Unlikely (score = 2)
Unlikely to occur, happens every few years in the business.
• Possible (score = 3)
Happens every few months in the business.
• Likely (score = 4)
Happens on a weekly basis in the business.
• Probable (score = 5)
Happens on a daily basis in the business.
C Severity and consequences (the effects on people and assets if an

accident should happen)
• Negligible (score = 1)
No or negligible injuries.
Equipment function loss or damage is not likely.
• Minor (score = 2)
Cuts, bruises, first degree burns (treatment by first aid, rest or
short recovery)
Damage requiring minor repair.
• Significant (score = 3)
Severe cuts, fractures, contusions, non permanent injuries, sec-
ond degree burns, eye injuries (treatment by doctor or Emer-
gency Medical Services).
Locally repairable (extensive damage).
• Serious (score = 4)
Head injuries, permanent disability, loss of limb or eye, loss of
consciousness, permanent illnes, third degree burns (hospital
stay).
Serious damage causing operations to stop temporarily.
• Life threatening (score = 5)

Death, heart failure, internal bleeding, severe and extended
injuries.
Major damage causing operations to cease and or site to be
evacuated.
Table 4: Risk Assesment Matrix

D Severity & Likelihood
(Consequences x Likelihood = Risk
1 2 3 4 5 score).
Consequences
Rare Unlikely Possible Likely Probable
1 Negligible 1 2 3 4 5
2 Minor 2 4 6 8 10
3 Significant 3 6 9 12 15
4 Serious 4 8 12 16 20
5 Life threatening 5 10 15 20 25
ALARP: the costs of risk reducing measures (in terms of finances

and operations) should be in proportion to the amount by wich the
risk is reduced.
82
Table 5: Risk scores and actions to be

E Risk Score Action(s) to be taken
taken.
1-6 Low Monitor and manage changes in the situation.
Be aware of changes in the situation, take
additional precautions if possible
7-12 Medium Review tasks and try to redefine
the tasks to lower the risk to work
As Low As Reasonably Practical (ALARP)
13-25 High Do not start the job before risks
have been reduced to a level below 13.
Assessing safe working practices SWP for electrical work
Planning the steps

The procedure can be divided into four stages as follows:
• deciding whether to work dead or work live
• planning and preparation for actions which are common to both

dead and live working
• procedures for working dead
• procedures for working live
Deciding whether to work dead or live

Work on or near live exposed conductors should rarely be per-
mitted. Many accidents to electricians, fitters, technicians and
engineers occur when they are working on equipment that could
have been isolated. You should plan and program the work to al-
low all jobs to be carried out where possible with the equipment
dead. Three conditions must be met for live working to be permit-
ted where danger may arise. If just one of these conditions cannot
Figure 82: personel protective equip-
be met, live working must not be permitted and dead working is ment
essential. The conditions are:
• it is unreasonable in all the circumstances for the conductor to be

dead; and
• it is reasonable in all the circumstances for the person to be at

work on or near that conductor while it is live; and
• suitable precautions (including, where necessary, the provision of

personal protective equipment) have been taken to prevent injury
Is it unreasonable for the work to be done dead? There are some cir-
cumstances where it is unreasonable to make equipment dead
because of the difficulties it would cause. For example:
• it may be difficult, if not impossible, to commission a complex

control cabinet without having it energized at some time with
parts live (but not exposed so that they may be easily touched);
• it may not be technically feasible to monitor the operation and

performance of a control system or to trace a malfunction of such
equipment with it dead, ie fault-finding;
• switching off a system, such as the supply to an electric system,

to carry out maintenance or repair work may cause dispropor-
tionate disruption and cost.
Identify, assess and evaluate the risks and methods for controlling them
If you have decided that it is unreasonable for the work to be done
dead, a risk assessment is necessary. The risk assessment must
cover the work on or near the specific equipment and it must
be carried out by someone with comprehensive knowledge and
experience of the type of work and the means of controlling the
risks.
A risk assessment is about identifying and taking sensible and
proportionate measures to control the risks in your workplace, not
about creating huge amounts of paperwork. Ask your employees
what they think the hazards are, as they may notice things that
are not obvious to you and may have some good ideas on how to
control the risks.
Having identified the hazards arising from the live work, you
then have to decide how likely it is that harm will occur and the
severity of injury that might occur. Risk is a part of everyday life
and you are not expected to eliminate all risks but you need to
take account of the fact that electricity can cause very serious
injuries and death. What you must do is make sure you know
about the main risks and the things you need to do to manage
them responsibly. Generally, you need to do everything reasonably
practicable to protect people from harm.
As part of this process, you will need to consider the competence
of the people who will be carrying out the work and their ability to
avoid danger, taking into account the available precautions.
Make a record of your significant findings,the hazards, how
people might be harmed by them and what you have in place
to control the risks. Any record produced should be simple and
focused on controls.
Few workplaces stay the same, and you should review what you
are doing on an ongoing basis.
Decide whether suitable precautions can be taken to prevent injury Pro-

viding the requirements above have been met, live working can
still only be justified if suitable precautions are taken to prevent
injury arising from the hazards identified in the risk assessment.
The precautions should have been identified in the risk assessment
and might include:
• installing temporary insulation, protective enclosures, or screens
to prevent parts at different potentials being touched at the same
time;
84
• using temporary barriers with warning notices affixed to keep

unauthorised people away from the work area;
• ensuring that adequate clearances are established and main-

tained when working near to live equipment.
• making sure that workers understand the task and the system
to be worked on (clarity of instructions is essential), are trained
and experienced, and follow the correct procedures. They must
be competent to realize their own limitations and know when to
seek help;
• providing lighting and working space that is adequate and free Figure 83: use robust and insulated
from trip hazards. tools
• using robust and properly insulated tools.
• using test instruments with insulated probes and fused leads.
• maintaining tools and test equipment in good condition and

replacing them if damaged;
• storing tools correctly, horizontal surfaces and projections inside

control cabinets should not be used, and ensuring that objects
such as tools and bolts cannot fall onto exposed live parts;
• avoiding lone live working. Quick action is needed in the event

of an electric shock to disconnect the supply and give assistance,
so it will usually be necessary to be accompanied by someone
who is competent to make the system safe and avoid injury;
• providing and using correct personal protective equipment to

reduce the risk of contact with live parts or earth, eg insulating
gloves, insulating matting.
planning and preparation for actions which are common to both dead
and live working
Identify the circuit or equipment to be worked on or near to and the work
that needs to be done These tasks should be carried out before
the work starts. Factors that may affect the safe system of work
should also be taken into account. In many cases, actual physical
identification will be necessary and this may be aided by the use of
appropriate drawings, diagrams and other written information.
Plan the work Many electrical accidents are due to a failure to plan
ahead. Planning should consider the management, supervision,
implementation and completion of the work, and should lead to a
formal system of work based on information in the safety rules and
a task-specific risk assessment. You should consider the following:
• the work to be done
• the hazards of the system or equipment to be worked on and the

risks associated with the work
• the people doing the work, their competence and the level of
supervision necessary
• the precautions to be taken and the system of work to be em-

ployed
• the possibility that the nature of the work may change, eg a

testing job may turn into fault finding
There must be adequate information available about the elec-

trical system and the work to be done. In the case of a newly con-
structed electrical system (or newly installed equipment), there
should be drawings and schedules relating to the design and these
should have been updated, if necessary, by the people carrying out
the installation.
Records in the form of drawings and/or schedules should be
kept for all but the most basic of installations. In the case of old
installations where records may be poor, you should attempt to
improve the records, eg by a combination of surveying, testing and
labeling. However, when checking records before working on an
installation it is unwise to rely solely on one source of information,
eg a label. Labels should be securely fixed to equipment to clearly
identify their function.
Electrical accidents often occur during fault-finding after a plant
breakdown when pressure to repair the equipment results in risks
Figure 84: supervision and communi-
being taken. To anticipate this, you should plan and establish safe
cation
fault-finding procedures to be implemented during breakdown
maintenance.
Specify level of supervision and whether accompaniment is necessary

The planning process will have indicated the level of supervision
required. An important factor to consider is the amount of training
and experience workers have had to do the specific jobs âĂŞ the
less experienced or knowledgeable the worker is, including the
level of familiarity with the system to be worked on, the greater
will be the need for supervision. There will also be a greater need
for supervision when working live. The need for accompaniment
is also greater for live work, although it may still be necessary for
some cases of working dead, especially if there are adjacent live
parts. The accompanying person should be trained to recognize
danger, to switch off and, if necessary, to give assistance in the
event of an emergency.
Working dead
Identification Adequate information should be supplied to identify
equipment correctly. For most circuits and equipment correct
labeling is important, but it should never be assumed that labeling
is correct and that work can be started without having first proved
that the equipment or circuit is dead.
86
Disconnection Disconnect the equipment from every source of

electrical energy before working on, or near, any part which has
been live or is likely to be live. On equipment that is capable of
storing charge, such as capacitors and high-voltage cables, ensure
that any stored charge has been safely discharged.
Secure isolation For adequate isolation, the disconnecting device

should have an isolating gap sufficient for the voltage levels present
or likely to occur. Make sure that any switch dis-connector or
other means of disconnection is secure. Switches, including circuit
breakers, should be locked in the OFF position preferably using a
safety lock, ie a lock or padlock having a unique key or combination.
Lockout devices that can be attached to the actuators of circuit
breakers are available and should be used where appropriate.
All keys should be retained in a secure place. If a plug has been
withdrawn, make sure that it cannot be reconnected to the electrical
supply while work is taking place on the circuits or apparatus, the
use of proprietary lock-out devices for this purpose is encouraged.
If a fuse is removed, make sure that it or a similar one cannot
be reinserted by taking it away or by locking the box or enclosure
until work is completed. Some manufacturers produce lockable
insulating blanks that you can insert in an empty fuse-way. These
prevent inadvertent fitting of a fuse while the associated circuit is Figure 85: LV secure isolation by
being worked on. removing fuses
If you rely on locking off where a number of people are working,
the use of a multiple locking hasp attachment, lock-out box or
key-safe may be appropriate to ensure that all the locks have to
be removed before the equipment can be re-energized. Everyone
involved in the work should apply a lock to the multiple locking
hasp and keep personal possession of the key.
Post notices You should put a notice or label at the place of dis-
connection so everyone else knows that work is being done. For
example, a caution notice can be used to indicate that someone is
working on the apparatus and may be injured if it is re-energized,
and danger notices attached to live equipment adjacent to the place
of work will indicate that the apparatus is still energized. Notices
or labels should be easily understood by anyone in the area. You
should remove labels or notices when they no longer apply so that
the system does not fall into disrepute. It is often useful for the cau-
tion and danger notices to have a space for the name of the person
responsible for the work and for the date.
Proving dead Having isolated the circuit or equipment, and be-

fore working on it, check that the parts to be worked on or near
really are dead, even if the isolation has been achieved automati-
cally through an interlocking system. If it is a three-phase system
or equipment with more than one supply, prove that all supply
conductors are dead.
Figure 86: low voltage proprietary

voltage detector
The instrument to do this should be properly constructed to

protect against electric shock and designed to prevent short circuits
occurring during use. For low voltages, proprietary voltage detec-
tors such as two-pole voltage detectors, test lamps, or voltmeters
with insulated probes and fused leads can be used. The use of a
multimeter, which can be set to the wrong function, is not recom-
mended for proving dead on low-voltage systems, neither is the use
of non-contact devices such as volt sticks.
It will be necessary to test the instrument before and after use.
This may be done by means of a proving unit with a low power
output. If live circuits are used to prove instruments, adequate
precautions against electric shock and short circuits should be
taken . Training in the correct use of voltage detectors is essential to
avoid risk in the event of unexpected use on a live conductor. All
instruments used for checking circuits should be maintained and
inspected frequently.
Earthing The risk to people if the above precautions fail can be

minimized by securely earthing all the conductors using properly
designed earthing devices or earthing leads, usually applied to all
points where the circuit or equipment is isolated from the supply.
Additional local earths at the point of work may also be necessary Figure 87: additional earth system
if this is remote from the point of isolation, but these should be ap-
plied only after proving dead at the point of work. This procedure
is essential for high-voltage apparatus and stored energy equipment
(eg capacitors). The earthing conductors and their connections
should be suitable for the energy that may flow in the event of a
failure of the above precautions.
Earthing low-voltage equipment is desirable if there is a risk of
re-energisation, eg from a generator under someone elseâĂŹs con-
trol. In other low-voltage equipment, however, it may be physically
impractical to apply earths, or the risk of short circuit from intro-
ducing an earth near adjacent live parts may outweigh the benefit
of earthing the apparatus being worked on.
Adjacent parts When the circuit or equipment to be worked on

has been made dead or where the work is non-electrical, you must
still protect against danger from inadvertent contact with other live
parts nearby. This should preferably be done by erecting physical
barriers and/or the use of temporary insulation and posting danger
notices. The requirements regarding adequate working space,
access and lighting must also be met.
Working live
The most common live working activity is testing, typically carried
out as part of routine preventative maintenance, diagnostic testing,
product testing, commissioning, or fault finding.
1. Identify the circuit or equipment to be worked on or near the

88
work to be done
2. Ensure suitable precautions are taken and that suitable protec-

tive equipment is used
3. Ensure adequate working space, access and lighting. Restrict

access to area of live work
4. Ensure accompaniment is provided if necessary. Accompani-

ment to be trained to give assistance
Permit To Work Systems
5 5
Jan De Nul Group. Permit to work
system. Technical report, Jan De Nul
Group, 2014b. Procedure jdn.sp.08.19.e
revision 01
Aim and Scope
1. All high risk tasks should be controlled as part of the Com-

pany’s Safety Management System.
2. High risk tasks should be controlled trough a permit to work

system.
Risk assessment and control
Identify high risk task which require strict control using a permit
to work. Purely verbal instructions are not a safe alternative to a
permit system
Use of Permits
Permits should be used for the following activities:
• Entry into confined spaces/closed vessels/tanks, etc.
• Work involving demolition of pipelines containing steam, ammo-

nia, chlorine, hazardous chemicals, vapors.
• Work on certain electrical systems.
• Welding and cutting work (other than in workshops).
• Work in isolated locations,locations where access is difficult, or at

heights.
• Work near or with highly flammable/explosive/toxic substances.
• Work causing atmospheric pollution.
• Fumigation operations using gases.
• Any activities involving on-site contractors.

90
The permit should specify at least:

• Details of the work to be done.
• Details of all the controls/ precautions required.
• Emergency procedures.
• Any limits on the work, work area or equipment.
• Written acceptance by the person who will do the work.
• Written signed confirmation that the work has been completed

and the area restored to safety.
• Any permitted time extension to the work.
• How the permit is canceled.

The Electric Permit to Work System
Definitions
Additional earth
An earth connection applied to apparatus after application of a
CME, normally applied at the point of work if not already fitted
with CME.
Approved
A type of form sanctioned for use by the DPA/superintendent/senior
electrical engineer.
Authorized person (AP)

An authorized person is appropriately trained and appointed in
writing by the superintendent/electrical engineer to carry out work
as permitted by these rules.
Caution notice A notice conveying a warning against interference

with the apparatus to which it is attached.
Chief engineer
Senior engineer on-board the vessel responsible for all vessel techni-
cal operations and maintenance.
Circuit main earth (CME)

An earth connection applied for the purpose of making apparatus
safe to work on before a permit to work or sanction for test is
issued and which is nominated on the document.
Competent person
A competent person is appropriately trained and has sufficient
technical knowledge or experience to enable him to avoid danger.
It is the duty of the authorized person issuing a permit to work to
satisfy himself that the persons are competent to carry out the work
involved.
92
Danger notice
A notice calling attention to the danger of approach or interference
with the apparatus to which it is attached.
Dead
At or about zero voltage and disconnected from all sources of
electrical energy.
Earthed
Connected to the general mass of earth in such a manner as will
ensure at all times an immediate discharge of electrical energy Figure 88: Even 12V battery can pose
an enormous equipment to prove a
without danger. system dead
High voltage (HV)

All voltage exceeding 1000 V ac.
High voltage apparatus

Any apparatus, equipment or conductors normally operated at a
voltage higher than 1000 V ac.
Isolated
The disconnection and separation of the electrical equipment from
every source of electrical energy in such a way that this separation
and disconnection is secure.
Key safe
A device for the safe retention of keys used to lock means of isola-
tion, earthing or other safety devices.
Limitation of access (LoA)

A form issued by an authorized person to a competent person,
defining the limits of the work to be carried out in the vicinity of,
but not on, high voltage electrical apparatus.
Live
Electrically charged from a supply of electricity.
Permit to work (PTW)

A form of declaration signed and given by an authorized person to
a competent person in charge of the work to be carried out on or in
close proximity to high voltage apparatus, making known to him
the extend (in time and space) of the work, exactly what apparatus
is dead, is isolated from all live conductors, has been discharged

and earthed and, insofar as electric hazards are concerned, on
which it is safe to work.
Safety lock
A lock used to secure points of isolation, safety devices and earth
circuits, being unique from other locks used on the system.
Sanction for test (SFT)

A form of declaration, signed and given by an authorized person
to another authorized person in charge of testing high voltage
apparatus making known to the recipient what apparatus is to be
tested and the conditions under which the testing is to be carried
out.
Designated person ashore (DPA)

A senior electrical/mechanical engineer suitably qualified and
appointed in writing by the company to be responsible for compila-
tion and administration of procedures for high voltage installations
and operations.
Earthing Down
Earthing Down is required to ensure that any stored electrical
energy in the inherent capacitance of the equipment insulation
after isolation is safely discharged to earth. The higher values of
insulation resistance required on HV cabling leads to a high value
of insulation capacitance (C) this coupled with the high voltage
means the energy stored (W) in HV equipment is far greater than
that in LV systems.
C × V2
joules
2
Earthing down also ensures that isolated equipment remains at a
safe potential during work procedures.
Earthing down at a HV switchboard is of two types. Circuit
Earthing: an incoming ore outgoing feeder cable is connected by
a heavy earth connection from earth to all three conductors after
the circuit breaker has been racked out, this is done at the circuit
breaker using a special key. The key is then locked in the key safe.
The circuit breaker cannot be racked in until the circuit’s earth con-
nection has been removed. Bus-bar Earthing: when it is necessary
to work on a section of bus-bars they must be completely isolated
from all possible electrical sources. This will include generator
incomers, section or bus-tie breakers and transformers on that bus-
bar section. The bus-bars are connected together and earthed down
using portable leads which give visible confirmation of the earthing
arrangement.
94
Application
An electrical permit to work is primarily a statement that a circuit
or item of equipment is safe to work on, that it has been isolated
and, where appropriate, earthed. You must never issue an electri-
cal permit-to-work for work on equipment that is still live or to
authorize live work. The information it contains should be precise,
detailed and accurate. It should state which equipment etc has been
made safe, the steps by which this safety has been achieved, and
exactly what work is to be done.
You should not allow anyone to work on equipment that is not
specified in the electrical permit-to-work as having been made
safe. This restriction should be understood and complied with by
everyone in the premises, including senior staff.
If a program. of work must be changed, the existing electrical
permit-to-work should be canceled and a new one issued before
any variation is made to the work. The only person who has the
authority to agree the change in program. and issue the new elec-
trical permit-to-work is either the person who issued the original
permit or the person nominated by management to take over the
responsibility, eg at the end of a shift or during absence on leave.
An electrical permit-to-work should be issued by only a desig-
nated competent person who has been assessed to be so by means
of technical knowledge and/or experience and who is familiar with
the system and equipment. The person should be authorized, in
writing, by the employer to issue safety documents such as elec-
trical permits-to-work relating to specified equipment or systems.
Before issuing the permit, one should work out, in detail and in
writing, what the various steps are:
• to disconnect
• isolate
• prove dead
• lock OFF
• earth the equipment
• post warning notices
• and identify the equipment to be worked on and adjacent equip-

ment which will still be live
The electrical permit-to-work should also state clearly:
• the person the permit is addressed to meaning the leader of the

group or working party, who will be present throughout the
work;
• the exact equipment which has been made dead and its precise
location;
• the points of isolation;

• where the conductors are earthed;
• where warning notices are posted and special safety locks fitted;
• the nature of the work to be carried out;
• the presence of any other source of hazard, with cross-reference

to other relevant permits;
• further precautions to be taken during the course of the work.
In most cases it is preferable to include a diagram on, or attached

to, the permit confirming the above information and showing the
zone for work.
It is strongly recommended that the electrical permit-to-work is
issued at the place where the work is being done. The designated
competent person issuing the permit should explain the work and
agree the accuracy and completeness of the details with the per-
son doing the work before they both sign the permit. The person
issuing the permit must be sure that all necessary action has been
taken to make the equipment safe. As a general rule, a personal
inspection should be made but in geographically very large under-
takings, such as the electricity supply industry, it may occasionally
be necessary to make an exception to this.
If the permit is issued to the leader of a group, the leader accepts
responsibility for the people in the group and should explain to
them, before the work begins, the scope of work and the means by
which safety has been achieved.
If the person issuing the electrical permit-to-work will also be
doing the work, it is strongly recommended that someone else
makes an independent check of the precautions taken. The person
doing the work should then issue a permit to themselves. This
routine helps to ensure that the full safety procedure is applied.
The recipient of an electrical permit-to-work should keep it for
reference while the work is in progress and to prevent inadvertent
cancellation and re-energization of the equipment.
When the work is complete, whoever the permit was issued to
should sign it to declare that any additional earths and tools have Figure 89: To use an insulation-tester
most of the time we have to remove
been removed and people in the group have been withdrawn and the circuit main earth and as a result
instructed not to approach the equipment again. The person clear- hereof we need a sanction to test
ing the permit should also indicate whether or not the equipment
is fit for service. The permit is then returned, preferably to the des-
ignated competent person who originally issued it, for cancellation
before the equipment is re-energized.
To reduce misunderstandings during suspension of work, it
is better to cancel the original permit and issue a new one when
required. The suspension of electrical permits-to-work is not gener-
ally recommended. Where this is necessary, it is essential to have a
written procedure to ensure that tools and additional local earths
are withdrawn and everyone is aware that the permit has been
suspended.
96
Any electrical permit-to-work system should have a procedure

for monitoring (audit) to ensure that the safety rules are followed
and the documents are completed accurately. The monitoring
should preferably be carried out by someone with managerial
responsibilities, who is not involved in the day-to-day issuing of
permits, and should be random and ongoing so that bad habits and
inaccuracies can be identified and eliminated quickly.
Sanction-to-test system
Usually testing on an HV system can only be carried out after the

circuit main earth (CME) has been removed. An example of this
can be insulation testing as it involves the system being checked for
insulation to earth.
A sanction-to-test should be issued in a similar manner to a
permit-to-work. A sanction-to-test should never be issued on an
apparatus on which a permit-to-work is still in force, or on which
another sanction-to-test is in force.
Note: Maintenance and repair cannot be carried out under a
sanction-to-test.
Limitation of Access form
When carrying out HV maintenance, it may be dangerous to allow

unrestricted work be carried out nearby. Workers carrying out
maintenance nearby may not have HV training and may not be
familiar with the risks involved when working on or near HV
equipment. Due to these risks the Limitation of access form should
be used. This form states the type of work that is allowed to be
carried out nearby the HV work, the limitations imposed (space
and time) and the safety precautions taken. The form is to be issued
and signed by the authorized person (AP) and a confirmation of
receipt signature by the person carrying out the work. The form
should include a sign off and a cancellation section.
High Voltage Access
Field of Application
The use of the High Voltage Access procedure is required in the

following cases:
• Any type of maintenance on high voltage equipment.
• Any type of repair to high voltage equipment.
• Any form of measurement on high voltage equipment.
Terminology
High Voltage Installation

We speak of a high voltage installation when the following voltage
levels are exceeded.
• DC> 1500 V
• AC> 1000 V
LOTO
Lock-out and Tag-out
Live
Any electrical apparatus which is charged at a potential different
from that of the mass.
Safe Approach Distance

The minimum safe approach distance that shall be maintained by
an unauthorized person, mobile plant (including load) or any object
from bare electrical apparatus and to date set at 3000 mm
Safe Working Distance

The minimum approach distance for authorised personnel For 6,6
kV this is 1120mm
102
Competent Person (CP)

A first electrician who has been found competent by the Chief
Engineer to have sufficient system knowledge of a particular system
within the site/vessel/workshop.
Permit to work
A formal written system used to control certain types of work that
are potentially hazardous.
Isolation Device
A device used to remove and/or (physically) isolate the energy or
source of energy from equipment / machinery / systems / plants
to make them safe to work on.
Isolated Device
A device locked-out and tagged-off where appropriate with a
personal danger lock and a personal danger tag by a person under
supervision of a Competent Person according to this JDN LOTO
procedure.
JHA
Job Hazard Analysis.
Switching Program
A document prepared by the appointed competent person which
identifies the required steps for isolation.
Installation/Machinery
Includes any equipment (mobile or fixed), appliance, apparatus,
implement of tool and any component, fitting or accessory thereof,
including all associated circuit breakers, valves, levers, isolators, etc.
Personal Danger Lock (PDL)

Lock used to indicate that a person is working on the plant/machinery.
Each person involved in the job attaches a personal danger lock and
personal danger tag to each isolation device. Abbreviation: PDL.
(Red) Personal Danger Tag (PDT)

Tag used to indicate that a person is working on the plant/machinery.
Each person involved in the job attaches a personal danger tag to
each of his personal danger locks. PDT not to be used for anything
else.
RES
Rapid Earth Switch: This switch is used to earth and short circuit a
part of a switchboard.
PPE
Personal protective equipment.
Responsibilities and Authorities
The responsibilities and authorities with respect to this procedure

are listed in the points hereinafter, detailing the procedure. The
responsibilities and authorities are mentioned by function only and
not by name.
104
High Voltage Access Sequence (flowchart)
START
1. Complete a JHA
2. Prepare and write down a switching sequence
3. Switch-off/ de energize the respective part of the installation.
4. Separate the respective part of the system from the live system.
5. Take measures against starting up.(LOTO)
6. Earth and shortcut the respective part of the switchboard.
7. Verify that the respective part of the switchboard is dead.
8. Earth and shortcut the respective machinery
9. Mark and shield live components
10. Perform the job.
11. Remove the earthing equip-

ment from the respective machinery.
12. Remove the earthing equipment from the switchboard.
13. Remove the measures against starting up.
14. Raise the separation.
15. Re-energize the installation.

106
High Voltage Access Sequence Explained
Step 1 Complete a JHA
Step 2 Prepare a written switching sequence.

A written switching sequence is a detailed written document that
describes what measures have to be taken to ensure the safe access
to a high voltage installation. It also describes steps to be taken
during recommissioning. For each step a written description of
actions to be taken has to be made.
• Which breakers are to be separated from the switchboard?
• How and where measuring will take place?
• ....
The written sequence is to be made up by the competent person in

co-operation with an engineer deemed competent chief engineer.
Proper switching sequences can only be made with up-to date
circuit diagrams.
Step 3 Switch-off/ de-energize the respective part of the installation.

The equipment is switched off in the same way as this is done
during normal operations. After the equipment is stopped, the
respective breaker can be opened. It must be confirmed that the
respective breaker is indeed open.
Step 4 Separate the respective part of the system from the live system
This is done by physically removing the breaker from the switch-
board. The method for doing so depends on the type of breaker
which is installed. Refer to the manufacturer’s instructions for
details.
Step 5 Measures against starting up.

Use LOTO procedure.
Step 6 Earth the respective part off the switchboard.

Most High voltage breakers are equipped with a rapid earth switch.
Pay attention on which part is earthed, the bus-bars or the in or
outgoing feeder. Verify if the part you are going to earth is dead, in
a normal situation due to inter-locks it is impossible to earth a part
of a switchboard which is still live, but....
Step 7 Verify that the respective part of the switchboard / machinery is

dead.
This must be done by means of a stick type voltage measuring
device, from here on called a voltage tester. Carefully remove the
protective cover of the machinery, or open the shutters to make

the parts where measuring takes place accessible. Check that
the voltage tester is suitable for the voltage rating of the system.
Respect the safe working distance while measuring . The voltage
tester must be tested:
• Before the measurement.
• After the measurement.
The voltage tester has an integrated checking mechanism based

on a build in electronic circuit powered by either a piezo electric
generator or by batteries. !! BE AWARE, THE VOLTAGE TESTER
CAN ONLY TRACE AC !! Even after it is established that the
installation is no longer live, a possible lethal residual voltage (DC)
can still be present. Therefore, until an installation is earthed it is
still considered live.
Step 8 Earth the respective machinery

The respective machinery must be earthed and short-circuited by
means of a 3-poled earth cable by the following steps:
• Check the condition and suitability of the PPE for the job.
– An arc flame arresting jacket: Check that the jacket is suitable

for the voltage rating (class 0 or higher).
– Arc flame arresting gloves: Check that the jacket is suitable for
the voltage rating (class 0 or higher).
– A full face mask approved for the use on high voltage.
– An approved insulated lance for installing the earth equip-
ment.
• Put the PPE on.
• First connect the earth side of the 3-poled earth cables to a

suitable earth point on the ship (a blank metal part, directly
connected to the ships structure).
• 1 by 1 connect the 3 poles of the earth cable by means of the

insulated lance to the respective terminals (Each terminal one
pole).
Step 9 Mark and shield live components

While working on part of an installation which is not live, it is
still possible that neighboring parts of the installation are still
live. Preferably, these parts are also isolated as described in this
procedure. In some cases however it is not possible to do so. Only
in this case it is sufficient, in order to create a safe workplace, to fit
an insulating cover for establishing a barrier between the working
area and the live parts. In addition a live parts must be visibly
marked as so. Be aware of the fact that not only people can come
108
into direct contact with live parts, also ladders and other parts
of the construction can. At all times the minimum safe working
distance (1120mm for 6,6 Kv) has to be respected.
Step 10 Perform the job.
Step 11 Remove the additional earth from the respective equipment

• First remove the three poled earth cable from the terminals.
• Then remove the earth side of the cable from the ship.
• Carefully place back the protective covers if applicable.
Be Aware:As soon as the earth cable is removed the installation

is to be considered live. As soon as any of the safety precautions
have been lifted the installation is to be considered live.
Step 12 Remove the earth from the switchboard.
Step 13 Remove the measures against starting up

LOTO procedure.
Step 14 Raise the separation.

Before the separation can be raised following steps are to be fol-
lowed.
• Make a visual inspection on the state of the breaker.
• Make sure no tools and or any other objects are left in or on the
breaker.
• Inspect the switchboard and bus-bar.
Place the breaker back into the switchboard following the instruc-
tions prescribed by the manufacturer.
Step 15 Re-energize the installation.

Once the procedure is completed, the installation is declared opera-
tional and can be re-energized at any time it is deemed necessary.
Non-competent persons and persons not involved in the job.
Warning signs must be placed in the vicinity of the work area,

pointing out the dangers to non-competent persons and persons
not involved in the job. Non competent persons and persons not
involved in the job should at all times keep a distance of at least
3000mm (at 6,6Kv) from exposed live components, the so called
safe approaching distance.
The workplace
Access, routes and areas around switching and distribution devices

shall be free from obstacles and flammable materials. In all parts of
an electrical installation to which or near which work is performed,
the following must be present:
• Sufficient access;
• Enough room to work;
• Adequate lighting;
• Adequate escape routes;
Precaution must be taken to avoid injuries resulting from causes

other than electricity (eg. falling, tripping, etc.).
Seven steps that save lives
6 As an example of safety procedures we will discuss the safe work- 6

ABB marine academy. Abb ma-
ing procedures used by ABB HV field technicians these procedures rine academy high voltage safety.
marine.academy@no.abb.com, 2008
are known under the name Seven steps that save lives. These steps
are in a line with common standards for safe working procedures.
It is recommended to do risk assessment throughout the work. The
step order can vary according to the procedure used (for example
issuing permit to work).
1. Identification of the work location
2. Disconnection and securing against reconnection
3. Protection against any other live parts
4. Special precautions close to bare conductors
5. Proving the installation dead
6. Carrying out earthing and short-circuiting
7. Issuing a permit to work
Identification of the work location
Identify the right work location and mark it clearly. The work loca-
tion should have appropriate access and lighting. Non-authorized
persons shall be restricted from entering the work location.
Disconnect and secure against reconnection
Disconnect all possible points of power supply. Secure the recon-

nection by means of a lock out and tag out procedure to ensure that
electric equipment does not accidentally come alive. Take special
care with transformers of which the secondary may be alive.
Protection against any other live parts
Put formal warning notices on panels or cabins you are not work-
ing on. Additional physical barriers must be applied (locks etc.)
when live equipment is exposed. Recheck that you have the correct
point of work. (When multiple cabinets are open you might by
accident start working on the wrong cabinet)
112
Special precautions when close to bare conductors
There might arise a situation where you are working near po-
tentially live parts, or there might be a situation where you can
accidentally touch live parts when putting safety barriers. Take
special precautions (insulation gloves and or safety mats), especially
if you are within a meter of a live connection. Take very special care
on a moving vessel as the ship may be suddenly start rolling, so
never use a safety stool as is a standard practice ashore.
Proving the installation is dead
The installation needs to be checked with appropriate testing gear.

Test the instrument as for proper functioning first. Then verify with
the test instrument that the installation is dead. Recheck the test
instrument, only then you are sure your installation is dead.
Carrying out earthing and short circuiting
Earthing makes the installation free of residual charges and short-

circuits the system in case of a fault current. Use only equipment
designed for this purpose.
Lock out - Tag out
Purpose
Lock-Out / Tag-Out (LOTO) refers to the specific practices and

guidelines to safeguard employees from the unexpected start-up,
movement, activation, energizing, release of energy, etc of machin-
ery / equipment / plant / systems during service, maintenance,
or inspection activities. In short: to protect people involved in a
certain job from getting hurt by the system they work on.
Lock out tag out is a procedure which can be part of a safety
procedure. See the second step of ABB’s seven steps for safety
Disconnect and secure against reconnection or Jan De Nul High Voltage
Access procedure step 5 (Take measures against starting up).
Lock-Out / Tag-Out is the safety procedure where the work area
is marked properly and secured against the power reconnection
with locks. The purpose of this is to prevent injury due to unex-
pected energizing or start up of machines and equipment, or the
release of stored energy.
Field of Application:
1. Shutting down (part) of machinery, equipment, and systems.
2. An employee is required to remove or bypass machine guards or

other safety devices.
3. An employee is required to place any part of his or her body

into a point of operation or into an area on a machine or piece
of equipment where work is performed, or into the danger zone
associated with the machine’s operation
4. Servicing and or maintaining of machines or equipment when

the source of energy is electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, chemical,
thermal, or otherwise energized.
5. Constructing, installing, setting up, adjusting, inspecting, modi-

fying, maintaining, including lubrication, cleaning or unjamming
of machines or equipment, and making adjustments or tool
changes where employees could be exposed to the unexpected
energization of the equipment or release of hazardous energy.
114
When is a Lock-Out / Tag-Out out procedure not needed
1. Servicing and or maintenance of equipment performed during

normal production operations if safeguarding provisions are
effective in preventing worker exposure to hazards created by the
unexpected energization or start up of machines or equipment,
or the release of energy.
2. Minor tool changes and adjustments
3. Minor servicing activities that take place during normal opera-

tions which are routine repetitive, and integral to the use of that
equipment, as long as workers are effectively protected by alter-
native measures which provide effective machine safeguarding
protection.
4. Work on cord and plug connected equipment, if: The equip-

ment is unplugged from the energy source and the authorized
employee has exclusive control of the plug.
Limitations
1. Tag do not provide physical restraint.
2. Tags should not be removed without authorization and are never

to be by-passed, ignored or defeated.
3. Tags are essentially warning devices affixed to energy isolat-

ing devices and do not provide the physical restraint on those
devices that is provided by a lock.
4. Tags must be legible and understandable by all employees.
5. Tags and there means of attachment must be made of materials

which will withstand the environmental conditions encountered
in the workspace.
6. Tags must be securely attached so that they cannot inadvertently

or accidentally be detached during use.
7. Locks must be substantial enough to prevent removal without

the use of excessive force or unusual techniques such as with the
use of bolt cutters or other metal cutting tools.
8. If it is not possible to use lock-out devices, tags are located

where the lock is supposed to be. Care must be taken that the
tag out will provide protection at least as effective as a lock and
will assure full personnel protection.
9. The tag out can be made as effective as a lock when a circuit

element is removed and isolated, a controlling switch is blocked,
an extra disconnecting device is opened, or a valve handle is
removed to reduce the potential for inadvertent energization
while the tags are attached.
Figure 90: With excessive force almost

any lock can be opened
Terms and Definitions
PDLT(s)
Personal Danger Lock(s) with Personal Danger Tag attached to each
lock.
LOTO
Lock - Out / Tag - Out
Person in Charge PIC

A person appointed who has control and daily supervision of a
site / vessel / workshop. The Person In Charge has the power to
replace and / or overrule the Authorized Person. For self propelled
vessels, this is the master of the vessel.
Authorized Person AP
This person supervises the LOTO process and is directly respon-
sible for administering and over-seeing an employee or a group
of employees. The Authorized Person is responsible for deeming
a person competent to carry out a task or a work instruction. The
Authorized Person is a supervisor with system knowledge. The
Authorized Person acts under the responsibility of the Person in
Charge. An AP is also a CP. A single person cannot be PIC, AP and
CP at the same time.
Competent Person CP
A person who has been found competent by the authorized Person
to have sufficient system knowledge of a particular system within
the vessel / machinery / plant. The CP acts under the responsibil-
ity of the AP.
Permit To Work
A formal written system used to control certain types of work that
are potentially hazardous.
Isolation Device
A device used to remove and/ or (physically) isolate the energy or
source of energy from equipment / machinery / systems / plants
to make them safe to work on.
Isolated device
A device locked-out and tagged-off where appropriate with a
personal danger lock and a personal danger tag by the person
116
under supervision of a Competent Person according to his LOTO

procedure.
JHA
Job Hazard Analysis
Hasp
A purpose build device that when used for plant isolation, prevents
the movement of an isolation point and allows the attachment of a
number of locks to prevent removal.
Plant/Machinery
Includes any equipment (mobile or fixed), appliance, apparatus,
implement of tool and any component, fitting or accessory thereof,
including all associated circuit breakers, valves, levers, isolators, etc.
Personal Danger Lock PDL

Lock used to indicate that a person is working on the plant/ ma-
chinery. Each person involved in the job attaches a personal danger
lock to each isolation device. Abbreviation: PDL.
(Red) Personal Danger Tag

Tag used to indicate that a person is working on the plant/ machin-
ery. Each person involved in the job attaches a personal danger tag
to each of his personal danger locks. PDT not to used for anything
else.
(Yellow) Out of Service Tag

Tag used to indicate equipment is out of service. Only used to
protect against damage to the equipment or pollution of the envi-
ronment.
Group Lock Box

A box which can be locked by multiple PDL(s), used to perform
LOTO.
Responsibilities and Authorities
The LOTO procedure places a large responsibility on the shoulders

of (from top to bottom) the Person in Charge (PIC), Authorized
Persons (AP’s), and Competent Persons (CPs). Non - competent
persons have to put thrust in them to effectively isolate systems
so they are save to work on. It is the responsibility of all persons
involved in isolation and / or LOTO activities to follow this proce-
dure to the letter. 7 7
Jan De Nul Group. Lock - out / tag
- out. Technical report, Jan De Nul
Group, 2014a. Procedure jdn.sp.08.26
revision 02
Procedure
Loto Procedure - Basic steps
JOB REQUIRES LOTO
Competent person (under supervision of Authorised Person):
1. Identifies the required isolation(s) from all possible energy

sources, based on the job at hand (JHA, PTW, information from
supervisors.
2. Isolates the equipment / machinery plant.
3. Fills in the Loto registration form in which all steps taken are
listed.
Competent Person performs test to see if

equipment cannot be energized anymore
All competent Persons involved in the job may now

attach their personal danger lock(s) + tag(s) on the
isolating device. Non competent persons do so only
under direct supervision of a Competent Person
When a person finishes working on the job, he

shall remove his personal danger lock(s)+tag(s).
All personal danger tags to be destroyed after been removed.
Once the job is finished (all personal danger lock(s)+tags(s)

removed), a Competent Person checks the equip-
ment / machinery / plant / system, removes the
isolation device(s) and de-isolates the equipment.
LOTO PROCEDURE - SEQUENCE AND STEPS EXPLAINED
START : NEED FOR LOTO IDENTIFIED

During work preparations the need to follow the LOTO procedure
will be identified by a competent person, or as the result of a Job
Hazard Analysis, or the Permit To Work system. This is based on
the scope of the planned works as they are known at this moment.
118
Bear in mind when the scope of work changes, the need for iso-
lation might change as well: an expanding scope of work might
require additional isolation. Although all of this should normally
be covered under a JHA, it is of utmost importance all personnel
involved in the planned works agree on the scope of work, and will
not deviate from this unless they double-check with their supervi-
sors. As a minimum the JHA needs to be reviewed and revised as
necessary prior to changing / expanding the scope of work.
COMPETENT AND NON COMPETENT PERSONS

A CP works under supervision of an AP, and is deemed by the
AP to have sufficient system knowledge of a particular system to
perform the required isolations. CPs are not necessarily competent
for all system, for example: 1st engineers are competent to isolate a
hydraulic system, an electric motor, a dredge- or generator engine,
1st electricians are competent to isolate a main switch board, a
thyristor or frequency drive.
COMPETENT PERSON(S)
1. Only CP’s with knowledge of the system to be isolated are
allowed to isolate that particular system. If more than 1 CP is
going to work on the system they may assist in the isolation(s),
and each will attach their PDLT(s) to the isolation device(s).
2. The CP who isolates a system may not necessarily going to

work on that particular system: in that case he does not attach
his PDLT(s) but he makes sure another person will attach his
PDLT(s) to indicate that the isolation has been made.
NON - COMPETENT PERSON(S)

1. Non-competent persons do not have (sufficient) system knowl-
edge to isolate that particular system. Example: a deck-hand
needs to work on a dredge pump, but he does not know how
to isolate in the engine room the diesel engine which drives the
dredge pump.
2. After a CP has performed the isolations, the non-competent

persons will attach their personal PDLT(s)) to the isolation
device(s) on instructions and under direct supervision of a CP.
This places a large responsibility on the shoulders of the CP:
the non-competent person has to thrust him he has effectively
isolated the system from all possible sources of power to make
it safe for the non competent person to work on. Bottom line:
the non-competent persons thrust the CP(s) with their lives. All
personnel (competent and non-competent persons) may witness
the CP performing the isolation(s), including the verification and
test of the effectiveness (see under (VERIFICATION OF SYSTEM
STATUS) and (TEST OF ISOLATION)). This might give the non-

competent persons some peace of mind, but they still have to
trust the CP that these are all required isolations, and not only
half of them.
3. It is the duty of the non-competent person that they check with

their supervisors who is the CP for which job, and not to act
in the LOTO process unless under direct supervision and on
instructions of a CP.
ISOLATING THE SYSTEM

1. The CP who will isolate the system has to understand the agreed
scope of work, as he needs to understand what devices / equip-
ment need to be isolated to make it safe to carry out the agreed
scope of work. If in doubt he double-checks with the AP. All
possible worst-case scenarios need to be considered. The people
deciding on the required isolation should ask a lot of "what if"
questions to identify all possible sources of power.
2. Control handles, joy sticks, push buttons, emergency stop but-

tons, PLC’s, etc are not allowed to be used as isolation points.
These are controls and control circuits, but not the main source
of power. They are also not allowed to be isolated in addition to
the main power source isolation, as with non-competent persons
that might create a false sense of safety, a false sense of proper
isolation.
3. Isolation should be effective; if possible a physical separation /

barrier should be created. For example: remove main fuses, rack
out a main switch board breaker, attach a chain to a valve handle
so it can not be operated anymore.
4. Watch out for stored energy. Some machines store energy in

raised loads, coiled springs, charged capacitors, pressurized ves-
sels after the energy sources have been turned off and isolated.
5. The use of work switches is only allowed when the following

conditions are met:
(a) The work switch physically interrupts the power to the

respective machinery.
(b) After the work switch is switched to zero, a test of isolation,
as described in (TEST OF ISOLATION) of this procedure, has
to be done.
(c) No work can be performed on the isolated machine itself.
For example: While working on an engine, the cooling water
pump can be isolated with a work switch. While working on
the cooling water pump of an engine, the work switch of the
respective pump cannot be used.
120
6. All actions taken to isolate the system/machinery are to be

recorded in a LOTO registration form. The form is to be com-
pleted by means of 15 types of LOTO actions, listed in the table
below. Types of LOTO actions:
(a) TYPE A1 Isolation by means of a high voltage breaker.

(b) Type A2 Isolation by means of a breaker.
(c) Type A3 Isolation by means of an automatic fuse.
(d) Type A4 Isolation by means of a fuse.
(e) Type B1 Depressurizing a hydraulic system.
(f) Type B2 Depressurizing a hydraulic accumulator.
(g) Type B3 Depressurizing an air or gas system.
(h) Type B4 Depressurizing / draining any other system.
(i) Type C1 Isolation by means of a work switch.
(j) Type C2 Isolation by means of disconnecting solenoid connec-
tors.
(k) Type D1 Isolating harmful energy resulting from gravity or
an external power source.
(l) TYPE E1 Closing and locking valves in an air system.
(m) Type E2 Closing and locking valves in a water system.
(n) Type E3 Closing and locking valves in a gas system.
(o) Type E4 Closing and locking valves in a fuel / oil system.
Type
(p) X Any other type of isolation deemed necessary.
VERIFICATION OF SYSTEM STATUS
(a) The next step in the isolation process is verification by the

CP if the isolated system is now dead, depressurized, springs
released from tension, etc. This is done by measuring voltage,
pressure, bleed-off lines so pneumatic or hydraulic pressure
is released and equalized with atmospheric pressure, dredge
lines are drained, equipment has cooled-down.
(b) After it is established there is no energy stored / residual
anymore in the system, precautions to keep the system safe
are taken. For instance for high voltage switch boards: attach
ground wires. For pneumatic or hydraulic systems: remove /
open part of the piping work and install blanks as necessary.
For a dredge valve which needs to be secured in the open
position: block the valve blade with a jack or a piece of wood
(of course the hydraulics to operate the valve’s cylinder are
isolated, but due to hydraulic leaks the valve might close by
itself / gravity). For equipment which can roll or move or
slide or drop: install mechanical blocking device like, wedges,
ropes, chain hoists, etc. If stored energy can re-accumulate:
have release possibilities (like drain line, vent) open and
isolated so they will remain open.
TEST OF ISOLATION
(a) The last step in the isolation process is a test to make sure
the system can not be started, activated, operated, moved,
re-energized, etc anymore in any way. This can be done by
pushing start buttons, operate control handles, trying to close
a dredge valve, etc. These tests may be witnessed by other
persons, especially if they are scheduled to be involved in the
planned works.
(b) If these tests are not successful, in other words if it is estab-
lished that the system has not been effectively isolated yet
from all possible sources op energy: go back to step (ISO-
LATING THE SYSTEM). CP to double check with AP how to
rectify the situation.
(c) A successful test indicates the system is effectively isolated,
and completes the isolation process.
POSSIBILITY TO ATTACH LOCK ?
(a) Now starts the locking and tagging process. It should be

made possible by the CP to attach 1 or more PDL’s to the iso-
lation device(s), and the use of a hasp can facilitate this. If the
CP who isolated the system is going to work on the system
himself, then he will be the first who will attach his PDLT(s)
to the isolation device(s). Other CP’s, and non-competent
persons who have witnessed the isolation process, may now
attach their PDLT(s) (non-competent persons only do so under
direct supervision of a CP).
(b) Non-competent persons who have not witnessed the iso-
lation process should double-check with their supervisors
to find out who is the CP to instruct them in attaching their
PDLT(s), and they are allowed to do so only under direct
supervision of a CP.
(c) If it is not possible or if there are no facilities to attach a PDL
to an isolation device: refer to next step.
FILL IN INFORMATION ON TAG AND ATTACH WITH LOCK
(a) PDT’s may slightly differ in lay-out but they are always
in red and black and white colours and they always read
"personal danger tag" and "do not operate" or similar. All
relevant information on the tag should be clearly filled in. As
an absolute minimum this should be the name and signature
of the person, the date the PDLT was installed, his function or
department or company, and some information about the job
he is going to do.
(b) No PDL without a PDT, and no PDT without a PDL. PDL
and PDT belong together and should always be used together.
122
The clamp of the PDL fits through the hole in the PDT, and
this is the way a PDT should be fitted to a PDL - not with tie-
raps or shoe strings or anything else. PDT’s should be used in
combination with PDL’s only, and only for isolation as per this
LOTO procedure, and not be attached to or used for anything
else.
(c) Non-competent persons attach their PDLT’s now under
direct supervision of a CP to the isolation device(s). Up to this
point no one except the CP who carried out the isolation(s),
verification(s) and test(s) has been allowed to work on the
system.
IN CASE NOT POSSIBLE TO ATTACH LOCK
(a) Especially on older installations it is not always physical

possible to attach a PDL to an isolation device, although with
a bit of creativity and some minor modifications the situation
can often be overcome. If it is really impossible to attach
PDL’s to isolation devices then PDT’s only should be used.
This is the only exception to a fundamental step in the LOTO
process: no PDT without a PDL.
(b) The CP who isolated the system should take extra precau-
tions. These extra precautions may be the use of barrier-tape
and extra warning signs to keep people away from the area of
the isolation, up to someone standing guard at the isolation
point to make sure no-one will touch the isolation. It would
still be murderous to deisolate a system when all kind of
PDT’s from all kind of people are attached to it!
(c) If this particular isolation without a PDL happens to be a
regular occurrence, than a long term solution for this safety
issue should be found. Master, Chief Engineer, TD, work
shop supervisor (AP’s) have to look into this matter and put a
proper lock-out solution for this particular equipment on the
work list.
ATTACH TAG ONLY
(a) After extra precautions are taken as per (IN CASE NOT
POSSIBLE TO ATTACH LOCK.b) above the non-competent
persons will attach their PDT’s to or near the isolation device
(as it is not possible to attach a PDL to the isolation device, it
might also be not possible to attach a PDT) as instructed by
a CP. The system is now not locked-out but only tagged-out.
Again: all information on the PDT should be clearly filled-in,
as per (FILL IN INFORMATION TAG AND ATTACH WITH
LOCK.a) above.
(b) Up to this point no one except the CP who carried out the
isolation(s), verification(s) and test(s) has been allowed to
work on the system.
COMMENCE THE PLANNED WORKS
(a) Persons who have attached their PDLT’s may now commence
work on the system. Once again: it is their duty, and espe-
cially the responsibility of their supervisors, they adhere to the
initially agreed and planned scope of work.
COMPLETION OF PLANNED WORKS WITHIN 1 SHIFT
(a) If the planned work is completed within one shift: refer to

step (COMPLETION OF PLANNED WORKS). If the planned
work is allowed to be completed later during next shift(s) by
the people who initially attached their PDLT’s to it: refer to
step (COMPLETION OF PLANNED WORKS).
(b) If the planned work can not be completed in one shift
and has to be continued by the next shift: refer to (SHIFT
CHANGE - OVER PROCEDURE).
SHIFT CHANGE - OVER PROCEDURE
(a) When other persons take over they need to attach their
PDLT’s prior to the off-shift going persons removing their
PDLT’s. This is to prevent a situation where there are no
PDLT’s attached to the isolation point(s) anymore. If it is
certain beyond doubt that the job will not be finished in the
next shift, the off-going personnel may keep their PDLT’s
attached - no need to remove.
(b) . If not: off-shift going personnel should remove their PDLT’s
after they have handed over the job to the on-shift going
personnel, who now have attached their PDLT(s) to the same
isolation points.
(c) On-shift going personnel will only attach their locks after
it is confirmed that the isolation described on the LOTO
registration from all still intact.
COMPLETION OF PLANNED WORKS
(a) As soon as the job is completed, and as soon as a person

will not work on the system anymore, he should remove his
PDLT(s) that were attached to the isolation point(s) of this
particular job.
124
DESTROY PERSONAL DANGER TAGS
(a) All PDTS’s need to be destroyed by the owner as soon he

removed the associated PDL’s from the isolation point(s).
This is to prevent that they are lingering around and will
create confusion about a person’s involvement in the job when
found.
(b) For this same reason, after PDT’s are removed they are not
allowed to be saved and re-used the next day on the same job
when work on it is continued.
(c) PDT’s are destroyed when the PDL’s are remove from the
isolation point(s), and when the PDT is still attached to the
PDL. Pull the metal reinforcement around the hole out of the
PDT, and then tear the PDT longitudinal, and dispose the
strips in the trash.
REMOVAL OF LOCKS + TAGS BY INDIVIDUALS
(a) Another fundamental step in the LOTO process: PDLT(s)

only to be removed by the person, by the individual, who at-
tached them, and who’s name appear on the PDT(s) attached
to the PDL(s). No one is allowed to touch, not to mention to
remove, some-one else PDTL’s.
(b) When all PDLT’s are removed and the job is completed we
can proceed with the removal of the isolation as per step (DE -
ISOLATION).
(c) If a PDLT fails to be claimed by the owner and remains
attached to the isolation in such a way that the deisolation and
start-up of the system is delayed / made impossible: proceed
with the PDLT removal procedure as per step (LOCK + TAG
REMOVAL PROCEDURE: PIC ONLY).
LOCK + TAG REMOVAL PROCEDURE: PIC ONLY
(a) The procedure contained in this chapter is the only exception

to the fundamental step in the LOTO process: PDLT(s) only to
be removed by the individual who attached it, by the owner of
the PDLT, by the individual who’s name is on the PDT. This
procedure may only be executed by the PIC, and only when
the owner of the PDLT is disabled. (e.g. by injury, death or
other abnormal circumstances the owner can not personally
remove the PDLT(s)).
DE - ISOLATION
(a) With the approval of the AP, the CP who will deisolate the
system has to convince himself the system is made safe again
to deisolate, that no-body is left working on the system or

exposed to dangers in any other way, personnel are positioned
safely for start-up, all safety guards, shields, panels, etc have
been re-installed, work is complete and tools are put away,
and controls are positioned correctly for start-up. For this an
inspection of the work area has to be carried out by the CP
who will deisolate the system.
(b) After all PDLT’s are removed; the system may now be deiso-
lated. Removing the isolation device(s) and deisolating the
system is best done by the CP who isolated the system in step
(ISOLATING THE SYSTEM, VERIFICATION OF SYSTEM
STATUS, TEST OF ISOLATION) of this procedure. If not it
should be done by another CP with sufficient knowledge of
this particular system.
(c) When possible, after the deisolation is completed, a function
test is to be carried out to ensure all isolation is effectively
removed.
GROUP LOCK OUT
(a) In cases in which a large amount of persons are involved in

the job, it is advisable to execute a LOCK-OUT / TAG-OUT by
means of a group lock-out.
(b) The CP person locks and tags out the necessary equipment
as described in the sections above. Once this is completed,
the keys used for the locks are placed in a group lock box. In
the next step, all individuals involved in the job must attach a
PDL and PDT to the group lock box under supervision of the
CP.
(c) The location of the lock box is preferably on an easy accessi-
ble location as close as possible to the job location.
(d) The removal of PDL(s) and PDT(s) from the lock box is
done as described in section (REMOVAL OF LOCKS AND
TAGS BY INDIVIDUALS) and (LOCK AND TAG REMOVAL
PROCEDURE: PIC ONLY) of this procedure.
7. END
(a) The removal of all PDLT’s and the deisolation of the system
signals the end of the LOTO process. No-one is supposed
to work on the system anymore, which may now be alive
and potentially dangerous. If more or other jobs need to be
performed on the system, or something should be redone, the
whole LOTO process should be followed again from the start.
YELLOW OUT-OF-SERVICE TAGS
(a) Yellow out-of-service tags do not form part of the LOTO

process and are only to be used in combination with locks
126
other than the red PDLT(s) or no lock at all. Yellow out-of-

service tags do not make equipment safe to work on, and they
do not protect the safety of personnel.
(b) Yellow out-of-service tags protect equipment against damage

and /or protect the environment against pollution by inform-
ing personnel not to start / operate / energize / use certain
equipment. Information about this can be found on the tag.
(c) Yellow out-of-service tags may be attached to equipment,

starter boxes, controls, etc. All information on the tag needs
to be filled-in in a clear manner, and as a minimum should
contain the equipment / system name, the name of the person
who attached the tag, the date the tag was attached, and the
reason for the equipment being out-of-service.
(d) Non-competent personnel may attach out-of-service tags pro-

vided they inform their supervisors. A yellow out-of-service
tag may only be removed by the person who attached it, or
by a CP with sufficient system knowledge of that particular
system.
(e) Examples of the use of yellow out-of-service tags:
i. Equipment is not operable because a certain part is missing

which is on order but has not yet arrived. Like a lube oil
pump is missing on an AC compressor, and the suction
and discharge valve of the compressor are closed: isolate
the power to the starter panel of this compressor and put a
yellow out-of-service tag containing all relevant information
on the starter panel / main breaker.
ii. If work covered by the LOTO procedure is suspended for
whatever reason for a prolonged period. The equipment
can remain isolated but all PDLT’s are removed because
people will not work on it anymore for the next few weeks
or longer (change of plan, no parts available, unexpected
problems encountered and waiting for a solution / decision,
etc). After all PDLT’s are removed a yellow out-of-service
tag may be attached to the isolation points if the equipment
remains isolated. Of course when work on this job will be
resumed, the LOTO process has to be followed again all the
way: remove the yellow out-of-service tag and start with
step 1 of the LOTO procedure. In this case it is advisable to
attach a lock other than a red PDL.
iii. Protection of the environment: a bunker hose is found
leaking and should not be used again, or a drain valve
of the hydraulic system of the deck crane should not be
used as part of the drain line is missing (pipe removed for
repair).
Materials and hardware
Locks, tags, chains, wedges, key blocks, adapter pins, self-locking

fasteners, or other hardware.
In other words:
1. Must be durable, so that they can withstand the environmental

conditions to which they are exposed.
2. Must be the only devices used for controlling the energy.
3. Must not be used for other purposes.
4. Tag out devices must be standardized within the facility.
In addition, the lockout:
1. Must be substantial enough to prevent removal without the use

of excessive force or unusual techniques such as with the use of
bolt cutters or other metal cutting tools.
In addition, the tag-out:
1. Must be identifiable, in that it indicates the identity of the per-

son applying the devices.
2. Must be constructed and printed so that exposure to weather

conditions or wet and damp locations will not cause the tag to
deteriorate or the message on the tag to become illegible.
3. Must not deteriorate when used in corrosive environments such

as areas where acid and alkali chemicals are handled and stored.
4. Must be standardized in print and format.
5. Must be substantial to prevent inadvertent or accidental removal.
6. Must have an attachment means of a non reusable type, attach-

able by hand, self locking, and non-releasable (like nylon cable
ties).
7. Must warn against hazardous conditions if the machine or

equipment is energized.
8. Must include a caption as: Do Not Start, Do not Stop, Do Not

Open, Do Not Energize, Do Not Operate
Lock-out, Tag-out as a personal safety procedure
In some cases, the work to be carried out is not subject to a safety

procedure and doesn’t need a permit to work into which a lock-out
tag-out procedure is incorporated, in this case one can decide to
protect oneself with a lock out tag-out procedure.
Sequential Procedure:
1. Preparation for shutdown

128
2. Machine or equipment shutdown
3. Machine or equipment isolation
4. Lockout or tag out device application
5. Stored energy
6. Verification of isolation
Preparation for Shutdown Before turning off a machine or equip-

ment one has to have knowledge of:
1. Type and magnitude of the energy.
2. The hazards of the energy to be controlled
3. Method or means to control the energy
Machine or Equipment Shutdown
1. The machine or equipment must be turned off or shut down

using the procedures established, to avoid any additional or
increased hazards to employees as a result of the machine or
equipment stoppage
Machine or equipment isolation
1. All energy-isolating devices that are needed to control the

machine’s energy source must be located
2. These devices must then be used to isolate the machine or

equipment from its energy source(s).
Lockout or Tag out Device Application Lockout or tag out devices

must be affixed to each energy-isolating device:
1. In a manner that will hold the energy isolating devices in a safe

or off position
2. In a manner that will clearly indicate that the operation or move-

ment of energy isolating devices from the safe or off position is
prohibited
3. If the tag cannot be affixed directly to the energy isolating

device, the tag must be located as close as safely possible to the
device, in a position that will be immediately obvious to anyone
attempting to operate the device
Stored energy After the energy-isolating device has been locked

out or tagged out, all potential hazardous or residual energy must
be:
1. Relieved
2. Disconnected
3. Restrained
4. Otherwise rendered safe
Verification of Isolation
1. Before any work begins on machines or equipment that have

been locked out or tagged out, one has to verify that the machine
or equipment has been properly isolated and de-energized.
Release from Lockout-Tag out
1. Machine equipment inspection: Inspection of the work area

to ensure that nonessential items as there are tools, cleaning
material, spare parts etc. have been removed and that all of the
machine or equipment components are operationally intact.
2. Position of personnel: the work area must be checked to ensure

that all employees have been safely positioned or have cleared
the area. All affected employees must be notified that the lockout
or tag out devices have been removed before the equipment is
started.
Lockout or Tag out removal
1. Each lockout or tag out device must be removed from the

energy-isolating device by the employee who applied the de-
vice.
Steps to release from lockout tag out by another person:
1. Confirm that the person who applied the device is not on board
2. Make all efforts to contact this person to inform him that his
lockout tag out device has been removed.
3. Ensure that this person knows that the device has been removed
before he resumes work.
1. Removal of locks and tags

Electrical insulation Testing
8 8
megger. A stitch in time "a
complete guide to electrical in-
sulation testing", 2014. URL
Why does insulation go bad? https://www.instrumart.com/assets/
Megger-insulationtester.pdf. Online;
accessed 24-Januari-2016
Due to mechanical damage, vibrations, (excessive) heat/cold,
moisture/humidity, chemical influences and interactions and aging
pinholes, cracks causes moisture and foreign matter to penetrate
the surface of the insulation. They create a low resistance path
which allows leakage current to flow through or over the insulation,
causing flash-overs and overloads.
There are two ways the resistance drops. A sudden decrease in
resistance is caused by a breach or damage to the insulation. On
the other hand, a gradual decline in resistance is often the result of
moisture, dirt or aging (cracks) of the insulation.
Value of the resistance
A well-known way to determine the minimal allowed insulation

resistance, which is used by many professional engineers and
electricians, is the "one-mega-ohm rule".
This states that the minimal insulation resistance has to be higher
than 1 mega-ohm for each 1000 volts of operating voltage.
Although is commonly used, the best way to determine the
correct value is to consult the classification rules applying for your
vessel.
Behavior of insulation resistance
As earlier stated, the insulation resistance varies over time. By

keeping records the trend of this value is easily monitored.
132
In the following examples this behavior of insulation is shown

under varying plant conditions.
Figure 91: Typical behavior of insula-

tion resistance over a period of months
They show the evolution of the insulation resistance over several under varying operating conditions,
months. (curves plotted from spot readings).
How to interpret readings:
These readings are relative. More important is the trend. A value

of 12 MΩ can be good, if it is stable. If the previous reading was 30
MΩ, it’s worrying. A continuous decrease in resistance will sooner
or later give you problems.
Periodic insulation testing is a necessity to maintain a reliable
system and is considered as a preventive maintenance item. By
taking periodic readings and record them, you have a better basis of
judging the actual insulation condition.
A downward trend is a fair warning of trouble ahead, even
though the values may still be higher than the minimum. When the
measured values are low but consistent, the installation can be fine.
When to take witch action depends on the situation.
The following guide helps you determine your actions.
Condition What to do
Fair to high values / well main- No cause for concern.
tained.
Fair to high values, but showing Locate and remedy the cause and
a constant tendency towards check the downward trend.
lower values.
Low but well maintained. Condition is probably all right,
but cause of low values should be
checked.
So low as to be unsafe; Clean, dry out, or otherwise raise
the values before placing equip-
ment in service. (Test wet equip-
ment while drying out.
Fair or high values, previously Make tests at frequent intervals
well maintained but showing until the cause of low values is
sudden lowering. located and remedied; or until the
values have become steady at a
lower level but safe for operation;
or until values become so low that
it is unsafe to keep the equipment
in operation.
Measuring
The insulation tester connects a DC source to its terminals and

measures the current, passing through the connected component.
This current consists of multiples currents, flowing between the
terminals.
Total current: Indicated by instrument
Capacitance Charging current: Drawn into the insulation by the
polarization of the electrons. Starts high and drops after insulation
has been charged to full voltage. Time depends on capacitive
Figure 92: curves showing components
properties of the apparatus. of current measured during DC testing
Absorption current: Initially high and drops due to absorption of insulation.
capacity of the insulation.
Conduction/leakage current: Steady current through & over*
insulation. This is what’s important!
Types of insulation tests:
There are 3 main tests we can perform, testing insulation. Each has
their purpose and application.
To get a proper, total image of the condition of the insulation, it
is recommended to execute multiple tests.
134
Short-time/Spot-reading tests
Short-time Measurement (approx. 60 sec)

Here we connect our Tester across the insulation and operate it
for a short, specific time period.
Note that the measurement varies with the time.
This means that after 30 seconds you will read a different value.
Temperature, humidity and insulation condition will affect the
reading. Figure 93: typical curve of insulation
This testing method is fine if you test apparatus that have a no or resistance (in megohm) with time for
the "short time" or the "spot reading"
small capacitance.
test method.
However, High Voltage Equipment nearly always has consider-
ably large capacitive properties so this short test only gives us a
rough idea of the quality of insulation and isn’t failsafe.
For accurate determination it is recommended to use one of the
following methods.
Time-Resistance Method
This method is fairly independent of temperature and gives you

conclusive information without previous records.
It is based on the absorption effect of good insulation compared
to that of moist or contaminated insulation.
You simply take successive reading over specific time intervals
and note the differences.
Good insulation will show a continual increase in resistance over
a period of time. This is caused by the absorption current. Good
insulation shows the charge effect over a time period much longer Figure 94: Typical curves show-
than the time required to charge the capacitance of the insulation. ing dielectric absorption effect in a
âĂIJtime-resistanceâĂİ test, made on
Contaminated or moist insulation will mask this absorption capacitive equipment such as a large
effect due to a high leakage current witch will stay fairly constant, motor winding.
keeping the resistance low.
This test is independent to the equipment size. The increase in
resistance for a clean and dry insulation occurs in the same manner
than whether the component is large or small.
Good insulation shows a higher value after a longer period of
time. Suspicious insulation will show a leveling in resistance.
Dielectric Absorption Ratio and Polarization Index:

Figure 95: Typical card plot of a
The ratio of two time-resistance reading is called a Dielectric ab- time-resistance or double-reading test.
sorption ratio.
It is useful in recording information about insulation.
If the ratio is a 10-minute reading divided in 1-minute readings
the value is called the Polarization Index.
These results give you an easy view on the quality of the insula-
tion.
Step Voltage Method
Here, we use a multi-voltage instrument* to apply 2 or more

voltages in steps.
We look for any reduction of insulating resistance at the higher
voltage. If the resistance drops, it’s a sign of insulation weakness
that shows up at higher voltage.
Any difference in terms of Megohms will show signs of weak-
ness and must be considered as a reason for investigation.
Moisture and dirt will reveal themselves by tests at voltages,
blew those expected in service. Effects of aging or mechanical Figure 96: Typical curves with the
"step-voltage" test.
damage in fairly clean and dry insulation may not be revealed at
such low stress. At higher voltages, the resistance of such local
faults generally decreases rapidly when electrical stress increases
over a certain limit.
1.
1.
1.
Figure 97: Test curves by the step-

voltage method, comparing results
Curve 1 shows the drop in resistance, indicating a problem. with good and bad insulation. Curve
Curve 2 shows the same apparatus after cleaning, baking and 1 (lower plot) shows definite drop in
resistance with increasing voltage,
impregnating operation.
indicating a problem. Curve 2 (upper
This method is useful in determining the presence of excessive plot) shows conditions found in the
moisture or other contaminants in the insulation of equipment. same motor winding after cleaning,
baking and impregnating operation.
Test Voltage vs. Equipment Rating
Commonly used DC tests Voltage for routine maintenance are as

follows:
Equipment AC Rating DC Test Voltage
< 100 V 100 – 250 V
440 – 550 V 500 – 1000 V
2400 V 1000 – 2500 V
4160 V and above 1000 – 5000 V or higher
136
Test Voltages for proof testing of equipment are considerably

higher than those for routine maintenance.
For specific recommendations you must consult the manufac-
turer.
Proof test Voltages for rotating equipment:
• Factory AC test: 2x identification tag Rating + 1000 V
• DC Proof Test on installation: 0.8 x Factory AC Test x 1.6
• DC Proof Test After Service: 0.6 x factory AC Test x 1.6
Tests during Drying out of Equipment
Wet electrical equipment is a common hazard faced by all mainte-

nance engineers, even more so for Marine engineers. If the equip-
ment is wet from fresh water, just dry it out. Salt water will leave
corrosive deposits of salt on metal and insulating surfaces, as well
as in cracks of the insulation. Therefore, an excessive clean with
fresh water is essential. There are many ways to fry out electri-
cal equipment, depending on their size and portability. A blast
of hot air, an oven, circulation of current trough conductors or a
combination can be used.
In some case, this drying out may not be necessary.
If you have previous records of the concerning equipment, those
are useful to determine the required actions. Comparing results
will help you evaluate the condition.
It is advised to limit the test Voltage in the early stages of the
drying-out process.
The drying-out curve above (armature of a DC motor) shows
how insulation resistance changes after heating. The resistance
drops (due to temperature) and then rises as the drying pro-
ceeds. Finally it rises to the required value as room temperature is
reached.
Using the previous tests, you will know when you have reached
the safe value.
By testing periodically and using the DAR (Dielectric Absorption
Ratio) or PI (Polarization Index), it is possible to follow the dry-out
process (compensate temperature).
Effect of Temperature on Insulation Resistance
The resistance of insulating materials decreases considerably with

the increase of temperature.
To make reliable comparisons between readings, we must correct
these reading to a base temperature (20◦ C) or always take readings
at the same temperature.
Main rule: For every 10◦ c increase, halve the resistance
For every 10◦ C decrease, double the resistance
Each insulation type will have a different degree of resistance
change.
Figure 98: Typical drying curve where

one-minute readings of insulation
resistance are taken every four hours.
The following table gives factors to simplify the correction for

rotating equipment, transformers and cables.
Multiply your readings by the factor corresponding to the tem-
perature.
By using a Monograph the corrected values can be obtained, in
this case a correction towards 25◦ C.
138
Preparing to Test
1. Take Out of Service!
(a) Shut down
(b) Open switches
(c) De-energize (earthing)
(d) Disconnect
i. Disconnect lines
ii. Disconnect neutral and protective earthing (SANCTION
TO TEST!)
2. Make Sure Just What in Included in the Test!
(a) Inspect the installation
i. What’s connected/included in test?

ii. Pay attention to conductors that lead away from installa-
tion
(Additional equipment will decrease resistance)
1. (a) i. It may be necessary to isolate component parts and test

each one separately
2. Discharge of Capacitance
(a) It is very important that capacitance is discharged, both

before and after the insulation test.
(b) Discharge for a period of 4 times as long as the test voltage

was applied.
3. Current Leakage at Switches
(a) Beware that readings will not be affected by leakage over or

trough switches or fuse blocks.
(b) Current of an energized line may leak into the apparatus and
cause inconsistent readings (live line)
140
Safety Precautions
1. Observe all safety rules when taking equipment out of service.
2. Block out disconnected switches.
3. Test for foreign or induced voltages.
4. Apply workmen’s grounds.
5. When working around High Voltage equipment there is always a

possibility of voltages being induced in apparatus under test or
lines to which it is connected.
6. Therefore it is advisable to disconnect from the bus or line.
7. Use rubber gloves when connecting the test leads.
8. Never Test Live Apparatus!
9. If ground connections have to be removed, make sure that they

don’t carry current and that when disconnected, no other lose
necessary protection.
10. Beware for conductors leading away from the circuit and make
sure they are disconnected from any power source.
11. Shock Hazard from test Voltage:
(a) Observe the voltage rating of the instrument and regard it

with caution!
(b) Large equipment can store up a dangerous amount of energy
(c) Discharge the capacitance after test and before handling the
test leads.
12. Explosion and Fire Hazard
(a) There is no fire hazard in the normal use of the tester, how-
ever, a hazard when testing equipment in inflammable or
explosive atmosphere exists.
(b) Sparking may occur when:
i. Connecting the test leads without discharging the capaci-
tance.
ii. During a test, arcing through or over faulty insulation.
iii. Following a test when capacitance is discharged.
A. Do not disconnect the test leads for at least 60 seconds
following a test, allowing time to discharge.
Connections for Testing Insulation Resistance of electrical Equip-

ment
Following diagrams show us how to connect a tester to various

types of electrical equipment.
REMEMBER: The tester will measure whatever resistance is
connected between its terminals. This may include series or parallel
paths through insulation or over its surface!
Figure 99: AC- motors /starting

equipment
Figure 100: DC- generators /motors

142
Figure 101: Power transformers
Using a GUARD-terminal:
All insulation testers having ranges up to 1000Megohms and higher

are equipped with GUARD-terminals.
This facility allows us to make a 3 terminal network measure-
ment so that the resistance of one of two possible paths can be
determined directly.
The insulation of an electrical apparatus has two conduct-
ing/leakage paths. One through the insulating material, the other
over its surface. By connecting the guard terminal in the path of the
surface leakage, it is separated into two parts.
If we just want to know the insulation resistance of the material,

we are not interested in the surface leakage. By using the Guard-
terminal, we can exclude it from the measurement.
How does it work?
Without the guard-connection we will detect both surface and

internal leakage current where as we connect the Guard terminal,
the surface leakage will be ignored.
To better understand what actually happens in the instrument
we can look inside. There are 3 main elements; The HV DC current
source, the HV Voltmeter and a current meter. The resistance is
simply calculated by Ohm law. Our GUARD connection allows
leakage current to return before the measurement of the current.
144
Transformer testing, using the GUARD-terminal.

Where we normally test the HV windings to earth, by using the
GUARD-terminal, we can test the insulation between the HV- and
LV windings.
In this case, the GUARD-connection eliminates the surface leak-

age current flowing over the outside of a contaminated insulator. In
most cases, the windings are wound concentrically on an insulated
limb of the iron core. They are therefore subject to inter-turn or
inter-winding breakdown and needed to be tested.
High Voltage Safety
Dangers of electricity
Effects from electricity

• Heating
• Source of power
• Electro-magnetical
• Chemical
• Ionisation
• Leak currents
All of these effects are normal but can become a problem if they
turn to abnormal. At that moment we have to provide in a proper
protection.
The risk of electricity

The dangers of electricity are often not realized. The main reason
is that we can barely detect them. However we can mostly perceive
the electrical accidents which can have a severe consequence on
people and their environment. Under the heading of risks, we can
make a distinction between those to people (from burns, electrocu-
tion) and those to their surroundings (from fire and explosion).
The risk to people is coming into contact with live materials. The
effects, dependent upon the current strength and the voltage differ-
ence, vary from panic to death. The effect of panic should not be
underestimated as it could lead to a fall or other injury. Another ef-
fect is burning. The seriousness of which depends upon the power
and the time of exposure. Internal burns are also possible. Some- Figure 102: The effect of panic
times the injuries can take hours to come to light. Damage to vital
organs (e.g. heart) and other tissues can occur.
The risk to surroundings due to an overload or short circuit, causing

abnormal overheating of an apparatus or a circuit, a fire or even an
explosion can result a substantial loss off equipment.
146
Figure 103: normal heart rhythm
The risk of electricity for people

• Muscle Tetanisation: involuntary contraction of the muscles,
may not allow a detachment of the victim from the live part.
Breathing difficulty breathing stops: because of the contraction of
the muscles involved in breathing.
• Effect on the Heart: When a small current 50 or 60 Hz is passed

through the chest, it can result in ventricular fibrillation. If this
is not treated immediately by defibrillation, it can be lethal as
the heart muscle cells start moving independently. A shock
more than 200 mA is so strong that it can literally stop the heart
muscles from moving.
• Neurological Effects: An electric shock can interfere with the

nervous control especially on the heart, lungs. Repeated electric
shock that does not lead to death has been shown to be a cause
for neuropathy. When the current moves near the head then loss
of consciousness occur fast.
• Burns: are produced by the heat developed by the current flow-

ing through the human body, the temperature increase that
follows is directly proportional to the square of the current den- Figure 104: A person can be blinded by
UV light
sity. An electric shock for a lower voltage can result in superficial
burns on the surface of the skin. But, electric shocks of voltage
up to 1000 volts can give rise to internal burns. It can lead to
organ burns that can also affect the heart. This makes the burns;
caused from electric shock different from chemical burns and
fire burns. The burns from an electric shock can result in organ
failure and can lead to death.
• Secondary effects: Even when there is no current flow trough the

body a person can be blinded even permanently by the UV light
emitted by an arc or arc flash, the violent noise of an arc flash
can cause a rupture of the tympanic membranes and temporary
sensorineural hearing loss.
The physical effect of an electric current on the human body

• Electric Shock If one touches a source of electricity, a current will
pass trough the body, taking the easiest route to the ground. This
is called an electric shock.
• A human body consist for 2/3 out of fluid therefore people are
good electric conductors.
• The electric current can cause the body to go into shock. This
can lead to a falling blood pressure, tachycardia, and loss of
consciousness.
• Electric injury is a relative infrequent but potentially devastating

form of multisystem injury with high morbidity and mortality. Figure 105: deafness can result...
• The severity of the injury depends on the intensity of the electric

current, the pathway it follows trough the body, and the duration
of the contact with the power source.
• Immediate death may occur either from current induced ventric-

ular fibrillation or from respiratory arrest secondary to paralysis
of the central respiratory control system or to paralysis of the
respiratory muscles.
• According to Ohm’s law, the electric current is proportional to

the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance of the
conductor.
• Thus exposure of different parts of the body to the same voltage

will generate a different current (and therefore a different degree
of damage) because resistance varies significantly between
various tissues.
Figure 106: The effect of electric
current on the human body
• The least resistance is found in nerves, blood, mucous mem-
branes, and muscles.
• The highest resistance is found in bones, fat and tendons. Skin

has intermediate resistance.
• The skin is the primary resistor against the electrical current,

with a resistance ranging in adults between 40 to 100KΩ, de-
pending on its thickness (the thicker the skin the higher the
resistance.
• The intensity of the electrical shock varies between victims of

different sex and age.
• Even more important than the thickness of the skin is the mois-
ture of the skin.
• Presence of sweat may decrease the resistance of the skin to

less than 1 KΩ. Wet skin offers almost no resistance at all, thus
generating the maximal intensity of current.
• The internal resistance of the body comprises all the other tissues
and is estimated between 0.5 to 1 Ω
• Although bones, tendons, and fat offer the most resistance to

electric current, they are not likely to be the contact points.
148
• Nerves and blood vessels, on the other hand, are the best conduc-
tors. Nerves because they designed to carry electrical currents
and blood due to its high water content.
• The duration of the contact with electrical current is an impor-

tant determinant of injury.
• Therefore it is said that an electrical shock caused by AC will

produce greater injury than a shock caused by DC of the same
amperage because the DC current causes a single muscle con-
traction that throws the victim away from the power source,
minimizing the injury.
• These differences have practical significance only at low voltages,

whereas on high voltages, both currents have a similar effect.
• The pathway of the current trough the body determines the

number of organs that are effected
• A vertical pathway is the most dangerous because it involves

all the vital organs (central nervous system, heart, respiratory
muscles, and in pregnant woman, the uterus and fetus).
• A horizontal pathway from hand to hand will spare the brain

but can still be fatal due to involvement of the heart, respiratory
muscles, or spinal cord.
• A pathway trough the lower part of the body may cause severe
local damage but will probably be less lethal.
• Whereas electric shock from a low voltage voltage line is deliv-

ered on contact of the victim with the source, in high voltage
injury, the current is carried from the source to the person trough
an arc before any physical contact is made.
• The arc may form into or over the body of a person. Arcs can
generate extremely high temperatures (up to 5000 deg C) that
are usually responsible for the severe thermal injuries from high
voltage.
Three primary factors affect the severity of the shock a person

receives when he or she is a part of an electrical circuit:
1. Amount of current flowing through the body (measured in

amperes).
2. Path of the current through the body.
3. Length of time the body is in the circuit.
Other factors that may affect the severity of the shock are:
• The voltage of the current (arc or direct contact).
• The presence of moisture in the environment.

• The phase of the heart cycle when the shock occurs.
• The general health of the person prior to the shock.
Effects can range from a barely perceptible tingle to severe burns

and immediate cardiac arrest. Although it is not known the exact
injuries that result from any given amperage, the following table
demonstrates this general relationship for a 60-cycle, hand-to-foot
shock of one second’s duration:
• 1 mA
Perception level. Slight tingling sensation. Still dangerous under
certain conditions.
• 5 mA
Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing. Average individual
can let go. However, strong involuntary reactions to shocks in
this range may lead to injuries.If the extensor muscles are excited
by the shock, the person may be thrown away from the circuit.
Often, this can result in a fall from elevation that kills a victim
even when electrocution does not.
• 6mA - 16mA
Painful shock, begin to lose muscular control. Commonly re-
ferred to as the freezing current or "let-go" range.
• 17mA - 99mA
Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe muscular contractions.
Individual cannot let go. Death is possible. When muscular
contraction caused by stimulation does not allow the victim to
free himself from the circuit, even relatively low voltages can be
extremely dangerous, because the degree of injury increases with
the length of time the body is in the circuit. LOW VOLTAGE
DOES NOT IMPLY LOW HAZARD!
• 100mA - 2000mA Ventricular fibrillation (uneven, uncoordinated

pumping of the heart.) Muscular contraction and nerve damage
begins to occur. Death is likely. Note that a difference of less
than 100 milliamperes exists between a current that is barely
perceptible and one that can kill. High voltage electrical energy
greatly reduces the body’s resistance by quickly breaking down
human skin. Once the skin is punctured, the lowered resistance
results in massive current flow.
• more than 2000 mA

Cardiac arrest, internal organ damage, and severe burns. Death
is probable.
Electrocution
Electrocution is death caused by electric shock, either accidental or
deliberate. The word is derived from "electro" and "execution", but
150
it is also used for accidental death. Death can occur from any shock
that carries enough current to stop the heart.
Low currents (70 to 700 mA) usually trigger fibrillation in the
heart, which is reversible via defibrillator but can be fatal without
help.
Currents as low as 30 mA AC or 300 to 500 mA DC applied to
the body surface can cause fibrillation. Figure 107: Low currents (70 to 700
Large currents (> 1 A) cause permanent damage via burns, and mA) usually trigger fibrillation in
the heart, which is reversible via
cellular damage. The voltage necessary to create current of a given
defibrillator but can be fatal without
level through the body varies widely with the resistance of the skin; help.
wet or sweaty skin or broken skin can allow a larger current to flow.
Whether an electric current is fatal is also dependent on the path
it takes through the body, which depends in turn on the points at
which the current enters and leaves the body.
The current path must usually include either the heart or the
brain to be fatal.
The Human body’s resistance

There are a lot of factors involved and not every person has the
same electrical resistance. For instance, men tend to have lower
resistance than women. Just like for the resistors used in electronics,
the resistance of a person’s arm depends on the arm’s length and
diameter. Resistance goes up with length and down with diameter.
Since men tend to have more muscle-mass, they usually have lower
resistance. (An implication of this is that the lethal current for men
is higher than that for women.) A rough value for the internal
resistance of the human body is 300 to 1000 Ω. Naturally, the
resistance also depends on the path that electricity takes through
the body - if the electricity goes in the left hand and out the right
foot, then the resistance will be much higher than if it goes in and
out of adjacent fingers.
Heartcurrentfactor
Ratio of the electric field strength in the heart, for a given current Figure 108: effect in relation with
frequenty and current
path, to the electric field strength in the heart for a current of equal
magnitude flowing from the left hand to both feet. In the heart, the
current density is proportional to the electric field strength. 9 9
http://www.electropedia.org/iev/iev.nsf/display?open
02-73
possible hazards
• Arcing
– An arc is a discharge of electrical current across a gap.

– An arc fault is a high power discharge of electricity between
two or more conductors.
– The radiation of heat in an arc is very high and it can very
easily set a persons clothes on fire.
An unintentional electric arc occurs during opening of a breaker,

contactor or switch, when the circuit tries to maintain itself in
the form of an arc. During an insulation failure, when current
flows to ground or any other short circuit path in the form of for
example a tool slipping between conducting surfaces, causing a
short circuit.
Results of an electric arc
• Arc Flash
Temperatures at the arc terminals an reach or exceed 20000 Cel-
sius. The heat and intense light at the point of the arc is called
an ARC FLASH. Electric arcs experience a negative resistance Figure 109: The effects of an arc flash
first by the ionization of the air and second by the increase of
temperature. Therefore , as the arc develops and gets hotter the
resistance drops, drawing more and more current (runaway)
until some part of the system melts, trips or evaporates and
extinguish the arc. During an arc flash sudden release of large
amounts of heat and light energy takes place at the center of the
arc. Exposure can result in a variety of serious injuries and may
even be fatal, even with a person 3 meter or more away from
the the arc center. Equipment can suffer permanent damage
and nearby inflammable materials may be ignited resulting in
secondary fires.
• Arc blast
– Arc blast pressure derives from two things. First, the expan-
sion of metal in a boiling, vaporizing state, and second the
heating of ambient air by passage of the arc.
– The mixture of vaporized water and metal in air near the arc
generates a rapidly expanding plasma of ionized vapor, which
can lead to extensive injuries.
As surrounding air is instantly heated and the conductors are

vaporized causing a pressure wave termed as ARC BLAST.
When an uncontrolled arc forms at high voltages, arc flashes
can produce deafening noises, supersonic concussive forces, Figure 110: arcblast
superheated shrapnel,temperatures greater the sun’s surface,
152
and intense, high radiation capable of vaporizing nearby materi-

als. The massive energy released in the fault rapidly vaporizes
the metal conductors involved, blasting molten metal and ex-
panding plasma outward with extraordinary force. During the
arc flash, electrical energy vaporizes the metal, which changes
from solid state to gas vapor, expanding it with explosive force.
For example, when copper vaporizes it suddenly expands by
a factor of 67000 times in volume. In addition to the explosive
blast, called the arc blast of such a fault, destruction also arises
from the intense radiant heat produced by the arc. The metal
plasma arc produces tremendous amounts of light energy from
far infrared to ultraviolet. Surfaces of nearby objects, including
people, absorb this energy and are instantly heated to vaporizing
temperatures. The effects of this can be seen on adjacent walls
and equipment - they are often ablated and eroded from the
radiant effects. As an example of the energy released in an arc
flash incident, a single phase-to-phase fault on a 480 V system
with 20,000 amps of fault current. The resulting power is 9.6
MW. If the fault lasts for 10 cycles at 60 Hz, the resulting energy
would be 1600 kilojoules. For comparison, TNT releases 2175 J/g
or more when detonated (a conventional value of 4,184 J/g is
used for TNT equivalent). Thus, this fault energy is equivalent
to 380 grams (approximately 0.8 pounds) of TNT. The character
of an arc flash blast is quite different from a chemical explosion
(more heat and light, less mechanical shock), but the resulting
devastation is comparable.
10 10
A gram of TNT releases 2673 - 6702
joules upon explosion. To define
the ton of TNT, this was arbitrarily
• Potential injuries:
standardized by letting 1 gram TNT
= 4184 J (exactly). This conveniently
defined the energy liberated by one
– At some distance from the arc, temperatures are often high gram of TNT as exactly one kilocalorie.
enough to instantly destroy skin and tissue. Skin temperatures This definition is a conventional one.
above 100 deg Celsius for 0,1 sec result in irreversible tissue The explosive’s energy is normally
calculated using the thermodynamic
damage. work energy of detonation, which for
TNT has been accurately measured
– Heated air and molten materials from arc faults cause or- at 4686 J/g from large numbers of air
blast experiments and theoretically
dinary clothing to burst into flames even if not directly in calculated to be 4853 J/g. The mea-
contact with the arc. Synthetic fibers may melt and adhere to sured pure heat output of a gram of
TNT is only 2724 J, but this is not the
the skin resulting in secondary burns.
important value for explosive blast
effect calculations.
– Even when safety goggles are worn, an arc flash may cause
severe damage to the eyes and can even cause blindness.
Intense UV light created by the arc flash can cause the retina.
Pressure created by an arc blast can compress the eye, severely
damaging vision.
– Hearing can also be effected by the loud noises and pressure

waves created by an arc blast. Sudden pressure changes can
rupture eardrums.
Development of an electric-flash-blast
One of the most common causes of arc flash injuries happens when
switching-on electrical circuits and, especially, tripped circuit-
breakers. A tripped circuit-breaker often indicates a fault has
occurred somewhere down the line from the panel. The fault must
usually be isolated before switching the power on, or an arc flash
can easily be generated. Small arcs usually form in switches when
the contacts first touch, and can provide a place for an arc flash to
develop. If the voltage is high enough, and the wires leading to
the fault are large enough to allow a substantial amount of current,
an arc flash can form within the panel when the switch is turned
on. Generally, either an electric motor with shorted windings or
a shorted power-transformer are the culprits, being capable of
drawing the energy needed to sustain a dangerous arc-flash.
Dangers when working on HV equipment
• HV work on board can be dangerous due to limited space. The

work may be carried out in close proximity to a person(s) not
familiar with HV hazards. Therefore the area must be properly
cordoned off from surrounding work that may be going on and
danger notices well posted.
• There will be large areas of earthed metal that can be easily

touched, increasing the possibility of electrical shock from an HV
conductor.
• High voltage isolation testing can be particularly hazardous

when several parts of the equipment are energized for a period
of time.
• Some equipment could be using water in its operation which can

lead to an increased risk of injury. In general, water conducts
electricity and reduces the resistance of the skin.
• The use of instruments when taking measurements of high

voltages can increase the risk of injury if they are inadvertently
used without the earth (protective) conductor connected. This
can result in the enclosure of the instrument becoming live at
high voltages.
• High voltage equipment will store energy after disconnection.

For example, on a 6.6KV switchboard a fatal charge may still be
present on the equipment hours or even days later.
• If during maintenance an HV circuit main earth (CME) is re-

moved from the system, it must not be worked on, as the HV
cabling can recharge itself to a high voltage from induced volt-
ages from nearby live HV cabling.
General safety instructions for High Voltage Machines
Electric machines have dangerous live and rotating parts and may
have hot surfaces. All operations serving, transport, installation,
connection, commissioning, operation and maintenance shall be
carried out by responsible skilled people
Electrical Connections - Safety Rules
Before starting with the job:

The following rules must be strictly applied:
• De-energize
• Provide safeguard against re-closing
• Verify safe isolation from supply
• Connect to earth and short
• Cover or provide barriers against neighboring live parts
• De-energize auxiliary circuits (for example space heaters)
• Take care for reverse power from as an example control power

transformers
• Note rating plate markings and connection diagram in the

terminal box
• The connection must be made in a way that a safe and perma-

nent electric connection can be maintained.
• Use appropriate cable terminals.
• Establish and maintain safe equipotential bonding
• The clearances between High Voltage uninsulated live parts

and between such parts and earth must not be below the values
of appropriate standards (minimal) and values given in the
manufacturer’s documentation.
• No foreign bodies, dirt or moisture is allowed in the terminal

box.
• Close unused cable entrance holes and the box itself in a dust-
and watertight manner.(maintain its IP rating)
• Lock the key when the machine is run without coupling

156
Operation - Safety Rules
• In case of deviations from normal operation, for example, ele-

vated temperature, noises, vibrations - disconnect machine, if in
doubt
• Establish cause and consult manufacturer, if necessary.
• Do not defeat protective devices, not even in trial run. In case of

heavy dirt deposits, clean cooling system at regular intervals.
• Open blocked condensate drain holes from time to time.
Additional Safety Instructions for Permanent Magnet Synchronous

Machines
• Only qualified personnel familiar with the relevant safety re-

quirements are allowed to open and maintain permanent magnet
synchronous machines.
• It is not allowed to remove the rotor of a permanent magnet

synchronous machine without the special tools designed for this
purpose.
• When the machine’s shaft is rotating, a permanent magnet

synchronous machine induces a voltage in its terminals.
• The induced voltage is proportional to the rotational speed, and

can be hazardous even at low speeds.
• Prevent any rotation of the shaft before opening the terminal box
and or before working at unprotected terminals.
• The terminals of a machine with frequency converter supply may

be energized even when the machine is at standstill.
• Beware of revers power when working at the supply system.
• Do not exceed the maximum allowed speed of the machine.
• See product specific manuals
• Magnetic stray fields, caused by an open or disassembled perma-

nent magnet synchronous machine or by a separate rotor of such
a machine, may disturb or damage other electrical or electromag-
netic equipment, such as cardiac pacemakers, credit-cards and
equivalent.
• Loose metallic parts and wast must be prevented from entering

the interior of the permanent magnet synchronous machine as
well as getting in contact with the rotor.
• Before closing an opened permanent magnet synchronous ma-

chine, wast and any parts not belonging to the machine must be
removed.
Beware of magnetic stray fields and possible induced voltages when

rotating the separate rotor of a permanent magnet synchronous
machine as they may cause damage to surrounding equipment.
Rules During any Operation
Disconnect and lock out before working on the machine or the

driven equipment. Ensure no explosive atmosphere is present
while the work is in progress.
Starting and Restarting
• The maximum number of sequential starts has been declared in

machine’s technical documents.(ex. autotransformer starting)
• The new starting sequence is allowed after the machine has

cooled down to ambient temperature for a cold start condition or
to operating temperature for a warm start condition.
Earthing and Equipotential Bonding
• Check before starting that all earthing and equipotential bonding

cables are effectively connected.
• Do not remove any earthing or equipontialing cables, which have

been assembled by the manufacturer.
Figure 111: equipotential bonding
Clearances, creepage and separations
• Do not make any removal or adjustment in terminal boxes,

which could decrease clearances or creepage distances between
parts.
• Do not install any new equipment to terminal boxes without ask-

ing for advise from the manufacturer of the original equipment.
• Be sure that the air gap between rotor and stator is measured
after any maintenance on the rotor or bearings. The air gap shall
be the same in any point between the rotor and the stator.
• Centralize the fan to the center of the fan hood or the air guide
after any maintenance. The clearance shall be at least 1 percent
of the maximum diameter of the fan and in accordance with
standards.
158
Connections in terminal boxes (Ex motors)
• All connections in main terminal boxes must be made with Ex-

approved connectors, which are delivered with the machine by
the manufacturer.
• All connections, in auxiliary terminal boxes, as marked intrin-

sically safe circuits (Ex i or EEx i) must be connected to proper
safety barriers.
Bibliography
Jan De Nul Group. Lock - out / tag - out. Technical report, Jan De
Nul Group, 2014a. Procedure jdn.sp.08.26 revision 02.
Jan De Nul Group. Permit to work system. Technical report, Jan De

Nul Group, 2014b. Procedure jdn.sp.08.19.e revision 01.
HSE. Risk assesment a brief guide to controlling risks in the

workplace, 2014. URL http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg163.
pdf. Online; accessed 19-Januari-2016.
ABB marine academy. Abb marine academy high voltage safety.

marine.academy@no.abb.com, 2008.
megger. A stitch in time "a complete guide to electrical insula-

tion testing", 2014. URL https://www.instrumart.com/assets/
Megger-insulationtester.pdf. Online; accessed 24-Januari-2016.

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H I G H V O LTA G E S A F E T Y

High Voltage in a Marine Environment 15

Basic Fault Level Calculations 29

Electrical Safety Rules 71

Risk Assesment, Risk Analyses, JHA 73

Permit To Work Systems 89

The Electric Permit to Work System 91

Limitation of Access form 99

High Voltage Access 101

Seven steps that save lives 111

Lock out - Tag out 113

Electrical insulation Testing 131

High Voltage Safety 145

General safety instructions for High Voltage Machines 155

1 Herald of Free Enterprise 13

2 Low voltage cabletray 15

11 Direct Current (red curve). The horizontal axis measures time; 21

22 A: Open circuit fault, B: earth fault, C: short circuit fault 29

26 A short circuit waveform for a generator as for IEC 61363 31

37 Electrical distribution system 39

71 Shaft generator inverter 62

79 Taking a well known risk 71

82 personel protective equipment 82

88 Even 12V battery can pose an enormous equipment to prove a sys-

90 With excessive force almost any lock can be opened 114

91 Typical behavior of insulation resistance over a period of months

102 The effect of panic 145

111 equipotential bonding 157

2 Risk Assesment Matrix (Consequences x Likelihood = Risk score). 78

STCW (95) and (2010) amendments The significant changes made

anticipated to emerge in the foreseeable future.

• Improved measures to prevent fraudulent practices associated

• Revised requirements on hours of work and rest and new re-

• New certification requirements for able seafarers

• New requirements relating to training in modern technology

• New requirements for marine environment awareness training

• New training and certification requirements for electro technical

• Updating of competence requirements for personnel serving

• New requirements for security training, as well as provisions to

• Introduction of modern training methodology including distance

• New training guidance for personnel serving on board ships

• New training guidance for personnel operating Dynamic Posi-

STCW Code Part B Part B gives guidance to assist parties to the

IMO Model Courses In approving training courses and programs,

Important considerations in marine electrical installations

Marine installations almost always have a floating ground (Isolated

Why High Voltage on Board of Ships

As the demand for electrical power increases on vessels the supply

Table 1: source ABB

A high voltage distribution system has low current levels. Lower

Figure 3: High voltage cabletray

Which returns a current of:

If a short circuit fault occurs on one of the outgoing feeder cables

Power loss is reduced if the voltage is stepped up and thus it is

Figure 4: A resonant frequenty de-

Engine vibrations can create problems of loose connections and in

Ship to Shore Connection

Figure 7: Diesel electric propulsion

Electrical propulsion systems are now a well proven and ac-

Figure 8: Dual motor electric propul-

• Cycloconverter with synchronous or asynchronous machine or

• Synchro converter (load-commutated inverter) with synchronous