A

Project Report
On
Direct On-line starter and Star-Delta Starter for
Induction Motor
Submitted
in partial fulfillment
for the award of the Degree of
Bachelor of Technology
in Department of Electrical Engineering

January 2017 – May2017

Submitted to Submitted By
Md.Irfan Ahmed Sourabh ChourasiyaUID: K10601
Assistant Professor Shivangi Singhal UID: K10624

Department of Electrical Engineering

Career Point University, Kota-325003
Rajasthan (India)
 CERTIFICATE
I hereby admit that the work presented in this B. Tech Major Project report entitled
“smart irrigation monitoring system using IOT”, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of the Bachelor of Technologyin Electrical Engineering
and submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering of Career Point University,
Kota, Rajasthan is an original piece of my own work and has not been submitted
partially or fully anywhere else. Authorized contents and copy right material used in
this report has been properly cited and obtained permission from competent authority.
The matter presented in this project work has not been submitted by me for the award
of any other degree elsewhere.

Signature of Candidates

Mayank malav (K12523)

Nishant pabbi(K12821)
Ashish nagar(K12446)

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best
of my knowledge.

Signature of Supervisor(s)
Date: Md.Irfan Ahmed, Assistant Professor

Head
Electrical Engineering Department

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our heartfelt gratitude to our guide Md.Irfan Ahmed,
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering for his valuable time and
guidance that made the project work a success. They have inspired us such a spirit of
devotion, precision and unbiased observation, which is essentially a corner stone of
technical study.
We are highly grateful to Mr. Kamal Arora, Head of the Department of Electrical
Engineering, and Project in-charge Pallavi Soni, Assistant Professor, Department of
Electrical Engineering; for their kind support for carrying out the project work. We
thank all our friends and all those who have helped us carrying out this work directly
or indirectly without whom completion of this project work was not possible.

We would also like to sincerely thank Dr.D.N.Rao, Vice Chancellor of Career Point
University for giving us a platform to carry out the project.

Sincerely yours,
Mayank malav (K12523)
Nishant pabbi(K12821)
Ashish nagar(K12446)

ii
 ABSTRACT
We will develop a fully Smart Irrigation System System based on NodeMCU
ESP8266 and an IoT app, the BLYNK. Basically, information from a plantation will
be captured, temperature and humidity, both of air and soil. Based on those data, then
we will decide the right amount (and when) the plantation should receive heat and
water. Also, the project should allow manual intervention of an operator in order to
control a water pump and an . The manual intervention must be both, local and remote
via Internet.TheNodeMCU ESP-12E is the integrated version of the popular
ESP8266, a Serial to Wi-Fi System On a Chip (SoC) that appeared for the first time in
2013, been released on following year. The ESP8266 was developed by the Shangai-
based company Espressif Systems, an IC manufacturer focused on the development of
RF chips, particularly Wi-Fi.
Irrigation field plays a vital role in a crop yield ,However how much and when to
irrigate is still moderated by the traditional knowledge for the farmers. Knowing how
much of water is actually Irrigated for a given crop for a particular type of soil type
depends majority on soils capacity to hold moisture. We need an IOT based solution
which can auto irrigate the fields for a given crop based on the soil pressure content.

We Are using a Blynk App through which we can operate a water pump according to
data which we recieve from the soil sensors , an notification service send a message to
mobile phone about the water quantity through which we can decide to ON/OFF the
pump .

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Internet OF Things .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 1.2 Foue Step Process .................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.1 ESP8266 module ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.2 ESP8266 module block diagram ............ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.3 Schematic Diagram of Explore ESP8266 Wi-Fi Module. .............Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.4 Soil Moisture Sensor YL-69 YL-38 ........ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.5 Solenoid Valve and its part ..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.6 Submersible Pump ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.7 Circuit Diagram To Controls Actuator (Motor) Using Relay Switch.
.............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.8 : Two Channel Relay Pin Diagram ........ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 4.8 : 2 Channel Relay ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 5.1:Soil Texture .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 7.2 : How To Create A Account.................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 7.4 Burn code to NodeMCU .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8.1 Graphs Of Two Crops For Requiring Water For 1 Month ..........Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8.2 Graphs Of Two Crops For Requiring Water For 6 Hour ............Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8.3 Programming Part For Node MC .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8.4 : Copper Plate PCB Designing Front View .......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 8.5 : Components Used Like Jumper Wire Etc ......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.

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 Table Of Contents

CERTIFICATE ....................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

ABSTRACT ............................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

LIST OF FIGURES ….……………………………………………………………3

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .......... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

CHAPTER 2 IOT (INTERNET OF THINGS) ....... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT

DEFINED.

2.1WHAT IS IOT? .............................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

2.2 HISTORY OF IOT ........................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
2.3 HOW DOES IOT WORK? ........................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
2.3.1 SENSOR ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.3.2 CONNECTIVITY ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.3.3 DATA PROCESSING .................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.3.5 USER INTERFERANCE ............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.4 ADVANTAGES OF IOT .............................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
2.5 ACCESS INFORMATION .......................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
2.6 COMMUNICATION .................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
2.7 COST-EFFECTIVE ...................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
2.8 AUTOMATION ............................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

CHAPTER 3 LITERATURE SURVEY .................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT

DEFINED.

CHAPTER 4 INTRODUCTION OF HARDWARES ...... ERROR! BOOKMARK

NOT DEFINED.

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO ESP8266 .................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

4.2 NODE MCU ESP8266..................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
4.2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF ESP8266 ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF ESP8266 ............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.3 ESP MODULES AS WIFI CHIP ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
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 4.2.4 ESP8266 APPLICATIONS ........................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.5 EXPLORE ESP8266 WI-FI MODULE ........ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.6 FEATURES .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.7 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF EXPLORE ESP8266 WI-FI MODULE
.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.8 PIN DEFINITION OF NODE MCU: .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.9 AT COMMANDS ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2.10 INDEX OF ALL KNOWN AT COMMANDS IS GIVEN IN TABLE
.................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3 SOIL MOISTURE SENSOR ........................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
4.3.1 SOLENOID VALVE ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3.2 SUBMERSIBLE WATER PUMP ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3.3 RELAY ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3.4 Relay Circuit................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.3.5 TWO CHANNEL RELAY ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER 5: IS SOIL MONITORING IMPORTANT TO US ............... ERROR!

BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

5.1 HOW DO SOIL SENSORS WORK? .......... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.2 WHAT IS SOIL ............................................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.3 SOIL MOISTURE AND IRRIGATION ..... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.4 SOIL MOISTURE MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS FOR
IRRIGATION ..................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.5 FILL POINT IRRIGATION SCHEDULING ........... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT
DEFINED.

5.6 SOIL SENSOR ACCURACY ...................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

5.5 SOIL PROPERTIES ..................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.6 SOIL MONITORING APPLICATIONS .... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.7 SOIL SENSOR CALIBRATION ................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

CHAPTER 6: WATER REQUIREMENT FOR CROPS ERROR! BOOKMARK

NOT DEFINED.

6.1 THE WEATHER........................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

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 6.2 SOIL QUALITY ............................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.3 BED OR CONTAINER? .............................. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.4 SPECIFIC PLANT NEEDS.......................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

CHAPTER 7 INTRODUCTION TO SOFTWARE ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT

DEFINED.

7.1 WHAT IS BLYNK ? ........................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

7.2 GETTING STARTED WITH BLYNK ....... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
7.2.1 Get The Auth Token ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.3 SETTING UP A BLYNK APP FOR HARDWARE .. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT
DEFINED.

7.4 HOW TO BURN SOURCE CODE .............. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

CHAPTER 8 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND RESULTS ..................... ERROR!

BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

8.1 INITIAL SETUPS IN ARDUINO 1.6.7 IDE SOFTWARE.................. ERROR!

BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
8.2 HOW TO FLASH ESP8266-12 .................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
8.3 RESULTS ...................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
8.3.1 HOW MODULE WORKS?............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER 9 PROJECT EXPENDITURE ............. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT

DEFINED.

CHAPTER 10 CONCLUSION .............. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

CHAPTER 11 REFERENCES .............. ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

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 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
A three-phase IM is self-starting at the time of starting. If we started directly it will
draw large amount of current which damages to adjoining equipment’s. So, a starter is
needed in order to limit the starting current [2].An IM there are several starting
methods available in the market, those are the DOL, SD, auto-transformer, and soft
starter. But we are using only two methods of starting i.e. DOL and SD starter and
comparative study of IM starters using MATLAB Simulink. The DOL starter consists
of a MCCB, contactor and an overload relay for protection. Electromagnetic contactor
which can be opened by the overload relay under fault conditions. Typically, the
contactor will be controlled by separate start and stop button, and an auxiliary contact
is used, across the start button, as a hold in contact i.e. the contactor is electrically
latched while the motor is operating.Electrical power quality plays avital role in
supplying electricity effectively to the customers. Now days both of electric utilities
and end users of electric power are increasing concerned/ interested about the power
quality. There are various power quality problems occurs are voltage sag/dip, over
voltage, voltage flicker, voltage and current harmonic distortion, short interruption
and power frequency variation one of the most common power quality problems
presents days is voltage dip [5]. Power quality mainly focus on the issues of avoiding
voltage fluctuation when it is connected to a load, factors like noise, distortion also
affect the power quality of our system. When we connected a rotating transformer,
sudden reduction in voltage will cause voltage dip problem. Behind it current also
increases which may a reason be for the damage or burning of winding o
f a three phase asynchronous machine. When the RMS voltage reduces 10 % to 90%,
this condition comes under voltage dip/sag.

1
 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY
K. Pillay, M. Nour, K. H. Yang, D. N. Datu Harun, and L. K. Haw [1] said in their
theory IM is useful for the work of industry and required to monitor and control. An
IM draws a high starting current and develops a high torque during starting, so that
the starting high current causes problems like voltage dips. That why we use various
starters to overcome this problem. Several motor starters available in market re
discussed and analyzed. They also said advantages, disadvantages and energy saving
features of each type of starter.

Abhay M Halmare, Ashish Karnase and Swapnil Kourati [2]represent that comparison
between the DOL, and soft starter by using MATLAB Simulink. The main purpose is
that is to find out the theoretical and actual characteristics of IM. There is different
type of starting methods are available and their wiring connections are most
applicable and most useful starting method in the industry due to its economic
reasons.

H. H. Goh, M. S. Looi, and B. C. Kok [3]shows that the simplest type of motor starter
and comparison between DOL, SD and auto transformer IM starting method in term
of power quality. They also find out the most reliable and practical starting method
which has the less power quality problems and analyzing the existed power quality
events during the motor starting by using the Fluke Power Quality Analyzer to
capture the waveform of the events.

T. Manokaran, V. Rajasekaran, and S. Mohamed Yousuf [4] said in their theory one
of the most common power quality problems today is voltage dip. As all know that
distribution system is the medium which power is distributed among the end
consumers are proportionately not as stiff as grid system, so high starting current and
objectionable voltage drop during the starting of an IM. So that STATCOM is an
effective solution for power system facing such power quality problems. STATCOM
model is connected in shunt to a three-phase source feeding dynamic motor loads is
developed using Simulink of MATLAB software and reduced voltage dip problem of
an IM by using STATCOM.

2
P. Gnacinski [5]said in their theory the influence of lowered voltage quality on marine
induction cage machines with a higher class of insulation than that resulting from
windings temperature rise under nominal work conditions. The load-carrying capacity
of the motors is analyzed and the dependencies of the maximal permissible and
maximal recommended load versus the simplified temperature coefficient of power
quality are determined. The power quality regulations of ship classification societies
are discussed. A preliminary proposal of the rules modification is elaborated on the
basis of the simplified temperature coefficient of power quality.

Bhim Singh, Ram Niwas [6] said in their theory power quality improvement of PMSG
(permanent magnet synchronous generator) based DG (Diesel Generator) set feeding
three phase loads using STATCOM. A 3-leg VSC (voltage source converter) with a
capacitor on the DC ink is used as STATCOM. The reference source currents for the
system are estimated using an Adaline based control algorithm. A PWM current
controller is using for generation of gating pulses of IGBT’s of three leg VSC of the
STATCOM. The STATCOM is able to provide voltage control, harmonics
elimination, power factor improvement, load balancing and load compensation. The
performance of the system is experimentally tested on various types of loads under
steady state and dynamic condition. A three phase induction motor with variable
frequency drive is used as a prototype of diesel engine with the speed regulation.
Therefore, the DG set is run at constant speed so that the frequency of supply remains
constant irrespective of loading condition.

Dr. G. T. Sundar Rajan [7] said in their theory the power quality improvement at input
and output stages of three phase diode rectifiers. The input current harmonics
distortion (THD), power factor at input and output side and voltage regulation of the
three phase diode rectifiers is investigates for power quality improvement. in this
method, bidirectional switches are connected across the front end rectifier. The circuit
with buck regulator is simulated for different torque condition of DC motor. Design of
Fuzzy controller and Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy inference System (ANFIS) are based on
heuristic knowledge converter behavior. The design of PI control is based on the
frequency response of the converter. The experimental result are presented for the
circuit with resonant DC link inverter and induction motor using microcontroller and
FPGA based hardware implementation.

3
S.Khalid1 & Bharti Dwivedi [8] shows latest innovative ideas to make the life easier
using the technology depends upon the application of powerelectronics in turn about
power quality. With increasing quantities of non-linear loads being added to
electricalsystems, it has become necessary to establish criteria for limiting problems
from system voltage degradation. This paper presents the power quality problems,
issues, related international standard, effect of power qualityproblem in different
apparatuses and methods for its correction, which is actually a technology
management. This isimportant for design engineers and researchers in power quality
to know the international standards used for power quality.

4
 CHAPTER 3 STARTERS
3.1 DEFINITION
Starter is a device which connects with motor in series to decrease the current at
starting time and increase current after starting the motor (in other words start or stop
the motor) and provide O.L.P.A Starter is a device that controls the use of electrical
power to equipment, usually a motor. As the name implies, starters "start" motors.
They can also stop them, reverse them, and protect them. Starters are made from two
building blocks, Contractors and O.L.P.
 Contactors control the electric current to the motor. Their function is to
repeatedly establish and interrupt an electrical power circuit.
 O.L.P. protects motors from drawing too much current, overheating, and from
literally "burning out".
A starter turns an electric motor or motor controlled electrical equipment on or off,
while providing O.L.P. Starters represent another evolution in motor control
applications. The two main types of starters are Manual Starters and AC Magnetic
Motor Starters, commonly known as Motor Starters.
3.1.1 PRINCIPLE OF MOTOR STARTER
The current drawn by the motor can be controlled by reducing the back Emf (possible
by reducing the supply voltage) or by increasing the rotor resistance during the motor
starting.
3.1.2 NECESSITY OF STARTERS
When the motor is at rest, there is, as yet, obviously no back Emf developed in the
armature.The necessity of starter is only there in big motors, in small motors starter is
not required.For starting 3 Phase IM if rated voltage is given to the starter of motor
very high. Starting current will flow through the motor winding. (I.e. 5 to 6 times the
Running Current). This Starting or initial high current is objectionable, because it will
produce large line voltages drop, which in turn will affect the operation of other
electrical Equipment and line connection to the same line. The Starting current is
controlled by apply a reduced voltage to the Stator winding during the Starting time,
and then full normal voltage is applied, when the motor has run up to speed.

5
 Figure 3.1 Starter Requirements

3.1.3 OPERATION OF MOTOR STARTER

Basically, a starter is a switching device that consists of electrical contacts (both
incoming and outgoing). Based on the operation, starters are primarily divided into
hand operated and electrically operated devices.
Hand operated starter consists of a lever on the side of it that can be turned on or off.
Usually these are used for smaller motors as they are incapable of operating remotely.

Figure 3.2 Motor Starter

6
This type of motor starters causes the motors to restart immediately after a power
interruption. This instant operation of the motor after power failure may leads to flow
of dangerous currents into the motor and hence the motor will be damaged. This is the
reason why most of the starters are equipped with electrical switches.
in case of electrically operated starters, electromechanical relays are used for
switching the power carrying conductors. These relays are called as contactors. When
the coil in the contactor is energized, it produces the electromagnetic field and that
pulls the switch contacts.
and when the coil is de-energized, contacts are pulled back to normal position by the
spring arrangement. Usually, the motor starters are provided with push buttons (start
and stop buttons) in order to energize and de-energize the coil so that contacts will be
operated. These electrically operated starters will not restart after a power failure until
the start button is pressed.

Figure 3.3 Basic Diagram of Starter

3.1.4 TYPES OF STARTERS

3.1.4.1 FOR SLIP RING IM
1) Rotor rheostat starter
3.1.4.2 FOR SQUIRREL CAGE IM
1) DOL starter

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 2) Primary resistance starter
3) Auto transformer starter
4) SD starter
3.1.4.3 OTHER STARTERS
1) Soft starters
3.1.5 PARTS OF STARTERS
3.1.5.1 CONTACTOR
Contactor is the main part in the entire Starter. A Contactor may be defined like this
Capable of making or Breaking the load circuit at Frequency of 60 c/h or more. It may
be operated by hand or (mechanical), electromagnetic, prelatic or electro primate
relay.
3.1.5.2 MAIN CONTACTOR
There are three sets of N.O., main contact between terminals. 1&2, 3&4, 5&6 two sets
of N.O..
3.1.5.3 AUXILIARY CONTACTOR
Auxiliary contact between terminals 2,3&24, 13&14. One set of N.C. contact between
the terminals 21&22. Auxiliary contact carries current than the main contractor.
3.1.5.4 N.V.C
No Volt Coil means Electromagnetic it works on 440V. Due to this magnetic action
moving contacts to the fixed contact. Then motor run at its normal Speed.Here N.V.C.
ON push button. OFF push button and OLRC are series with the Circuit.
The Voltage between any two phases 440V i.e. L1&L2/R&Y. This Control circuit
N.V.C. becomes Magnetic. It contacts the movable contact to the fixed Contact.
3.1.5.5 O.L.R.C
The over load relay protects the motor against high current. Normal over load existing
for long times Single phasing effects.
3.1.6 FUNCTION OF STARTERS
 Start and stop the motor.
 Limit inrush current where necessary.
 Permit automatic control when required.
 Protect motor and other connected equipment’s from over voltage, no voltage,
under voltage, single phasing etc.

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3.1.7 MOTOR STARTER FEATURES
 Rated by current (amperes) and power (horsepower).
 Remote On/off control.
 Motor O.L.P.
 Starting and stopping.
 Plugging and jogging (rapid making and breaking current).
3.2 DOL STARTER
 Different starting methods are employed for starting IMs because IM draws
more starting current during starting. to prevent damage to the windings due to
the high starting current flow, we employ different types of starters.
 Direct on Line Starter Method is a common method of starting of Cage IM. The
motor is connected by means of a starter across the full supply voltage.The
starting current is very large, normally 6 to 8 times the rated current.
 Typically, the contactor will be controlled by separate start and stop buttons, and
an auxiliary contact on the contactor is used, across the start button, as a hold in
contact. I.e. the contactor is electrically latched closed while the motor is
operating.

Figure 3.4 DOL Starter

9
  If IM is connected directly to the supply, the starting current will not damage the
motor unless it is started and stopped repeatedly over a short span of time.
 If large rating IMs are connected directly to the supply, a heavy starting current
can damage the motor and also cause disturbance of voltage, i.e., voltage dip on
mains supply. This can lead malfunctioning of other equipment’s connected to
the same supply.
 This is the reason why DOL starters are limited to small rating motors where
distribution system (mains supply) can withstand high starting currents without
excessive voltage dips.
 For a large rating motor, ranging from 5 HP to 25 HP, oil immersed DOL
starters are used which provides insulation against sparking on contact points
and hence increases the life of starter.
 DOL starter consists of MCCB, contactor, and overload relay. It acts as a switch
under normal working condition by providing the means to switch ON and
switch OFF the motor.

3.2.1 PARTS OF DOL STARTER

3.2.1.1 CONTACTORS & COILS
 Magnetic contactors are electromagnetically operated switches that provide a
safe and convenient means for connecting and interrupting branch circuits.
 Magnetic motor controllers use electromagnetic energy for closing switches.
The electromagnet consists of a coil of wire placed on an iron core. When a
current flow through the coil, the iron of the magnet becomes magnetized,
attracting an iron bar called the armature. An interruption of the current flow
through the coil of wire causes the armature to drop out due to the presence of
an air gap in the magnetic circuit.
 Line-voltage magnetic motor starters are electromechanical devices that provide
a safe, convenient, and economical means of starting and stopping motors, and
have the advantage of being controlled remotely. The great bulk of motor
controllers sold are of this type.

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 Figure 3.5internal Diagram of Contactor

Figure 3.6 Contactor

 Contactors are mainly used to control machinery which uses electric motors. It
consists of a coil which connects to a voltage source. Very often for Single
phase Motors, 230V coils are used and for three phase motors, 415V coils are
used. The contactor has three main NO contacts and lesser power rated contacts
named as Auxiliary Contacts [NO and NC] used for the control circuit. A
contact is conducting metal parts which completes or interrupt an electrical
circuit.
1) NO
2) NC
3.2.1.2 O.L.R.
 O.L.P. for an electric motor is necessary to prevent burnout and to ensure
maximum operating life.
 Under any condition of overload, a motor draws excessive current that causes
overheating. Since motor winding insulation deteriorates due to overheating,

11
 there are established limits on motor operating temperatures to protect a motor
from overheating. Overload relays are employed on a motor control to limit the
amount of current drawn.
The overload relay does not provide short circuit protection. This is the function of
over current protective equipment like fuses and circuit breakers, generally located
in the disconnecting switch enclosure.
 The ideal and easiest way for O.L.P. for a motor is an element with current-
sensing properties very similar to the heating curve of the motor which would
act to open the motor circuit when full-load current is exceeded. The operation
of the protective device should be such that the motor is allowed to carry
harmless over-loads but is quickly removed from the line when an overload has
persisted too long.

Figure 3.7 Thermal Overload Relay

 This overload mechanism should operate at 20 to 30% overload. When the

overload coils trips, the current through the contactor coil stops flowing and
hence the contactor contacts come to the OFF position.
 Overload relays are provided with current adjuster such that tripping coil current
can be adjusted depending on the load protection requirement.
 in some DOL starters, overload relays can be magnetic or electronic type. in
magnetic type, electromagnetic coils are energized when the excess current
flows and they are not affected by the temperature. in electronic type, solid state
components operate the tripping mechanism and they are ideally used in precise
applications.

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 The overload relay is the heart of motor protection. It has inverse-trip-time
characteristics, permitting it to hold in during the accelerating period (when
inrush current is drawn), yet providing protection on small overloads above the
full-load current when the motor is running. Overload relays are renewable and
can withstand repeated trip and reset cycles without need of replacement.
Overload relays cannot, however, take the place of over current protection
equipment.
 The overload relay consists of a current-sensing unit connected in the line to the
motor, plus a mechanism, actuated by the sensing unit, which serves, directly or
indirectly, to break the circuit.
 Overload relays can be classified as being thermal, magnetic, or electronic:
1) Thermal Relay
As the name implies, thermal overload relays rely on the rising temperatures
caused by the overload current to trip the overload mechanism. Thermal
overload relays can be further subdivided into two types: melting alloy and
bimetallic.

Figure 3.8 Overload Unit

Figure 3.9internal Diagram of Relay

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 2) Magnetic Relay
Magnetic overload relays react only to current excesses and are not affected by
temperature.
3) Electronic Relay
Electronic or solid-state overload relays, provide the combination of high-
speed trip, adjustability, and ease of installation. They can be ideal in many
precise applications.
3.2.1.3 MOTORS
Motors used with DOL starter is either synchronous or asynchronous (it also known
as IMs) 3-ø motors.

Figure 3.10 Motors

3.2.1.3.1 IM
An induction or asynchronous 3-ø motorsin an AC electric motor in which the electric
current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction
from the magnetic field of the stator winding. An IM therefore does not require
mechanical commutation, separate-excitation or self-excitation for all or part of the
energy transferred from stator to rotor, as in universal, DC and large synchronous
motors. An IM’s rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type.
Three-phase squirrel-cage IMs are widely used in industrial drives because they are
rugged, reliable and economical. Single phase IMs are used extensively for smaller
loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although traditionally used with VFDs
in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings for
opportunities for existing and prospective IMs in variable-torque centrifugal fan,
pump and compressor load application. Squirrel cage IMs are very widely used in

14
both fixed-speed and VFD application. Variable voltage and VFD are also used in
variable-speed service.
3.2.1.3.2 SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
When 3-ø electric conductors are placed in a certain geometrical position (in certain
angle from another) there is an electrical field generate. Now the rotating magnetic
field rotates at a certain speed, that speed is called synchronous speed. Now if
electromagnet is present in this rotating magnetic field, the electromagnet is
magnetically locked with this rotating magnetic field and rotates with same speed of
rotating field. Synchronous motors are called so because the speed of the rotor of this
motor is same as the rotating magnetic field. It is basically a fixed speed motor
because it has only one speed, which is synchronous speed and therefore no
intermediate speed is there or in other words it’s in synchronism with the supply
frequency.
Normally its construction is almost similar to that of a 3-phase IM, except the fact that
the rotor is given dc supply.
Synchronous motors are inherently not self-starting. They require some external
means to bring speed close to synchronous speed to before they are synchronized.
The speed of operation off is in synchronism with the supply frequency and hence for
constant supply frequency they behave as constant speed motor irrespective of load
condition.

Figure 3.11 Synchronous Motor

15
This motor has the unique characteristic of operating under any electrical power
factor. This makes it being use in electrical power factor improvement.Synchronous
motors are mechanically coupled with another motor.
It could be either 3 phase IM or DC shunt motor. DC excitation is not fed initially. It
is rotated at speed very close to its synchronous speed and after that dc excitation is
given. After some time when magnetic locking takes place supply to the external
motor is cut off.
in case, synchronous motor is of salient pole type, additional winding is placed in
rotor pole face. initially when rotor is standstill, relative speed between damper
winding and rotating air gap flux in large and an Emf is induced in it which produces
the required starting torque. As speed approaches synchronous speed, Emf and torque
is reduced and finally when magnetic locking takes place, torque also reduces to zero.
Hence in this case synchronous is first run as three phase IM using additional winding
and finally it is synchronized with the frequency.
3.2.1.4 FUSES& MCB
 Designed to operate very quickly Protect against short circuit currents to earth or
between phases.
 The first characteristic is the overload which is intended to prevent the
accidental overloading of the cable in a no-fault situation. The speed of the
MCB tripping will vary with the degree of overload. This is usually achieved by
the use of a thermal device in the MCB.
 The second characteristic is the magnetic fault protection, which is intended to
operate when the fault reaches a predetermined level and to trip the MCB within
one tenth of a second. The level of this magnetic trip gives the MCB its type
characteristic as follows: -
Table 3.1 Characteristics of MCB
TYPE OPERATING TRIPPING
TIME CURRENT
Type B 3 to 5 times of full load current. 0.04 to 13 sec.

Type C 5 to 10 times of full load current. 0.04 to 5 sec.

Type D 10 to 20 times of full load current. 0.04 to 3 sec.

16
 Figure 3.13 MCB Figure3.12 HRC

 The third characteristic is the short circuit

protection, which is intended to protect against heavy faults maybe in thousands
of amps caused by short circuit faults.
 The capability of the MCB to operate under these conditions gives its short
circuit rating in kilo amps (KA). in general, for consumer units a 6KA fault level
is adequate whereas for industrial boards 10KA fault capabilities or above may
be required.
3.2.1.5 ISOLATOR & ISOLATOR WITH INTEGRAL FUSE
Makes circuit dead allowing for maintenance should be door interlocked and
lockable for safety.

Figure 3.14isolator

Figure 3.15isolator with integral Fuse

3.2.1.6 PUSH BUTTONS

A push button (also spelled as pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch
mechanism for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are
typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually

17
flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand so as to be easily depressed
or pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches, though even many un-biased
buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to return to their un-pushed
state.
3.2.1.6.1 USES
 The “push-button” has been utilized in calculators, telephones, kitchen
appliances etc.
 in industrial and commercial applications, push buttons can be connected
together by a mechanical linkage so that the act of pushing one button causes the
other button to be released. in this way, a stop button can “force” a start button
to be released. This method of linkage is used in simple manual operation in
which the machine or process have no electrical circuits for control.
 Push buttons are often color-coded to associate them with their function so that
the operator will not push wrong button in error. Commonly used colors are
RED for stopping the machine or process and GREEN for starting the, machine
or process.
3.2.1.6.2 START PUSH BUTTON
As explained above for starting green push button is used. Green is the signal to run.
in DOL starter green push button is used to start the motor or process.

Figure 3.16 Start Push Button

3.2.1.6.3 STOP PUSH BUTTON

According to the above explanation for stopping the process red is the signal.
Therefore, in order to stop the ongoing process, stop push button is used in DOL
starter.

18
 Figure 3.17 Stop Push Button
Start button is green and flush mounted Stop button is red and protruding

Figure 3.18 Start/Stop Button

Figure 3.19 N/O Contact

Figure 3.20 N/C Contact

3.2.1.7 INDICATORS
Indicators are nothing but light emitting diode (LED) which indicates or shows the
continuity of power flow in the electric circuit in order to perform the operation.

19
Sometimes it is used to know that the motor or machine is running or not if the
operation is going on to a distance from the location of power source where the
indicators are placed.
It is very necessary to put indicators in the control panel to indicate that process is
started after switching it on even if the operation is going on nearby the source
because some operations takes place in closed area or may the required process is
soundless.

Figure 3.21 Three Phase indicators

in DOL starter these indicators are used to use to indicate the flow of current in the
three phases (R, Y, B) on its way to the motor.
3.2.1.8 AMPERE METER
An ammeter or (ampere meter) is a measuring instrument used to measure the
current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in name. instruments used to
measure smaller currents, in the milli-ampere or microampere range, are designed as
milliammeters or microammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments which
relied on Earth’s magnetic field for operation.

Figure 3.22 Ammeter

20
3.2.1.8.1 TYPES
1) MOVING COIL
The D’Arsonval galvanometer is a moving coil ammeter. It uses magnetic deflection,
where current passing through a coil causes the coil to move in a magnetic field. The
modern form of this instrument was developed by EDWARD WESTON, and uses
two spiral springs to provide the restoring force.
2) MOVING MAGNET
Moving magnet ammeters operate on essentially the same principle as moving coil,
expect that the coil is mounted on the meter case, and a permanent magnet moves the
needle. Moving magnet ammeters are able to carry larger currents than moving coil
instruments, often several tens of amperes.
3) ELECTRODYNAMIC
An electrodynamics movement uses an electromagnet instead of a permanent magnet.
This instrument can respond to both alternating and DC and also indicates true RMS
for AC.
4) MOVING IRON
Moving iron uses a pin of iron which moves when acted upon by the electromagnetic
force of a fixed coil of wire. This type of ammeter responds to both alternating and
DC
5) HOT WIRE
in a hot wire ammeter, a current pass through a wire which expands as it heats.
Although these instruments have slow response time and low accuracy, they were
sometimes used in measuring radio-frequency current.
6) DIGITAL
in much the same way as the analogue ammeter formed the basis for a wide variety of
derived meters, indicating voltmeters; the basic mechanism for a digital meter is a
digital voltmeter mechanism.
7) INTEGRATING
There is also a range of devices referred to as integrating ammeters. in these ammeters
the current is summed over time, giving as a result of product of current and time;
which is proportional to the energy transferred with that current.
8) PICOAMMETER
A Pico ammeter, or Pico ammeter, measures very low electric current, usually from
the picoampere range at the lower end to the milliampere range at the upper end.

21
3.2.1.9 CONNECTORS
An electrical connector is an electro-mechanical device for joining electrical circuits
as an interface using a mechanical assembly. Connectors consist of plugs (male-
ended) and jacks (female-ended). The connection may be temporary as for portable
equipment, require a tool for assembly and removal, or serve as permanent electrical
joint between two wires or devices. An adapter can be used to effectively bring
together dissimilar connectors.
There are hundreds of types of electrical connectors. Connectors may join two lengths
of flexible copper wire or cable, or connect a wire or cable to an electrical terminal.
in computing, an electrical connector can also be known as physical interface cable
glands, known as cable connectors in the US, connects wire to devices mechanically
rather than electrically and are distinct from quick-disconnects performing the latter.
3.2.1.9.1 PROPERTIES
 Electrical connectors are characterized by their pinout and physical
construction, size, contact resistance, insulation between pins, ruggedness and
resistance to vibration, resistance to entry of water or other contaminants.
 They may be keyed to prevent insertion in the wrong orientation, connecting
the wrong pins to each other, and have locking mechanisms to ensure that they
are fully inserted and cannot work lose or fall out.
 It is always desirable for a connector to be easy to identify visually, rapid to
assemble, require only simple tooling, and be inexpensive.
 Many connectors are keyed, with some mechanical component which prevents
mating except with a correctly oriented matching connector. This can be used
to prevent incorrect or damaging interconnections.
3.2.2 WIRING OF DOL STARTER
1) Main Contact:
Contactor is connecting among Supply Voltage, Relay Coil and Thermal Overload
Relay.
L1 of Contactor Connect (NO) to R Phase through MCCB
L2 of Contactor Connect (NO) to Y Phase through MCCB
L3 of Contactor Connect (NO) to B Phase through MCCB.
NO Contact (-||-):
(13-14 or 53-54) is a NO contact (closes when the relay energizes)

22
Contactor Point 53 is connecting to Start Button Point (94) and 54 Point of Contactor
is connected to Common wire of Start/Stop Button.
NC Contact (-|/|-):
(95-96) is a NC contact (opens when the thermal overloads trip if associated with the
overload block)
2) Relay Coil Connection:
A1 of Relay Coil is connecting to any one Supply Phase and A2 is connecting to
Thermal over Load Relay’s NC Connection (95).
3) Thermal Overload Relay Connection:
T1, T2, T3 are connect to Thermal Overload Relay
Overload Relay is Connecting between Main Contactor and Motor
NC Connection (95-96) of Thermal Overload Relay is connecting to Stop Button and
Common Connection of Start/Stop Button.

Figure 3.23 Wiring Diagram of DOL Starter

3.2.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DOL STARTER

 The main heart of DOL starter is Relay Coil. Normally it gets one phase constant
from incoming supply Voltage (A1). When Coil gets second Phase relay coil

23
 energizes and Magnet of Contactor produce electromagnetic field and due to this
Plunger of Contactor will move and Main Contactor of starter will have closed
and Auxiliary will change its position NO become NC and NC become (shown
Red Line in Diagram).
 Pushing Start Button
When We Push the start Button Relay Coil will get second phase from Supply
Phase-Main contactor (5)-Auxiliary Contact (53)-Start Button-Stop button-96-95-
to Relay Coil (A2). Now Coil energizes and Magnetic field produce by Magnet
and Plunger of Contactor move. Main Contactor closes and Motor gets supply at
the same time Auxiliary contact become (53-54) from NO to NC.
 Release Start Button
Relay coil gets supply even though we release Start button. When We release Start
Push Button Relay Coil gets Supply phase from Main contactor (5)-Auxiliary
contactor (53) – Auxiliary contactor (54)-Stop Button-96-95-Relay coil (shown
Red / Blue Lines in Diagram).
 in Overload Condition of Motor will be stopped by intermission of Control circuit
at Point 96-95.
 Pushing Stop Button
When we push Stop Button Control circuit of Starter will be break at stop button
and Supply of Relay coil is broken, Plunger moves and close contact of Main
Contactor becomes Open, Supply of Motor is disconnected.

Figure 3.24 Contactor and Relay Connections

24
3.2.4 MOTOR STARTIGN CHARACTERSTICS ON DOL STARTER
 Available starting current: 100%.
 Peak starting current: 6 to 8 Full Load Current.
 Peak starting torque: 100%
3.2.5 ADVANTAGES OF DOL STARTER
 Most Economical and Cheapest Starter
 Simple to establish, operate and maintain
 Simple Control Circuitry
 Easy to understand and trouble‐shoot.
 It provides 100% torque at the time of starting.
 Only one set of cables is required from starter to motor.
 Motor is connected in delta at motor terminals.
3.2.6 DISADVANTES OF DOL STARTER
 It does not reduce the starting current of the motor.
 High Starting Current: Very High Starting Current (Typically 6 to 8 times the
FLC of the motor).
 Mechanically Harsh: Thermal Stress on the motor, thereby reducing its life.
 Voltage Dip: There is a big voltage dip in the electrical installation because of
high in-rush current affecting other customers connected to the same lines and
therefore not suitable for higher size squirrel cage motors
 High starting torque: Unnecessary high starting torque, even when not required by
the load, thereby increased mechanical stress on the mechanical systems such as
rotor shaft, bearings, gearbox, coupling, chain drive, connected equipment’s, etc.
leading to premature failure and plant downtimes.
3.2.7 FEATURES OF DOL STARTING
 For low- and medium-power three-phase motors
 Three connection lines (circuit layout: star or delta)
 High starting torque
 Very high mechanical load
 High current peaks
 Voltage dips
 Simple switching devices

25
3.2.8 DOL STARTER IS SUITABLE FOR
 A direct on line starter can be used if the high inrush current of the motor does not
because excessive voltages drop in the supply circuit. The maximum size of a
motor allowed on a direct on line starter may be limited by the supply utility for
this reason. For example, a utility may require rural customers to use reduced-
voltage starters for motors larger than 10 kW.
 DOL starting is sometimes used to start small water pumps, compressors, fans and
conveyor belts.
3.2.9 DOL STARTER IS NOT SUITABLE FOR
 The peak starting current would result in a serious voltage drop on the supply
system
 The equipment being driven cannot tolerate the effects of very high peak
torque loadings
 The safety or comfort of those using the equipment may be compromised by
sudden starting as, for example, with escalators and lifts.

3.3 SD STARTER
This is a starting method that reduces the starting current and starting torque. At
starting the IM is star connected after it reached the approximate operational speed it
is switch to delta. The motor must be delta connected during a normal run, in order to
be able to use this starting method.
This starting method only works when the application is light loaded during the start.
If the motor is too heavily loaded, there will not be enough torque to accelerate the
motor up to speed before switching over to the delta position.
Most IMs are started directly on line, but when very large motors are started that way,
they cause a disturbance of voltage on the supply lines due to large starting current
surges. to limit the starting current surge, large IMs are started at reduced voltage and
then have full supply voltage reconnected when they run up to near rotated speed.

26
 Figure3.25 SD Starter

3.3.1 COMPONENTS OF SD STARTER

1) Contactor
The SD starter circuit comprises of three contactors: main, star and delta contactor.
2) Timer
the contactors are regulated by a timer incorporated with the started.
3) interlock Switches
Interlock switches are connected between star and delta contactor of the control
circuit as a safety measured so one can’t activate delta contactor without deactivating
star contactor.
4) Thermal Overload Relay
A thermal overload relay is likewise consolidated into SD control circuit to ensure the
motor from intemperate heat which might expedite motor finding fire or wearing out.
3.3.2 POWER CIRCUIT OF SD STARTER
 The main circuit breaker serves as the main power supply switch that supplies
electricity to the power circuit.
 The main contactor connects the reference source voltage R, Y, B to the primary
terminal of the motor U1, V1, W1.
 In operation, the Main Contactor (KM3) and the Star Contactor (KM1) are closed
initially, and then after a period of time, the star contactor is opened, and then the
delta contactor (KM2) is closed. The control of the contactors is by the timer
(K1T) built into the starter. The Star and Delta are electrically interlocked and
preferably mechanically interlocked as well. in effect, there are four states:

27
 Figure 3.26 Wiring Diagram of SD
 The star contactor serves to initially short the secondary terminal of the motor
U2, V2, W2 for the start sequence during the initial run of the motor from
standstill. This provides one third of DOL current to the motor, thus reducing the
high inrush current inherent with large capacity motors at startup.
 Controlling the interchanging star connection and delta connection of an AC IM
is achieved by means of a SD or wye delta control circuit. The control circuit
consists of push button switches, auxiliary contacts and a timer.
3.3.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SD STARTER
This is the reduced voltage starting method. Voltage reduction during SD starting is
achieved by physically reconfiguring the motor windings as illustrated in the figure
below. During starting the motor windings are connected in star configuration and this
reduces the voltage across each winding 3. This also reduces the torque by a factor of
three.

Figure 3.27 SD Connection

28
After a period of time the winding are reconfigured as delta and the motor runs
normally. Star/Delta starters are probably the most common reduced voltage starters.
They are used in an attempt to reduce the start current applied to the motor during
start as a means of reducing the disturbances and interference on the electrical supply.
The Star/Delta starter is manufactured from three contactors, a timer and a thermal
overload. The contactors are smaller than the single contactor used in a Direct on Line
starter as they are controlling winding currents only. The currents through the winding
are 1/root 3 (58%) of the current in the line.
There are two contactors that are close during run, often referred to as the main
contractor and the delta contactor. These are AC3 rated at 58% of the current rating of
the motor. The third contactor is the star contactor and that only carries star current
while the motor is connected in star.
The current in star is one third of the current in delta, so this contactor can be AC3
rated at one third (33%) of the motor rating.
3.3.4 SIZE OF EACH PART OF SD STARTER
3.3.4.1 SIZE OF OVER LOAD RELAY
For a SD starter there is a possibility to place the O.L.P. in two positions, in the line or
in the windings:
 Overload Relay in Line
in the line is the same as just putting the overload before the motor as with a
DOL starter.
The rating of Overload (in Line) = FLC of Motor.
Disadvantage
If the overload is set to FLC, then it is not protecting the motor while it is in delta
(setting is x1.732 too high).
 Overload Relay in Winding
in the windings means that the overload is placed after the point where the wiring to
the contactors are split into main and delta. The overload then always measures the
current inside the windings.
The setting of Overload Relay (in Winding) =0.58 X FLC (line current).
Disadvantage
We must use separate short circuit and O.L.P.s.

29
3.3.4.2 SIZE OF MAIN AND DELTA CONTRACTOR
 There are two contactors that are close during run, often referred to as the main
contractor and the delta contactor. These are AC3 rated at 58% of the current
rating of the motor.
 Size of Main Contactor= IFL x 0.58
3.3.4.3 SIZE OF STAR CONTRACTOR
 The third contactor is the star contactor and that only carries star current while
the motor is connected in star. The current in star is 1/ √3= (58%) of the current
in delta, so this contactor can be AC3 rated at one third (33%) of the motor
rating.
 Size of Star Contactor= IFL x 0.33
3.3.5 SD CONNECTION IN TRANSFORMER

Figure 3.28 SD Connection for Transformer

30
3.3.6 SD CONNECTION IN MOTOR

Figure 3.29 SD Connections for Motor

3.3.7 MOTOR STARTING CHARACTERISTICS OF SD STARTER

 Available starting current: 33% full load current
 Peak starting current: 1.3 to 2.6 full load current
 Peak starting torque: 33% full load torque.
3.3.8 ADVANTAGES OF SD STARTER
 The operation of SD method is very simple and rugged.
 It is relatively cheap compared to other reduced voltage method.
 Good torque/ current performance.
 It draws 2 times starting current of the full load ampere of the motor connected.
3.3.9 DISADVANTAGES OF SD STARTER
 Low Starting torque (torque = (Square of Voltage) is also reduce).
 Break in Supply – Possible Transients
 Six Terminal Motor Required (Delta Connected).
 It requires 2 set of cables from starter to motor.
 It provides only 33% starting torque and if the load connected to the subject motor
requires higher starting torque at the time of starting than very heavy transients
and stresses are produced while changing from star to delta connections, and

31
 because of these transients and stresses many electrical and mechanical break-
down occurs.
 in this method of starting initially motor is connected in star and then after change
over the motor is connected in delta. The delta of motor is formed in starter and
not on motor terminals.
 High transmission and current peaks: When starting up pumps and fans for
example, the load torque is low at the beginning of the start and increases with the
square of the speed. When reaching approx. 80-85 % of the motor rated speed the
load torque is equal to the motor torque and the acceleration ceases. to reach the
rated speed, a switch over to delta position is necessary, and this will very often
result in high transmission and current peaks. in some cases, the current peak can
reach a value that is even bigger than for a D.O.L start.
 Applications with a load torque higher than 50 % of the motor rated torque will
not be able to start using the start-delta starter.
 Low Starting torque: The SD (wye-delta) starting method controls whether the
lead connections from the motor are configured in a star or delta electrical
connection. The initial connection should be in the star pattern that results in a
reduction of the line voltage by a factor of 1/√3 (57.7%) to the motor and the
current is reduced to 1/3 of the current at full voltage, but the starting torque is
also reduced 1/3 to 1/5 of the DOL starting torque.
 The transition from star to delta transition usually occurs once nominal speed is
reached, but is sometimes performed as low as 50% of nominal speed which make
transient Sparks.
3.3.10 FEATURES OF SD STARTER
 For low- to high-power three-phase motors.
 Reduced starting current
 Six connection cables
 Reduced starting torque
 Current peak on changeover from star to delta
 Mechanical load on changeover from star to delta
3.3.11 APPLICATION OF SD STARTER
The SD method is usually only applied to low to medium voltage and light starting
torque motors.

32
The received starting current is about 30 % of the starting current during direct on line
start and the starting torque is reduced to about 25 % of the torque available at a
D.O.L start. This starting method only works when the application is light loaded
during the start.
If the motor is too heavily loaded, there will not be enough torque to accelerate the
motor up to speed before switching over to the delta position.

33
 CHAPTER 4 POWER QUALITY
4.1 POWER QUALITY, REASONS AND PROBLEMS
As commercial and industrial customers become more and more reliant on high-
quality and high-reliability electric power, utilities have considered approaches that
would provide different options or levels of premium power for those customers who
require something more than what the bulk power system can provide. insufficient
power quality can be caused by (1) failures and switching operations in the network,
which mainly result in voltage dips, interruptions, and transients and (2) network
disturbances from loads that mainly result in flicker (fast voltage variations),
harmonics, and phase imbalance.
The aim of the power system has always been to supply electrical energy to
customers.Earlier the consumers of electrical energy were mere acceptors.
interruptions and other voltage disturbances were part of the deal. But today electric
power is viewed as a product with certain characteristics which can be measured,
predicted, guaranteed, improved etc. Moreover, it has become an integral part of our
life. So, the quality of the power supply has gained much importance. The term
‘power quality’ emerged as a result of this new emphasis placed on the customer
utility relationship.
The fact that power quality has become an issue recently does not mean that it was not
important in the past. Utilities all over the world have for decades worked on the
improvement of what is now known as power quality. in the recent years, users of
electric power have detected an increasing number of drawbacks caused by electric
power quality variations. These variations already existed on the electrical system but
only recently they are causing serious problems. Thisis due to the increased sensitivity
of equipment’s and devices used by customers. This end user equipment’s are more
interconnected in networks and industrial processes, that the impact of a problem with
any piece of equipment is much more severe. Also, power quality of power systems
affects all connected electrical and electronic equipment’s and is a measure of
deviations in voltage, current, frequency, temperature, force, and torque of particular
supply systems and their components. to fulfill the demand of required supply, the
world is under tremendous pressure for alternative sources of energy and has been
inclined towards sustainable energy for future source of energy. The energy sources
like solar energy, wind energy, hydroelectric power, tidal power, geothermal power

34
and wave power are all important types of renewable energy. However, if these
energy sources are coupled with the energy efficacy it is termed as sustainable
energysources. Sustainable Energy is the provision of energy such that it meets the
needs of the future without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs. It is required to have more efficient means of converting and
utilizing this energy. This will depend on the quality of power supplied and the impact
of end user equipment’s on that power. But power electronic equipment’s are mostly
used in sustainable and renewable energies in different stages for acquisition and
conversion or inversion into useable form. Due to increasing sensitivity of the
equipment’s and devices used by the customers, power qualities of sustainable energy
are affected.Poor Power Quality results in high costs and that is gradually rising. The
poorer the Power Quality, the more would be the initiatives required from concerned
parties and regulating bodies to adopt corrective measures to ensure better Power
Quality. As a consequence, the economy of a country is largely affected with even
low tech industries suffering serious financial losses. Especially for successful
sustainable energy program, Power Quality Monitoring can help identify the cause of
power system disturbances and the underlying problem conditions on a system before
they cause interruptions and disturbances. Due to this many power utilities perform
power quality monitoring as an essential service for their main customers. Essential
capabilities of a power quality monitoring system are reduced cost and remote data
transmission capability.With the electrical industry undergoing change, increased
attention is being focused on reliability and power quality. Power providers and users
alike are concerned about reliable power, whether the focus is on interruptions and
disturbances or harmonic distortion or flicker. One of the most critical steps in
ensuring reliability is monitoring power quality. Power quality monitoring can help to
identify the cause of power system disturbances and even help to identify problem
conditions before they cause interruptions or disturbances. Hence power quality
monitoring is a multi-pronged approach to identifying, analyzing, and correcting
power quality problems. to improve power quality with adequate solutions, it is
necessary to know what kinds of disturbances occurred. A power quality monitoring
system that is able to automatically detect, characterize and classify disturbances on
electrical lines is therefore required. With power quality monitoring, power engineers
can eliminate some of their troubleshooting headaches.

35
4.2 DEFINATION OF POWER QUALITY
Power quality is a term that means different things to different people. institute
ofElectrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Standard IEEE1100 defines power
qualityas “the concept of powering and grounding sensitive electronic equipment in
amanner suitable for the equipment.”
“Power quality is the set of parameters defining the properties of the power supply as
delivered to the user in normal operating conditions in terms of the continuity of
voltage and voltage characteristics”. Modern electronic and power electronic devices
are not only sensitive to voltage disturbances; it also causes disturbances for other
customers. These devices become the source and victims of power quality problems.
As such the term power quality is used to define the interaction of electronic
equipment’s within the electrical environment.
Power quality is simply the interaction of electrical power with electrical equipment.
If electrical equipment operates correctly and reliably without being damaged or
stressed, we would say that the electrical power is of good quality. On the other hand,
if the electrical equipment malfunctions, is unreliable, or is damaged during normal
usage, we would suspect that the power quality is poor.
Quality = Proper equipment operation & longevity
Power Quality = Finacial Problem

4.3 CAUSES OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

The causes of power quality problems can be many. It is often difficult to point an
exact cause for a specific problem. Power quality monitoring equipment’s comes to
aid in such situations.
Most of the causes of power quality problem can be divided into two categories
4.3.1 INTERNAL CAUSES
Approximately 80% of electrical problems originate within a business facility.
Potential culpritsmay include large equipment’s start or shut down, improper wiring
and grounding, overloaded circuits or harmonics.
4.3.2 EXTERNAL CAUSES
About 20% of power quality problems originate with the utility transmission and
distribution system. The most common cause is a lightning strike; other possibilities

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include equipment’s failure, vehicle accidents, weather conditions, neighboring
business and even normal operation
of utility equipment’s.
4.4 IMPORTANCE OF POWER QUALITY
Before the widespread use of power electronic equipment, microprocessors for
industrial control, and automation in factories and offices, minor variations in power
did not seriously affect the operation of conventional equipment such as lights and
IMs. If the supply voltage dipped because of a fault (i.e., a sag in voltage occurred),
the lights just dimmed, and the IM produced a lower output. These days the effects of
power interruptions are rather costly.
If the supply voltage dipped because of a fault (i.e., a sag in voltageoccurred), the
lights just dimmed, and the IM produced a lower output. These days the effects of
power interruptions are rather costly. Reference 10 lists the following cases to
illustrate the cost of short-duration power interruptions:
 One glass plant estimates that a five-cycle interruption, a
momentaryinterruption less than a tenth of second, can cost about $200,000.
 A major computer center reports that a 2-s interruption can cost some$600,000.
 in some factories, following voltage sag, the restarting of assembly linesmay
require clearing the lines of damaged work, restarting of boilers,
andreprogramming automatic controls at a typical cost of $50,000 per incident.
 One automaker estimated that total losses from momentary power
interruptionsat all its plants run to about $10 million a year.
4.5 COMMON DISTURBANCE IN POWER SYSTEM
The common disturbances in a power system are
1) Voltage sag
2) Voltage swell
3) Momentary interruptions
4) Transients
5) Voltage unbalance
6) Harmonics
7) Voltage fluctuations

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4.5.1 VOLTAGE SAG
Voltage Sag or Voltage Dip (IEC term) is defined by the IEEE 1159 as the decrease
in the RMS voltage level to 10% - 90% (1% - 90% for EN 50160) of nominal, at the
power frequency for durations of ½ cycle to one (1) minute. Also, voltage sag is
classified as a short duration voltage variation phenomena, which is one of the general
categories of power quality problems.
Voltage sag (dip) durations are subdivided into three categories: instantaneous (½
cycle to 30 cycles), momentary (30 cycles to 3 seconds), and temporary (3 seconds to
1 minute). These durations are intended to correlate with typical protective device
operation times as well as duration divisions recommended by international technical
organizations. Sags are widely recognized as among the most common and important
aspects of power quality problems affecting commercial and industrial customers -
they are virtually unnoticeable by observing lighting blinks but many industrial
processes would have shutdown. Possible effects of voltage sags would be system
shutdown or reduce efficiency and life span of electrical equipment, specifically
motors. Therefore, such disturbances are particularly problematic for industry where
the malfunction of a device may result in huge financial losses.

Figure 4.1Voltage Sag (Dip)

4.5.1.1 SINGLE PHASE SAGS

The most common voltage sag, over 70%, are single phase events which are typically
due to a phase to ground fault occurring somewhere on the system. This phase to
ground fault appears as single phase voltage sag on other feeders from the same
substation. Typical causes are lightning strikes, tree branches, animal contacts etc. it is
not uncommon to see single phase to voltage sag up to 30% of nominal voltage or
even lower in industrial plant.

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4.5.1.2 PHASE TO PHASE SAGS
Two phase, phase to phase sags may be caused by tree branches, adverse weather,
animal or vehicle collision with utility poles. The two-phase voltage sag will typically
appear on the feeders from the same substation.
4.5.1.3 THREE PHASE SAGS
Symmetrical three phase sags account for less than 20% of all sag events and are
caused either by switching or tripping of three phase circuit breakers. Switch or
recloser which will create three phase voltage sag on either line fed from the same
substation. Three phase sags will also be caused by starting large motors but this type
of event typically causes voltage sag to approximately 80% of nominal voltage and is
usually confined to an industrial plant or its immediate neighbor.
4.5.2 VOLTAGE SWELL
Voltage swell is the opposite of voltage sag. Voltage swell, which is a momentary
increase in voltage, happens when a heavy load turns off in a power system. Voltage
Swell is defined by IEEE 1159 as the increase in the RMS voltage level to 110% -
180% of nominal, at the power frequency for durations of ½ cycle to one (1) minute.
It is classified as a short duration voltage variation phenomena, which is one of the
general categories of power quality problems mentioned in the second post of the
power quality basics series of this site. Voltage swell is basically the opposite
of voltage sag or dip.The disturbance is also described by IEEE C62.41-1991 as “A
momentary increase in the power-frequency voltage delivered by the mains, outside
of the normal tolerances, with duration of more than one cycle and less than a few
seconds”. However, this definition is not preferred by the power quality community.

Figure 4.2 Voltage Swell

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Swells are subdivided into three categories:
Table 4.1 Types of Swells

Voltage swells are characterized by their RMS magnitude and duration. The gravity
of the PQ problem during a fault condition is a function of the system impedance
(i.e. relation of the zero-sequence impedance to the positive-sequence impedance of
the system), location of the fault and the circuit grounding configuration. As an
example, on an ungrounded system, the line-to-ground voltages on the upfaulted
phases can go as high as 1.73 pu during a SLG fault. On the contrary, on a grounded
system close to the substation, there will be no voltage rise on the un faulted phases
because the substation transformer is usually connected delta-wye, providing a low
impedance zero sequence path for the fault current.
4.5.2.1 VOLTAGE SWELL TERMINOLOGY USAGES
The term "momentary overvoltage" is used as a synonym for the term
swell.According to IEEE 1159-1995 [8], voltage swell magnitude is to be described
by its remaining voltage, in this case, always greater than 1.0 pu. For example, “a
swell to 150%” means that the line voltage is amplified to 150% of the normal value.
4.5.2.2 CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF VOLTAGE SWELLS
Voltage swells are usually associated with system fault conditions - just like voltage
sags but are much less common. This is particularly true for ungrounded or floating
delta systems, where the sudden change in ground reference result in a voltage rise on
the ungrounded phases. in the case of a voltage swell due to a single line-to-ground
(SLG) fault on the system, the result is a temporary voltage rise on the unfaulted
phases, which last for the duration of the fault. This is shown in the figure below:

Figure 4.3 Causes and Effect of Voltage Swell

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Voltage swells can also be caused by the De-energization of a very large load. The
abrupt interruption of current can generate a large voltage, per the formula: V = L
di/dt, where L is the inductance of the line and di/dt is the change in current flow.
Moreover, the energization of a large capacitor bank can also cause a voltage swell,
though it more often causes an oscillatory transient.
Although the effects of a sag are more noticeable, the effects of a voltage swell are
often more destructive. It may cause breakdown of components on the power supplies
of the equipment, though the effect may be a gradual, accumulative effect. It can
cause control problems and hardware failure in the equipment, due to overheating that
could eventually result to shut down. Also, electronics and other sensitive equipment
are prone to damage due to voltage swell.
4.5.3 INTERRUPTIONS
A supply interruption is a condition in which the voltage at supply terminals is close
tozero. interruptions are normally initiated by faults which subsequently trigger
protection measures. interruptions can be subdivided based on their duration, thus
based on the way of restoring the supply.
4.5.3.1 SUSTAINED INTERRUPTIONS
These kinds of interruptions are terminated through manual restoration or replacement
of faulted components.
4.5.3.2 TEMPORARY INTERRUPTIONS
This refers to interruptions lasting less than 2 minutes. This interruption is terminated
through automatic restoration of pre-event situation.
4.5.3.3 MOMENTARY INTERRUPTIONS
These interruptions are terminated through self-restoration. Example interruption due
to transients and other self-restoring events.
interruptions are classified by IEEE 1159 into either a short-duration or long-
duration variation. However, the term “interruption” is often used to refer to short-
duration interruption, while the latter is preceded by the word “sustained” to indicate a
long-duration. They are measured and described by their duration since the voltage
magnitude is always less than 10% of nominal.

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 Figure 4.4interruptions

4.5.3.4 SHORT-DURATION INTERRUPTION

interruption is defined as the decrease in the voltage supply level to less than 10% of
nominal for up to one (1) minute duration. They are further subdivided into:
instantaneous (1/2 to 30 cycles), Momentary (30 cycles to 3 seconds) and Temporary
(3 seconds to 1 minute).

Figure 4.5 Short-Duration interruption

interruptions mostly result from reclosing circuit breakers or recloses attempting to
clear non-permanent faults, first opening and then reclosing after a short time delay.
The devices are usually on the distribution system, but at some locations, momentary
interruptions also occur for faults on the sub transmission system. The extent of
interruption will depend on the reclosing capability of the protective device. For
example, instantaneous reclosing will limit the interruption caused by a temporary
fault to less than 30 cycles. On the other hand, time delayed reclosing of the
protective device may cause a momentary or temporary interruption.
Aside from system faults, interruptions can also be due to control malfunctions and
equipment failures.
Consequences of short interruptions are similar to the effects of voltage sags.
interruptions may cause the following (but not limited to):
 Stoppage of sensitive equipment (i.e. computers, PLC, ASD)
 Unnecessary tripping of protective devices
 Loss of data
 Malfunction of data processing equipment.

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4.5.3.5 LONG-DURATION INTERRUPTION
Long interruptions occur when power supply is completely stopped for more than two
seconds.
4.5.3.5.1 CONSEQUENCES
All electric equipment’s stop functioning.
4.5.3.5.2 APPROPRIATE SOLUTIONS
Using Gensets, Power generators, solar inverters, electric home inverters, etc., can
provide temporary solutions.

Figure 4.6 Long-Duration interruption

4.5.4 TRANSIENT
Transients are power quality disturbances that involve destructive high magnitudes of
current and voltage or even both. It may reach thousands of volts and amps even in
low voltage systems. However, such phenomena only exist in a very short duration
from less than 50 nanoseconds to as long as 50 milliseconds. This is the shortest
among PQ problems, hence, its name. Transients usually include abnormal
frequencies, which could reach to as high as 5 MHz.

Figure 4.7 Transient

in addition, transients are also known as surge. According to IEEE 100, surge is a
transient wave of voltage, current or power in an electric circuit. Other IEEE
definitions suggest that it is the part of the change in a variable that disappears during
transition from one steady-state operating condition to another. Such description is too
vague, which could be used to describe just about any unusual events occurring in the
electrical system. Moreover, most electrical engineers would refer to the damped
oscillatory transient phenomena in a RLC circuit when hearing such term.

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4.5.4.1 SOURCES OF TRANSIENTS
 Lightning Strikes
 Switching activities
 Opening and closing of disconnects on energized lines
 Capacitor bank switching
 Reclosing operations
 Tap changing on transformers
4.5.4.2 EFFECTS OF TRANSIENTS
4.5.4.2.1 ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
 Equipment will malfunction and produces corrupted results
 Improper specification and installation of TVSS can aggravate the failures
 Efficiency of electronic devices will be reduced
4.5.4.2.2 MOTORS
 Transients will make motors run at higher temperatures
 Result in micro-jogging leading to motor vibration, excessive heat and noise
 Degrades the insulation of the motor winding resulting to equipment failure.
 increases the motor’s losses (hysteresis) and its operating temperature
4.5.4.2.3 LIGHTS
 Fluorescent bulb and ballast failure
 Appearance of black rings at the fluorescent tube ends (indicator of transients)
 Premature filament damage leading to failure of the incandescent light.
4.5.4.2.4 ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
 Transients degrade the contacting surfaces of circuit breakers and switches
 Nuisance tripping of breakers due to false activation to a non-existent current
demand
 Reduce transformer efficiency because of increased hysteresis losses

Damages due to such PQ problems are uncommon as compared to voltage sags and
interruptions, but when it does occur it is more destructive. to protect against
transients, end-users may use Transient Voltage Surge Suppressors (TVSS), while
utilities install surge arresters.

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4.5.5 VOLTAGE UNBALANCE
Voltage Unbalance (or Imbalance) is defined by IEEE as the ratio of the negative or
zero sequence components to the positive sequence component. in simple terms, it is a
voltage variation in a power system in which the voltage magnitudes or the phase
angle differences between them are not equal. It follows that this power quality
problem affects only polyphase systems (e.g. three-phase).
Voltages are rarely exactly balanced between phases. However, when voltage
unbalance becomes excessive, it can create problems for polyphase motors and other
loads. Moreover, ASD can be even more sensitive than standard motors.
Voltage unbalance is primarily due to unequal loads on distribution lines or within a
facility. in other words, the negative or zero sequence voltages in a power system
typically result from unbalanced loads causing negative or zero sequence currents to
flow.

Figure 4.8 Voltage Unbalance

4.5.5.1 CAUSES & SOURCES

4.5.5.1.1 GENERAL
The utility can be the source of unbalanced voltages due to malfunctioning
equipment, including blown capacitor fuses, open-delta regulators, and open-delta
transformers. Open-delta equipment can be more susceptible to voltage unbalance
than closed-delta since they only utilize two phases to perform their transformations.
Also, voltage unbalance can also be caused by uneven single-phase load distribution
among the three phases - the likely culprit for a voltage unbalance of less than 2%.
Furthermore, severe cases (greater than 5%) can be attributed to single-phasing in the
utility’s distribution lateral feeders because of a blown fuse due to fault or
overloading on one phase.
4.5.5.1.2 MOTORS
The facility housing the motor can also create unbalanced voltages even if the utility
supplied voltages are well balanced. Again, this could be caused by malfunctioning

45
equipment or even mismatched transformer taps and impedances. Similar to the
utility, poor load distribution within the facility can create voltage unbalance issues.
The motor itself can also be the source of voltage unbalance. Resistive and inductive
unbalances within the motor equipment lead to unbalanced voltages and currents.
Defects in the power circuit connections, the motor contacts, or the rotor and stator
windings, can all cause irregular impedances between phases in the motor that lead to
unbalanced conditions.
4.5.5.2 EFFECTS
Unbalanced systems indicate the existence of a negative sequence that is harmful to
all polyphase loads, especially three-phase induction machines.
The main effect of voltage unbalance is motor damage from excessive heat. Voltage
unbalance can create a current unbalance 6 to 10 times the magnitude of voltage
unbalance. in turn, current unbalance produces heat in the motor windings that
degrades motor insulation causing cumulative and permanent damage to the motor.
This scenario would result to expensive facility downtime due to motor failures.
The graph below shows the relationship between voltage unbalance and temperature
rise, which approximately increases by twice the square of the percent of voltage
unbalance.

Figure 4.9Voltage Unbalance and Temperature Rise

4.5.5.3 FORMULA
Voltage unbalance can be estimated as the maximum deviation from the average of
the three-phase voltages divided by the average of the three-phase voltages, expressed
in percent.
Voltage unbalance = Max Deviation from Average Voltage / Average Voltage

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4.5.6 HARMONICS
Harmonics are described by IEEE as sinusoidal voltages or currents having
frequencies that are integer multiples of the fundamental frequency at which the
power system is designed to operate. This means that for a 60-Hz system, the
harmonic frequencies are 120 Hz (2nd harmonic), 180 Hz (3rd harmonic) and so on.
Harmonics combine with the fundamental voltage or current producing a non-
sinusoidal shape, thus, a waveform distortion power quality problem. The non-
sinusoidal shape corresponds to the sum of different sine waves with different
magnitudes and phase angles, having frequencies that are multiples of the system
frequency.

Figure 4.10 Harmonics

Harmonic distortion levels can be characterized by the complete harmonic spectrum
with magnitudes and phase angles of each individual harmonic component. It is also
common to use the THD, as a measure of the effective value of harmonic distortion. It
has become an increasing concern for many end-users and for the overall power
system because of the growing application of power electronics equipment. Protection
from high levels of harmonics includes isolation or modification of the source, phase
multiplication, PWM and application of passive or active harmonic filters.
4.5.6.1 CAUSES
Harmonics exists due to the nonlinear characteristics loads and devices on the
electrical power system. These devices can be modeled as current sources that inject
harmonic currents into the electrical system. Consequently, voltage distortion is
created as these currents produce nonlinear voltage drops across the system
impedance.
Prior to the proliferation of power electronic equipment, harmonics are commonly
caused by electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization curve
(magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers, and DC brush

47
motors. today, all non-linear loads, such as power electronics equipment
including SMPS, ASD, high efficiency lighting and data processing equipment.
4.5.6.2 CONSEQUENCES
Harmonics primarily result to significant overheating of equipment, cables and wires.
Other consequences of having a high harmonic level in the system include the
following:
 Neutral overload in 3-phase systems
 Electromagnetic interference with communication systems
 Loss of efficiency in electric machines
 increased probability in occurrence of resonance
 Nuisance tripping of thermal protections.
 Errors in measures when using average reading meters

4.5.6.3 TOTAL DEMAND DISTORTION

Current distortion levels can be characterized by the total harmonic distortion,
although sometimes this can be misleading. For example, many ASDs will display
high THD values for the input current when they are operating at very light loads.
Nonetheless, this is not alarming because the magnitude of harmonic current is low,
even though its relative distortion is high.
As a result, the IEEE (Std 519) defines the TDD, in order to typify harmonic currents
in a consistent manner. The TDD is the same as the THD except that the distortion is
expressed as a percent of some rated load current rather than as a percentage of the
fundamental current magnitude at the instant of measurement.
4.5.7 VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS
Voltage Fluctuations are described by IEEE as systematic variations of the voltage
waveform envelope, or a series of random voltage changes, the magnitude of which
falls between the voltage limits set by ANSI C84.1. Generally, the variations range
from 0.1% to 7% of nominal voltage with frequencies less than 25
Hz. Subsequently, the most important effect of this power quality problem is the
variation in the light output of various lighting sources, commonly termed
as Flicker. This is the impression of instability of the visual sensation brought about
by a light stimulus, whose luminance fluctuates with time.

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 Figure 4.11Voltage Fluctuations
Voltage fluctuation and light flicker are technically two distinct terms, but have been
erroneously referred to the same meaning. Aggravating the confusion is the use of the
expression “voltage flicker”, which does not actually exist, even though it is often
heard. in fact, IEEE has cautioned on the incorrect usage of these terms.
Nevertheless, voltage fluctuation and flicker are closely related to each other. This is
because flicker is derived from the impact of voltage fluctuation on lighting
intensity due to large loads that have rapidly changing active and reactive power
demand. infact, voltage variations as low as 0.5% could result in perceptible light
flicker if the frequencies are in the range of 6 to 8 Hz.

Figure 4.12Fluctuations
in other words, voltage fluctuation is the response of the power system to fast
changing loads. On the other hand, light flicker is the response of the lighting system
to such load variations as observed by the human eye.

49
Moreover, international standards have been developed for characterizing the voltage
fluctuations based on the potential effects on lighting and the human perception of the
lighting variations.
4.5.7.1 SOURCES AND CAUSES
Equipment or devices that exhibit continuous, rapid load current variations (mainly in
the reactive component) can cause voltage fluctuations and light flicker. Normally,
these loads have a high rate of change of power with respect to the short-circuit
capacity at the point of common coupling. Examples of these loads include:
 Electric arc furnaces
 Static frequency converters
 Cycloconverters
 Rolling mill drives
 Main winders
 Large motors (starting)
Similarly, small power loads such as welders, power regulators, boilers, cranes and
elevators, to name a few, may cause voltage fluctuation and flicker depending on the
electrical system where they are connected.
Other causes include, but not limited to the following:
 Capacitor switching, transformer, OLTC, step voltage regulators and other
devices that alter the inductive component of the source impedance.
 Variations in generation capacity, particularly intermittent types (e.g. wind
turbines).
 Low frequency voltage interharmonics.
Furthermore, loose connections may also result to voltage fluctuations and flicker.
Lightly loaded loose connections may cause flickers for longer periods as compared
to heavily loaded ones that quickly burn out.
4.5.7.2 EFFECTS
Flicker is considered the most significant effect of voltage fluctuation because it can
affect the production environment by causing personnel fatigue and lower work
concentration levels. in addition, voltage fluctuations may subject electrical and
electronic equipment to detrimental effects that may disrupt production processes with
considerable financial costs.
Other effects of voltage fluctuation include the following:
 Nuisance tripping due to miss-operation of relays and contactors.

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  Unwanted triggering of UPS units to switch to battery mode.
 Problems with some sensitive electronic equipment, which require a constant
voltage (SDi.e. medical laboratories).
4.6 POWER QUALITY STANDARD
Power quality is a worldwide issue, and keeping related standards current is a never-
ending task. It typically takes years to push changes through the process. Most of the
ongoing work by the IEEE in harmonic standards development has shifted to
modifyingStandard 519-1992 [8].
4.6.1 IEEE 519
IEEE 519-1992, Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electric PowerSystems, established limits on harmonic currents and voltages at the
PCC, orpoint of metering.
4.6.1.1 IEEE 519 STANDARD FOR CURRENT HARMONICS
4.6.1.1.1 GENERAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS [120V- 69 KV]
Below current distortion limits are for odd harmonics. Even harmonics are limited to
25% of the oddharmonic limits [1,3,5]. For all power generation equipment, distortion
limits are those with ISC/IL<20.ISCis the maximum short circuit current at the point
of coupling “PCC”.IL is the maximum fundamentalfrequency 15-or 30- minutes load
current at PCC.
TDD is the total Demand Distortion (=THD normalized by IL)
4.6.1.1.2 GENERAL SUB-TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS [69 KV-161 KV]
The current harmonic distortion limits apply to limits of harmonics that loads should
draw from the utility at the PCC. Note that the harmonic limits differ based on the
ISC/IL rating, where ISC is the maximum short circuit current at the PCC, and I is the
maximum demand load current at the PCC.
4.6.1.2 IEEE STANDARD FOR VOLTAGE HARMONICS
4.6.1.2.1 IEEE-519 - VOLTAGE DISTORTION LIMITS
The voltage harmonic distortion limits apply to the quality of the power. For instance,
for systems of lessthan 69 kV, IEEE 519 requires limits of 3 percent harmonic
distortion for an individual frequencycomponent and 5 percent for total harmonic
distortion.

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4.6.2 IEC 61000-3-2 AND IEC 61000-3-4 (FORMERLY 1000-3-2 AND 1000-3-4)
4.6.2.1 IEC 61000-3-2 (1995-03)
It specifies limits for harmonic current emissions applicable to electrical and
electronic equipment havingan input current up to and including 16 A per phase, and
intended to be connected to public low-voltagedistribution systems. The tests
according to this standard are type.
4.6.2.2 IEC/TS 61000-3-4 (1998-10)
It specifies to electrical and electronic equipment with a rated input current exceeding
16 A per phase and intended to be connected to public low-voltage ac distribution
systems of the following types:
 nominal voltage up to 240 V, single-phase, two or three wires;
 nominal voltage up to 600 V, three-phase, three or four wires;
 nominal frequency 50 Hz or 60 Hz
These recommendations specify the information required to enable a supply authority
to assess equipment regarding harmonic disturbance and to decide whether or not the
equipment is acceptable for connection with regard to the harmonic distortion aspect.
The European standards, IEC 61000-3-2 & 61000-3-4, placing current harmonic
limits on equipment, are designed to protect the small consumer's equipment.
The former is restricted to 16 A; the latter extends the range above 16 A.
4.6.3 IEEE STANDARD 141-1993, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR
ELECTRIC POWER DISTRIBUTION FOR INDUSTRIAL PLANTS
A thorough analysis of basic electrical-system considerations is presented.
Guidance is provided in design, construction, and continuity of an overall system to
achieve safety of life and preservation of property; reliability; simplicity of operation;
voltage regulation in the utilization of equipment within the tolerance limits under all
load conditions; care and maintenance; and flexibility to permit development and
expansion.
4.6.4 IEEE STANDARD 142-1991, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR
GROUNDING OF INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWER
SYSTEMS
This standard presents a thorough investigation of the problems of grounding and the
methods for solving these problems. There is a separate chapter for grounding
sensitive equipment.

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4.6.5 IEEE STANDARD 446-1987, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR
EMERGENCY AND STANDBY POWER
Systems for industrial and Commercial ApplicationsThis standard is recommended
engineering practices for the selection and application of emergency andstandby
power systems. It provides facility designers, operators and owners with guidelines
for assuringuninterrupted power, virtually free of frequency excursions and voltage
dips, surges, and transients.
4.6.6 IEEE STANDARD 493-1997, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR
DESIGN OF RELIABLE INDUSTRIAL ANDCOMMERCIAL POWER
SYSTEMS
The fundamentals of reliability analysis as it applies to the planning and design of
industrial and commercialelectric power distribution systems are presented. included
are basic concepts of reliability analysis byprobability methods, fundamentals of
power system reliability evaluation, economic evaluation of reliability,cost of power
outage data, equipment reliability data, and examples of reliability analysis.
Emergency andstandby power, electrical preventive maintenance, and evaluating and
improving reliability of the existingplant are also addressed.
4.6.7 IEEE STANDARD 1100-1999, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR
POWERING AND GROUNDING SENSITIVEELECTRONIC
EQUIPMENT
Recommended design, installation, and maintenance practices for electrical power
and grounding (including both power-related and signal-related noise control) of
sensitive electronic processing equipment used in commercial and industrial
applications.
4.6.8 IEEE STANDARD 1159-1995, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR
MONITORING ELECTRIC POWER QUALITY
As its title suggests, this standard covers recommended methods of measuring power-
quality events. Manydifferent types of power-quality measurement devices exist and
it is important for workers in differentareas of power distribution, transmission, and
processing to use the same language and measurementtechniquesMonitoring of
electric power quality of AC power systems, definitions of power quality
terminology, impactof poor power quality on utility and customer equipment, and the
measurement of electromagneticphenomena are covered.

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4.6.9 IEEE STANDARD 1250-1995, GUIDE FOR SERVICE TO EQUIPMENT
SENSITIVE TO MOMENTARY VOLTAGE
DisturbancesComputers, computer-like products, and equipment using solid-state
power conversion have created entirelynew areas of power quality considerations.
There is an increasing awareness that much of this new user equipment is not
designed to withstand the surges, faults, and reclosing duty present on typical
distributions systems. Momentary voltage disturbances occurring in ac power
distribution and utilization systems, their potential effects on this new, sensitive, user
equipment, and guidance toward mitigation of these effects are described. Harmonic
distortion limits are also discussed.
4.6.10 IEEE STANDARD 1346-1998 RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR
EVALUATING ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMCOMPATIBILITY WITH
ELECTRONIC PROCESS EQUIPMENT
A standard methodology for the technical and financial analysis of voltage sag
compatibility betweenprocess equipment and electric power systems is recommended.
The methodology presented is intended tobe used as a planning tool to quantify the
voltage sag environment and process sensitivity
4.6.11 STANDARDS RELATED TO VOLTAGE SAG AND RELIABILITY
The distribution voltage quality standard i.e. IEEE Standard P1564 gives the
recommended indices andprocedures for characterizing voltage sag performance and
comparing performance across differentsystems.
A new IEC Standard 61000-2-8 titled “Environment —Voltage Dips and Short
interruptions” has comerecently. This standard warrants considerable discussion
within the IEEE to avoid conflicting methods of characterizing system performance in
different parts of the world.
4.6.12 STANDARDS RELATED TO FLICKER
Developments in voltage flicker standards demonstrate how the industry can
successfully coordinate IEEEand IEC activities. IEC Standard 61000-4-15 defines the
measurement procedure and monitor requirements for characterizing flicker. The
IEEE flicker task force working on Standard P1453 is set to adopt the IEC standard as
its own.

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4.6.13 STANDARDS RELATED TO CUSTOM POWER
IEEE Standard P1409 is currently developing an application guide for custom power
technologies toprovide enhanced power quality on the distribution system. This is an
important area for many utilities that may want to offer enhanced power quality
services.
4.6.14 STANDARDS RELATED TO DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
The new IEEE Standard P1547 provides guidelines for interconnecting distributed
generation with the power system.
4.6.15 THE LIMITS OF IEEE 519 ARE INTENDED TO
 Assure that the electric utility can deliver relatively clean power to all of its
customers;
 Assure that the electric utility can protect its electrical equipment from
overheating, loss of life from excessive harmonic currents, and excessive
voltage stress due to excessive harmonic voltage. Each point from IEEE 519
lists the limits for harmonic distortion at the PCC or metering point with the
utility. The voltage distortion limits are 3% for individual harmonics and 5%
THD.
All of the harmonic limits in IEEE 519 are based on a customer load mix and location
on the powersystem. The limits are not applied to particular equipment, although,
with a high amount of nonlinearloads, it is likely that some harmonic suppression may
be necessary.
4.7 EFFECT OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS IN EQUIPMENTS
The first sign of a power-quality problem is a distortion in the voltage waveform of
the power source from sine wave, or in the amplitude from an established reference
level, or a complete interruption. The disturbance can be caused by harmonics in the
current or by events in the main voltage supply system. The disturbance can go for a
fraction of a cycle (milliseconds) to great durations (seconds to hours) in the voltage
supplied by the source.

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 CHAPTER 6 RESULTS
Direct On-line Starter is a most economical and cheapest Starter; Simple to establish,
operate and maintain; Simple Control Circuitry; Easy to understand and trouble‐shoot;
It provides 100% torque at the time of starting; Only one set of cables is required from
starter to motor; Motor is connected in delta at motor terminals.

Table 6.1 Comparison between DOL and SD Starter

DOL Starter SD Starter

Used up to 5HP
It is cheap
Does not decrease the starting current
It connects directly the motor with supply
for starting as well as for running
Used 5HP TO 20HP
It is costly
Decrease the starting current by 1/3 times
It connects the motor first in star at the time
of starting in delta for running

Figure 6.1Simulation Model of DOL Starter

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 Figure 6.2 Waveform of DOL Starter

Figure 6.3 Simulation Model of SD Starter

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Figure 6.4 Waveform of SD Starter

Figure 6.5 Three Phase Balanced Load

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Figure 6.6 R-800W, Y-200W, and B-200W

Figure 6.7 R-1200W, Y-200W, and B-200W

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 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
7.1 CONCLUSION
We have successfully completed our project “Direct On-line starter and Star-Delta
Starter for induction Motor”, Simulation model of both and DOL starter for motor,
which is used control starting current and protect our rotating transformer from
damage. We are also showing the practical demonstration of our project using bulb
per phase as a three phase load.
For starting 3 Phase IM if rated voltage is given to the starter of motor very high.
Starting current will flow through the motor winding. (I.e. 5 to 6 times the Running
Current). This Starting or initial high current is objectionable, because it will produce
large line voltages drop, which in turn will affect the operation of other electrical
equipment and line connection to the same line. The Starting current is controlled by
apply a reduced voltage to the Stator winding during the Starting time, and then full
normal voltage is applied, when the motor has run up to speed.
7.2 FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK
 For better power quality we can add some components like STATCOM etc.
 For improved result by adding Microprocessor, our system becomes automatic
or digitalized.

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 REFERENCES
[1] K. Pillay, M. Nour, K. H.Yang. D. N. Dattu Harun, and L. K. Haw “Assessment
and comparison of conventional motor starters and modern power electronic
drives for induction motor starting characteristics”, 2009 IEEE Symposium on
industrial Electronics and Applications(ISIEA 2009), October 4-6, 2009, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia.
[2] Abhay M Halmare, Ashish Karnase and, Swapnil Kourati “Comparative Study of
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Advance Research, Idea and innovations in Technology ISSN: 2454-132X
Volume 2, issue 2.
[3] H. H. Gosh, M. S. Looi, and B. C. Kok “Comparison between Direct-On-Line,
Star-Delta and Auto-transformer induction Motor Starting ethod in terms of
Power Quality,” Proceedings of the international Multiconference of Engineers
and Computer Scientists 2009 BOL 2 IMECS 2009, March 18-20,2009, Hong
Kong.
[4] T. Manokaran, V. Rajsekaran, and S. Mohamed Yousuf “Power Quality
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[5] P. Gnacinski “Power Quality and Marine induction Motors with High Class of
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[6] Bhim Singh, Ram Niwas “Power Quality Improvement of PMSG Based DG Set
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[7] Dr. G. T. Sundar Rajan “Power Quality Improvement at input and Output Stages
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[8] S.Khalid1 & Bharti Dwivedi “power quality issues, problems, standards & their
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