sensors

Review
Literature Review: Theory and Application of In-Line
Inspection Technologies for Oil and Gas Pipeline
Girth Weld Defection
Qingshan Feng 1,2, *, Rui Li 2,3, *, Baohua Nie 4 , Shucong Liu 5 , Lianyu Zhao 2 and Hong Zhang 1
1 School of Mechanical and Transportation Engineering, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China;
hzhang@cup.edu.cn
2 Petrochina Pipeline Company, Langfang 065000, China; lyzhao@alum.imr.ac.cn
3 School of Automation Science and Electrical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
4 School of Materials Science and Energy Engineering, FoShan University, Foshan 528000, China;
niebh@petrochina.com.cn
5 Institute of Disaster Prevention, Sanhe 065000, China; liushucong@cidp.edu.cn
* Correspondence: qsfeng@petrochina.com.cn (Q.F.); kjlirui@petrochina.com.cn (R.L.)

Academic Editor: Vittorio M. N. Passaro

Received: 25 October 2016; Accepted: 19 December 2016; Published: 28 December 2016

Abstract: Girth weld cracking is one of the main failure modes in oil and gas pipelines; girth weld
cracking inspection has great economic and social significance for the intrinsic safety of pipelines.
This paper introduces the typical girth weld defects of oil and gas pipelines and the common
nondestructive testing methods, and systematically generalizes the progress in the studies on technical
principles, signal analysis, defect sizing method and inspection reliability, etc., of magnetic flux
leakage (MFL) inspection, liquid ultrasonic inspection, electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT)
inspection and remote field eddy current (RFDC) inspection for oil and gas pipeline girth weld
defects. Additionally, it introduces the new technologies for composite ultrasonic, laser ultrasonic,
and magnetostriction inspection, and provides reference for development and application of oil and
gas pipeline girth weld defect in-line inspection technology.

Keywords: pipeline girth weld; defect; in-line inspection; magnetic flux leakage inspection; ultrasonic
inspection; EMAT

1. Introduction
Oil and gas pipelines are the main arteries of the national economy; pipeline safety is closely
related to people’s lives, social and economic development. Although pipeline transport is the safest
and most reliable means of transporting for flowing mediums, leakage occurs every year due to
welding defects, corrosion and local damage, resulting in severe losses or personal injury and even
death. Among them, due to the limited technical level of the construction period, on-site welding
construction, operating environment and other factors, girth weld has always been a weak part of
the pipeline, which made girth weld cracking one of the main failure modes of oil and gas pipelines.
Among the failure accidents in 2010–2012, as released by the US Department of Transportation Pipeline
and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, up to eight accidentswere caused by the girth weld
cracking of gas transport pipelines (regardless of perforation caused by girth weld corrosion), three of
the accidents occurred in the new commissioning pipeline [1]. As revealed in the survey on the
causes of eight recent girth weld cracking accidents of new pipelines in China, obvious welding defect
was found in six accidents (the other two accidents resulted from too high external load but also
involved girth weld defects), and girth weld cracking in seven accidents started from the internal wall
of pipe [2]. The girth weld cracking in oil and gas pipelines has the characteristics of long crack length

Sensors 2017, 17, 50; doi:10.3390/s17010050 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

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long crack length and large leakage, which poses a serious threat to the safety of surrounding
personnel, environment
and large leakage, whichandposespipeline
a serioustransportation.
threat to the Considering the risk ofpersonnel,
safety of surrounding girth weldenvironment
cracking of
oil
andand gas pipelines,
pipeline there areConsidering
transportation. strict technical theand
riskmanagerial
of girth weld requirements
cracking of foroil
field
and welding during
gas pipelines,
pipeline construction,
there are strict technical also the visual,requirements
and managerial X-ray and for ultrasonic
field weldinginspections
during must
pipeline beconstruction,
conducted.
However, still there
also the visual, X-rayareandlots of defective
ultrasonic girth welds.
inspections mustFor be this reason, pipeline
conducted. However,operation
still therecompanies,
are lots of
both domestic
defective girth and
welds. overseas,
For thisdeveloped the pipeline
reason, pipeline operationintegrity management
companies, conceptsand
both domestic andoverseas,
system.
Inspection
developed the companies use all kinds
pipeline integrity of advanced
management concepts inspection
and system. technologies
Inspectiontocompanies
inspect and identify
use all kinds
pipeline
of advanceddefects, to accurately
inspection determine
technologies the type
to inspect of defects
and identify and quantify
pipeline defects, the size [3], indetermine
to accurately order to
conduct
the type the safety evaluation,
of defects and quantify repair or maintain
the size [3], in orderdefective pipelines
to conduct and guarantee
the safety evaluation, the repair
intrinsicor
safety of defective
maintain oil and gas pipelines.
pipelines Those methods
and guarantee include
the intrinsic three-axis
safety of oil andhigh-resolution
gas pipelines. Thosemagnetic flux
methods
leakage (MFL) inspection,
include three-axis liquid ultrasonic
high-resolution magnetic flux crackleakage
inspection,
(MFL) electromagnetic
inspection, liquid acoustic transducer
ultrasonic crack
(EMAT) inspection,
inspection, and remote
electromagnetic field eddy
acoustic current
transducer (RFEC)inspection,
(EMAT) inspection technologies,
and remote field in a eddy
bid tocurrent
realize
high detection
(RFEC) inspection accuracy of girth weld
technologies, in a defects and repair
bid to realize highthe defects in
detection advance.ofThis
accuracy girth paper
weldanalyzes
defects
the
and characteristics
repair the defects of in
long-distance
advance. This transport pipelinethegirth
paper analyzes weld defects,
characteristics and summarizes
of long-distance the
transport
inspection
pipeline girthprinciple, defectand
weld defects, signal identification,
summarizes defect sizing
the inspection method
principle, defectand inspection
signal reliability
identification, of
defect
existing girth and
sizing method weldinspection
defect in-line inspection
reliability technologies
of existing girth weld systematically, which include
defect in-line inspection MFL
technologies
inspection,
systematically,liquid
which ultrasonic
include MFLinspection, EMAT
inspection, liquidinspection
ultrasonicand RFDC EMAT
inspection, inspection for oiland
inspection andRFDCgas
pipeline
inspectiongirth weld
for oil anddefects. Moreover,
gas pipeline girth it introduces
weld defects. the new technologies
Moreover, it introduces forthe
composited ultrasonic,
new technologies for
laser ultrasonic,
composited and magnetostriction
ultrasonic, laser ultrasonic, and inspection, and provides
magnetostriction reference
inspection, andfor the development
provides reference forandthe
application
development ofand
oil and gas pipeline
application of oilgirth weld
and gas defect in-line
pipeline girth weldinspection
defect technology.
in-line inspection technology.

2. Oil and Gas Pipeline Girth Weld On-Site Inspection

The girth weld defects of oil and gas pipelines can be roughly classified into planar planar defects,
defects,
volumetric defects
defects and
andirregular
irregularshape
shapedefects.
defects.Planar
Planardefects
defectsinclude
includeincomplete
incomplete penetration, lack
penetration, of
lack
fusion, crack and undercut, etc. Incomplete penetration refers to the gap between
of fusion, crack and undercut, etc. Incomplete penetration refers to the gap between base base materials
caused by insufficient arc welding; lack of fusion results from the insufficient fusion and bonding
between weld metal and base material or between weld metals under several passes. The former is
also known as lack of side fusion, while the latter is called lack of inter-run fusion. A crack appears in
the weld during or after cooling under the welding stress or the residual stress of formation. The lack
of fusion and crack defects of pipeline weld are shown in Figure 1. An undercut is a notch left when
arc seam edges are not supplemented by filler metal after they are molten. Stress concentration may
easily happen
easily happen at an undercut, and a crack may occur at undercut
undercut after a load
load is
is applied.
applied. Figure 2
presents the profile of an internal undercut during X-ray inspection.
profile of an internal undercut during X-ray inspection.

Figure 1. Lack of fusion and crack defects of welding.

Figure 1. Lack of fusion and crack defects of welding.

Volumetric defects include porosity, slag inclusion, underfill, bevel grinding and weld
Volumetric defects include porosity, slag inclusion, underfill, bevel grinding and weld corrosion,
corrosion, etc. Porosity is air pores formed when the air generated in the process of welding fails to
etc. Porosity is air pores formed when the air generated in the process of welding fails to escape but
escape but remains inside weld metal. Slag inclusion occurs when the slag of welding flux fails to
remains inside weld metal. Slag inclusion occurs when the slag of welding flux fails to float out of
float out of the weld pool and is trapped in the weld pool during the melting–cooling process.
the weld pool and is trapped in the weld pool during the melting–cooling process. Porosity and slag
Porosity and slag inclusion often occur inside weld metal. Figure 3 presents the profile of weld
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 3 of 24

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inclusion often occur inside weld metal. Figure 3 presents the profile of weld porosity during X-ray
porosity
inspection.during
Sensors 17,X-ray
Underfill,
2017, 50 inspection.
bevel Underfill,
grinding bevel
and weld grindingisand
corrosion weldby
caused corrosion
the lackisofcaused by
3 ofthe
girth weld lack
metal,
24
of girth
and theirweld
Sensors metal,
typical
2017, 17, 50 and their
profiles typicalinprofiles
are shown are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. 3 of 24
porosity during X-ray inspection. Underfill, bevel grinding and weld corrosion is caused by the lack
porosity during
of girth weld X-ray
metal, inspection.
and Underfill,
their typical profilesbevel grinding
are shown and weld
in Figure 4. corrosion is caused by the lack
of girth weld metal, and their typical profiles are shown in Figure 4.

Figure
Figure 2.
2. X-ray
X-ray inspection
inspection of
of an
an undercut defect inside
undercut defect inside the
the weld.
weld.
Figure 2. X-ray inspection of an undercut defect inside the weld.
Figure 2. X-ray inspection of an undercut defect inside the weld.

Figure 3. X-ray inspection of weld porosity.

Figure 3. X-ray inspection of weld porosity.
Figure
Figure3.3.X-ray
X-rayinspection ofweld
inspection of weldporosity.
porosity.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)

(c)
(c)
Figure 4. Lack of girth weld metal: (a) underfill; (b) bevel grinding; (c) weld corrosion.
Figure 4. Lack of girth weld metal: (a) underfill; (b) bevel grinding; (c) weld corrosion.
Figure 4. Lack of girth weld metal: (a) underfill; (b) bevel grinding; (c) weld corrosion.
(c)
Figure 4. Lack of girth weld metal: (a) underfill; (b) bevel grinding; (c) weld corrosion.
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Irregular shape
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 defects contain an irregular weld outline, and mismatched weld joint, etc. A
4 of 24
mismatched
Irregularweld shape joint meanscontain
defects that the an
twoirregular
edges of weld
the pipeline
outline,areand
mismatched
mismatched during
weldwelding (as
joint, etc.
shown
A inIrregular
Figureweld
mismatched shape
5); this
jointdefects
could
means contain
reduce an two
irregular
that effective
the wallweld
edges outline,
thickness,
of the and mismatched
which
pipeline may
are causeweld
mismatched joint,
extraduring etc.welding
bending Astress.
mismatched weld joint means caused
that the by
twoconstruction
edges of the pipeline are mismatched
e.g.,during
Irregular
(as shown weld outline
in Figure 5);isthis
easily
could reduce effective walland other
thickness, factors,
which may causewelding
difficult (as for
welding
extra bending
shown in Figure 5); this could reduce effective wall thickness, which may cause extra bending stress.
girth weld
stress. at theweld
Irregular bottom of the
outline is pipeline.
easily caused by construction and other factors, e.g., difficult welding
Irregular weld outline is easily caused by construction and other factors, e.g., difficult welding for
for girth weld at the bottom of the pipeline.
girth weld at the bottom of the pipeline.

Figure
Figure5.5.Profile
Profileof
of aa mismatched weld
mismatched weld joint.
joint.
Figure 5. Profile of a mismatched weld joint.
At present,
At present, domestic
domestic and andoverseas
overseasaccidents
accidents of of oil
oiland
andgas gaspipeline
pipeline girth weld
girth cracking
weld are are
cracking
mostly caused by a crack, incomplete penetration, lack of fusion, and
mostly caused by a crack, incomplete penetration, lack of fusion, and a sharp undercut. These mostly
At present, domestic and overseas accidents of oil and gas pipelinea sharp
girth undercut.
weld These
cracking planar
are planar
defectsa have
caused a high degree ofpenetration,
stress concentration, which significantly
a sharplowers the bearing capacity of
defects by
havecrack,
a highincomplete
degree of stress concentration, lack of fusion,
which and significantly undercut.
lowers theThese bearingplanar defects
capacity of
have pipelines,
a high so nondestructive
degree of stress testing of oil which
concentration, and gassignificantly
pipelines should lowersfocustheonbearing
these kinds of girth
capacity of weld
pipelines,
pipelines, so nondestructive testing of oil and gas pipelines should focus on these kinds of girth weld
defects.
so nondestructive
defects. testing of oil and gas pipelines should focus on these kinds of girth weld defects.
For pipeline girth weld, external defects can be inspected by employing magnetic particle or
For
For pipeline girth weld, external defects can bebeinspected by byemploying magnetic particle or dye
dye pipeline
penetrant;girth weld,
internal external
defects can bedefects
mainlycan revealed inspected
through X-ray employing
or ultrasonic magnetic
inspectionparticle
[4]. or
penetrant; internal
dye penetrant;
Magnetic particle
defects
internal can be
defects can
inspection
mainly revealed
be mainly
utilizes
through
revealed
the irregular
X-ray
through
magnetic
or ultrasonic
linesX-ray
on the
inspection
or defect
ultrasonic [4]. Magnetic
inspection
position of the [4].
particle
Magnetic inspection
particle
magnetized utilizestothe
inspection
weldment irregular
utilizes
locate themagnetic
the defect. irregular lines on
magnetic
It is applicable to the defect
lines
magnetic on position
metal theweldmentof the
defect magnetized
position
of varying of the
weldment
magnetized toweldment
thickness, locate
which the
must todefect.
have
locate a It is defect.
smooth
the applicable
surface, to
It isand magnetic
it is able to
applicable tometal weldment
discover
magnetic the 1~2 mm
metal of varying
cracks on
weldment ofthickness,
and
varying
which must
under
thickness, have
the
which a smooth
surface.
must Dye surface,
havepenetrant
a smooth and it is able
inspection
surface, andtoitprovide
could discover
is able atothecolor1~2image
discover mm ofcracks
the the on and
1~2defect
mm under
shape.
cracks the
A and
on
highly
surface. Dye penetrating
penetrant color liquid
inspection could
could enter
provide the asurface
color defect
image of
of
under the surface. Dye penetrant inspection could provide a color image of the defect shape. A a
the work
defect piece,
shape.removing
A the
highly excess
penetrating
colorliquid on the surface, andsurface
then applying theadeveloper thatremoving
absorbs the liquid. This method can surface,
be
highlyliquid could
penetrating enter
colorthe liquid could defect
enter of thework
surfacepiece,defect of a work the excess
piece, liquid
removingon thethe excess
and used
then to inspect the weldment of any material and thickness, but it requires the surface roughness
liquid on applying
the surface, theanddeveloper that absorbs
then applying the liquid.
the developer thatThis
absorbsmethod can be This
the liquid. usedmethod
to inspect canthe
be
Ra = 3.2 μm. It is able to detect any surface defect with the width no less than 0.01 mm and the
weldment
used minimum of anythe
to inspect material
weldment and thickness,
of any but it requires
material and the surface
thickness, but roughness
it requires Rathe= 3.2 µm. Itroughness
surface is able to
depth 0.03~0.04 mm. The magnetic particle and dye penetrant inspections for external
detect any
Ra = defects
3.2 μm.surface is defect towith the any
width no lessdefect
than 0.01 mm theand the nominimum depth
0.010.03~0.04
mm andmm.
of It ablegirth
pipeline detect
weld are surface
presented in Figure with6. width less than the
The
minimum depth 0.03~0.04 mm. The magnetic particle and dye penetrant inspections for weld
magnetic particle and dye penetrant inspections for external defects of pipeline girth are
external
presented in Figuregirth
defects of pipeline 6. weld are presented in Figure 6.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Inspections for external defects of pipeline girth weld: (a) dye penetrant; (b) magnetic particle.

(a) (b)
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Inspections
Inspections for
for external
external defects
defects of
of pipeline girth weld:
pipeline girth weld: (a)
(a) dye
dye penetrant;
penetrant; (b)
(b) magnetic particle.
magnetic particle.
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Before ultrasonic inspection appeared, X-ray radiography was the main way to reveal the
Before
defects hiddenultrasonic
in weld. inspection
It detectsappeared, X-rayon
a defect based radiography
the variation wasofthe main
X-ray waypassing
beam to reveal the defects
through due
hidden in weld. It detects a defect based on the variation of X-ray
to different absorptions of the defect and its surrounding metal. X-ray absorption depends mainly beam passing through due to
different absorptions
on the density of the of the defect
material, so and
X-rayitsradiography
surroundingismetal. a veryX-ray absorption
effective way todepends
detect the mainly on the
volumetric
density
defects of theslag
(e.g., material, so X-ray
inclusion radiography
or porosity) is a very
(Figure 3), but effective
it is notway to detect
always the volumetric
effective to deal with defects
the
(e.g., slag inclusion or porosity) (Figure 3), but it is not always effective to
planar defects (e.g., dense cracks or lack of fusion) at any direction inside a thick metal piece. X-ray deal with the planar defects
(e.g., dense cracks
radiography is lessor lack ofthan
reliable fusion) at any ultrasonic
automatic direction inside a thickand
technology, metal piece.
unable X-ray radiography
to accurately measure
is
theless reliable
size than automatic
of a crack penetrating ultrasonic
the walltechnology,
thickness (i.e.,and unable to accurately
crack depth). measurethe
Additionally, the regular
size of
ainspection
crack penetrating
with X-ray the radiography
wall thickness (i.e.,such
faces crackproblems
depth). Additionally,
as obscure film, the regular
low contrast inspectionand with
poor
X-ray radiography
sensitivity, faces such
which affect problems as
the qualitative and obscure film, low
quantitative contrast
accuracy ofand poorsince
defects, sensitivity,
the oilwhich affect
or medium
the qualitative
inside and quantitative
the pipeline accuracy of and
causes the absorption defects, since the
scattering of oil
theorX-ray.
medium inside the
Therefore, it pipeline causes
is necessary to
the
drainabsorption
and replace andthe scattering
mediumofinside the X-ray. Therefore,
the pipeline it is necessary
or make correspondingto drain and replace the
improvements medium
to the X-ray
inside the pipeline
inspection technology or make
[5]. corresponding improvements to the X-ray inspection technology [5].
Ultrasonic inspection is presently an important important nondestructive
nondestructive testing technology for pipeline
girth weld defect inspection. Ultrasonic waves could be scattered by planar and volumetric defects,
and the echo signals from defects can be utilized to identify two such types of defects, measure the
dimension
dimension and anddepth
depth of of
defects andand
defects judgejudge
the nature of defects.
the nature Regular Regular
of defects. ultrasonic manual ormanual
ultrasonic fully-autoor
inspection has been widely
fully-auto inspection has been applied
widely inapplied
the detection of pipelineofweld
in the detection imperfections.
pipeline Along with
weld imperfections. the
Along
increasing requirements
with the increasing for the ability
requirements to inspect
for the ability to theinspect
small weld defects,
the small weld some advanced
defects, some ultrasonic
advanced
inspection
ultrasonic technologies have been developed,
inspection technologies have been such as phased such
developed, array asultrasonic
phasedinspection [6] and
array ultrasonic
time of flight
inspection [6]diffraction
and time oftechnique (TOFD) [7].
flight diffraction Among(TOFD)
technique them, TOFD utilizes
[7]. Among a pair
them, TOFDof transmitter and
utilizes a pair
receiver probesand
of transmitter arranged
receiveratprobes
both sides of weld,
arranged and sides
at both employs the tilted
of weld, wedge for
and employs thethe generation
tilted wedge for of
athe
longitudinal
generationwave. Following the
of a longitudinal principle
wave. of wave
Following thediffraction,
principle of it can
wave ideally realize it
diffraction, thecandetection
ideally
and sizing
realize of weld defects
the detection and sizingwithout
of weldbeing affected
defects by factors
without such as by
being affected sound beam
factors suchangle,
as sounddetection
beam
direction, and surface
angle, detection roughness
direction, of the defect
and surface [7]. TOFD
roughness of thedoes not rely
defect [7]. on the reflective
TOFD does notenergy rely on of the
defect to identify
reflective energy it, of which is anto
the defect innate weakness
identify it, which of regular ultrasonic
is an innate inspection,
weakness so it has
of regular a wide
ultrasonic
application
inspection, prospect
so it has in pipeline
a wide girth weld
application defect inspection.
prospect in pipelineFigure 7 presents
girth weld defectthe inspectionFigure
inspection. of girth7
weld defects
presents the through
inspection TOFD afterweld
of girth excavation
defectsofthrough
the pipeline,
TOFDwhichafter reveals the linear
excavation of thedefect at the
pipeline, root
which
of the weld.
reveals the linear defect at the root of the weld.

Figure 7. Time of flight diffraction technique (TOFD) inspection of the linear defect at the root of the
Figure 7. Time of flight diffraction technique (TOFD) inspection of the linear defect at the root of
weld.
the weld.

Common on-site weld defect inspection technologies are applied in the girth weld defect
Common
inspection during on-site weld
pipeline defect inspection
construction or after technologies are applied
pipeline excavation. However,in the girth weld
advanced defect
oil and gas
inspection during pipeline construction or after pipeline excavation. However, advanced
pipeline in-line inspection technology is still needed to inspect the defects of long-distance transport oil and gas
pipeline
pipelinesin-line inspection
in operation, technology
which is still girth
have multiple needed to inspect
welds, the
so as to defects
realize theofoverall
long-distance transport
girth weld defect
pipelines
inspection of long-distance transport pipeline. For nearly three decades, multiple technologiesdefect
in operation, which have multiple girth welds, so as to realize the overall girth weld have
inspection of long-distance
been developed and applied transport pipeline. For
in the inspection nearly
of oil and three decades,defects,
gas pipeline multiple technologies
including have
corrosion,
been
stressdeveloped andcrack,
corrosion and applied
such inas,
thehigh-resolution
inspection of oil MFL and gas pipeline
inspection defects,
[8], liquid including
ultrasonic corrosion,
inspection [9]
stress
and natural gas pipeline electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) crack inspection [10], but [9]
corrosion and crack, such as, high-resolution MFL inspection [8], liquid ultrasonic inspection as
and natural
for the girth gas
weldpipeline electromagnetic
defect inspection, acoustic
it is still in thetransducer
exploration(EMAT) crack inspection
and development stage.[10],
Due but as
to the
irregular shape and profile of girth weld, the accuracy of inspection equipment is affected
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 6 of 24

Sensors
for the2017, 17,weld
girth 50 defect inspection, it is still in the exploration and development stage. Due to 6 of 24
the
irregular shape and profile of girth weld, the accuracy of inspection equipment is affected significantly.
significantly.
Also, Also, long-distance
long-distance oil and gas
oil and gas pipelines havepipelines have narrow
narrow girth girth welds
welds (normally (normally
10~20 10~20 allow
mm), which mm),
which allow a very short time window for the action of inspection equipment, and
a very short time window for the action of inspection equipment, and make it very difficult to inspect make it very
difficult to inspect defects. Girth weld defect inspection has always been a difficult problem
defects. Girth weld defect inspection has always been a difficult problem around the world. Along with around
the continuous
the world. Along with the continuous
development development
of in-line inspection of in-line
technology, theinspection technology,
research and the research
development of girth
and development of girth weld defect inspection technology has started. Domestic
weld defect inspection technology has started. Domestic and overseas pipeline inspection companies and overseas
pipeline
as well asinspection companies
pipeline operators as well
have beenas pipeline
working operators
closely have been
to improve workingoil
the existing closely to improve
and gas pipeline
the existing
in-line oil and
inspection gas pipeline
technologies andin-line inspection
equipment technologies
and engage and equipment
in the research and engage
and application in the
of pipeline
research and application of pipeline
girth weld defect inspection technologies. girth weld defect inspection technologies.

3. Oil
3. Oil and Gas Pipeline
and Gas Pipeline Girth
Girth Weld
Weld Defect
Defect In-Line
In-Line Inspection
Inspection Technology
Technology

3.1. Three-Axis High-Resolution Magnetic Flux Leakage Inspection

3.1.1. Inspection Principle

3.1.1. Inspection Principle and
and Signal
Signal Analysis
Analysis
The
The principle
principleofofdefects
defectsdetecting
detectingandand
sizing of MFL
sizing inspection
of MFL equipment
inspection is based
equipment is on the varying
based on the
magnetic lines of defects on the pipeline (Figure 8); it could obtain the location, type, shape,
varying magnetic lines of defects on the pipeline (Figure 8); it could obtain the location, type, shape, dimension
and other information
dimension of defects through
and other information of defectsthethrough
identification and judgment
the identification andofjudgment
MFL data. of Three-axis
MFL data.
high-resolution MFL in-line MFL
Three-axis high-resolution inspection
in-lineutilizes the three-direction
inspection sensors inside the
utilizes the three-direction existing
sensors sensor
inside the
to detect the size of the magnetic field in three directions. Therefore, it could measure
existing sensor to detect the size of the magnetic field in three directions. Therefore, it could measure the axial,
circumferential and radial and
the axial, circumferential MFLradial
data to determine
MFL data to the three-dimensional
determine magnetic leakage
the three-dimensional fieldleakage
magnetic vector,
in order
field to improve
vector, in orderthe inspection
to improve accuracy
the of defects
inspection accuracy [11].
of defects [11].

Figure 8. Schematic
Figure 8. Schematic diagram
diagram of
of the magnetic flux
the magnetic flux leakage
leakage in-line
in-line inspection
inspection principle.
principle.

The axial magnetic leakage field component of a metal loss defect is a typical uni-polar
The axial magnetic leakage field component of a metal loss defect is a typical uni-polar waveform,
waveform, and its amplitude is highly related to defect depth, but the axial signal has nonlinear
and its amplitude is highly related to defect depth, but the axial signal has nonlinear change in the
change in the directions of width and length, so the length and width of defects can only be
directions of width and length, so the length and width of defects can only be estimated based on the
estimated based on the range of signal deformation, causing very low accuracy and reliability. The
range of signal deformation, causing very low accuracy and reliability. The radial signal component
radial signal component shows bipolar sine waveform with equal amplitude of peak and trough,
shows bipolar sine waveform with equal amplitude of peak and trough, which is highly correlated
which is highly correlated with defect depth. The gap between peak and trough can greatly reflect
with defect depth. The gap between peak and trough can greatly reflect the length of the defect.
the length of the defect. The circumferential signal shows the positive and negative polarities in both
The circumferential signal shows the positive and negative polarities in both radial and circumferential
radial and circumferential directions, and visually reflects the width and length of the defect (Figure 9).
directions, and visually reflects the width and length of the defect (Figure 9). This technology can
This technology can effectively detect and size the defects of long-distance transport pipelines, such
effectively detect and size the defects of long-distance transport pipelines, such as metal loss (corrosion
as metal loss (corrosion and mechanical scratch) [12–16]. Additionally, PetroChina Pipeline
and mechanical scratch) [12–16]. Additionally, PetroChina Pipeline Company (Langfang, China) has,
Company (Langfang, China) has, through cooperation with GE Oil & Gas Pipeline-inline-inspection
through cooperation with GE Oil & Gas Pipeline-inline-inspection Solutions (GE PII, Newcastle, UK),
Solutions (GE PII, Newcastle, UK), applied the three-axis high-resolution MFL technology in the
applied the three-axis high-resolution MFL technology in the inspection and sizing of volumetric
inspection and sizing of volumetric defects in the spiral weld of long-distance transport pipelines, so
defects in the spiral weld of long-distance transport pipelines, so as to successfully eliminate the
as to successfully eliminate the problem of spiral weld cracking of the aged pipes in Northeast
problem of spiral weld cracking of the aged pipes in Northeast China [17–20]. It is important to note
China [17–20]. It is important to note that inspection is very difficult due to the dramatic decrease of
that inspection is very difficult due to the dramatic decrease of magnetic flux leakage outside the pipe
magnetic flux leakage outside the pipe wall, along with the increase of wall thickness and inspection
wall, along with the increase of wall thickness and inspection speed [21].
speed [21].
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 7 of 24
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 7 of 24
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 7 of 24

Figure 9. Three-axis signals of typical metal loss defect.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Three-axis
Three-axis signals
signals of
of typical
typical metal
metal loss
loss defect.
defect.

In recent years, Kinder Morgan (Houston, TX, USA), TransCanada (Calgary, AB, Canada) and
In recent years, Kinder Morgan (Houston, TX, USA), TransCanada (Calgary, AB, Canada) and
In recent
PetroChina years, Kinder
Pipeline Company Morgan (Houston,
(Langfang, China)TX, are
USA), TransCanada
engaging in the (Calgary,
application AB,ofCanada) and
MFL in-line
PetroChina Pipeline Company (Langfang, China) are engaging in the application of MFL in-line
PetroChina Pipeline Company
inspection technology (Langfang,
in the inspection andChina) areof
research engaging
girth weldin the application
defects of MFL in-line
[2]. As revealed in the
inspection technology in the inspection and research of girth weld defects [2]. As revealed in the
inspection technology
research conducted by in
Wangthe inspection
Fuxiang etand research
al. [22], of weld
a girth girth defect
weld defects [2]. As
with certain revealed
metal in the
loss shows
research conducted by Wang Fuxiang et al. [22], a girth weld defect with certain metal loss shows
research conducted
signal features by Wang
similar to thoseFuxiang et al.losses
of metal [22], aincluding
girth weldcorrosion.
defect withForcertain metal loss
volumetric girthshows
weld
signal features similar to those of metal losses including corrosion. For volumetric girth weld
signal
defects,features
includingsimilar
lackto
ofthose
fusion,of incomplete
metal lossespenetration
including corrosion. For volumetric
and underfill, girthhas
the axial signal weld defects,
a positive
defects, including lack of fusion, incomplete penetration and underfill, the axial signal has a positive
including
peak (red lack of fusion,
for positive andincomplete penetration
blue for negative) andtwo
with underfill, the axial peaks;
small negative signal has a positive
radial peak
signal has a
peak (red for positive and blue for negative) with two small negative peaks; radial signal has a
(red for positive
negative peak and andablue for negative)
positive peak; and with two small negative
circumferential signal peaks;
has tworadial signalpeaks
positive has a negative
and two
negative peak and a positive peak; and circumferential signal has two positive peaks and two
peak and peaks
negative a positive peak;
within a and circumferential
nearly rectangular signal
scope has two positive
(Figure 10). On peaks and two
this basis, the negative peaks
researchers of
negative peaks within a nearly rectangular scope (Figure 10). On this basis, the researchers of
within a nearly
PetroChina rectangular
Pipeline Company scope (Figure 10).
(Langfang, On this
China) havebasis, theout
carried researchers of PetroChina
the systematic Pipeline
comparison and
PetroChina Pipeline Company (Langfang, China) have carried out the systematic comparison and
Company (Langfang,
classification of signalsChina) have carried
for girth out the including
weld defects, systematiclack
comparison andincomplete
of fusion, classification of signals
penetration,
classification of signals for girth weld defects, including lack of fusion, incomplete penetration,
for girth weld
missing cap, defects, including
mismatched weldlack of fusion,
joint incomplete
and grinding, so penetration,
as to provide missing cap, mismatched
the guidance weld
for accurate
missing cap, mismatched weld joint and grinding, so as to provide the guidance for accurate
joint and grinding,
identification so weld
of girth as to provide
defects. the guidance for accurate identification of girth weld defects.
identification of girth weld defects.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Three-axis
Three-axis magnetic
magnetic flux leakage (MFL)
flux leakage (MFL) signals
signals of
of aa girth
girth weld
weld defect.
defect.
Figure 10. Three-axis magnetic flux leakage (MFL) signals of a girth weld defect.

Efforts are still being made to study and explore the application of MFL in-line inspection
Efforts
Efforts are
are still
still being
being made
made to to study
study andand explore
explore the
the application
application ofof MFL
MFL in-line
in-line inspection
inspection
technology in the inspection and sizing of girth weld crack defects. Liu et al. [23] built a
technology
technology in the inspection and sizing of girth weld crack crack defects.
defects. Liu Liuet etal.al.[23]
[23]built
builta
three-dimensional model of cracks to explore the influence of crack parameters on MFL signals,
athree-dimensional
three-dimensionalmodel modelofofcracks
crackstotoexplore
explorethetheinfluence
influence of of crack
crack parameters
parameters on MFL signals,
including depth, width, inclination angle and crack gap, etc. As revealed in the research results, the
including width, inclination
including depth, width, inclinationangle
angleandandcrack
crackgap,
gap,etc.
etc.
AsAs revealed
revealed in the
in the research
research results,
results, the
inclination angle of the crack has an obvious impact on the amplitude of MFL. In the practical
the inclination angle of the crack has an obvious impact on the
inclination angle of the crack has an obvious impact on the amplitude of MFL. amplitude of MFL. In the practical
practical
inspection, one-way inspection may result in missing a spot, and magnetic leakage fields may
inspection,
inspection, one-way inspection may result in missing missing a spot,
spot, and
and magnetic
magnetic leakage
leakage fieldsfields may
may
overlap each other when the gap between two cracks is less than 5mm. In the studies on finite
overlap
overlap each other
other when
when thethe gap
gapbetween
betweentwo twocracks
cracksis isless
less than
than 5 mm.
5mm. In theInstudies
the studies on
on finite
element simulation and traction test by Wang Fuxiang et al. [22] and Wang Ting et al. [24],
finite
elementelement simulation
simulation and traction
and traction test test by Wang
by Wang Fuxiang
Fuxiang et al.
et al. [22]
[22] andWang
and WangTing Ting et et al.
al. [24],
three-axis high-resolution MFL inspection can only detect the defects with a large opening
three-axis
three-axis high-resolution
high-resolutionMFL MFLinspection
inspectioncan only detectdetect
can only the defects
the with a large
defects withopening
a large(>0.5 mm).
opening
(>0.5mm). Natalia et al. [25] proposed a new MFL tool designed to generate a field of excitation in
Natalia
(>0.5mm). et Natalia
al. [25] etproposed a new MFL
al. [25] proposed a new tool
MFLdesigned to generate
tool designed a fielda of
to generate excitation
field of excitationin thein
the circumferential or transverse direction, and detect the axial cracks. Using this method, 19 out of
circumferential
the circumferentialor transverse
or transversedirection, andand
direction, detect thethe
detect axial cracks.
axial cracks.Using
Usingthis
thismethod,
method,19 19 out
out of
of
22 features, such as a crack in the electric resistance welding (ERW) were verified to be linear
22
22 features,
features,such
suchas as
a crack in the
a crack inelectric resistance
the electric welding
resistance (ERW) were
welding (ERW) verified
were toverified
be lineartolong-seam
be linear
long-seam defects, which were subsequently repaired in a permanent manner.
defects,
long-seamwhich werewhich
defects, subsequently repaired in repaired
were subsequently a permanentin a manner.
permanent manner.
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 8 of 24

3.1.2. Defect Sizing Methods

At present, a lot of research work has been done in the field of signal analysis and quantitative
analysis of three-axis high-resolution MFL. The main analysis methods include finite element analysis,
neural network and so on.
(1) Finite Element Analysis
In the defect sizing of MFL inspection, the ANSYS modeling of finite element analysis is
employed to study the relationship between geometric parameters and MFL signals for pipeline
defects. Ding Zhanwu et al. [26] pointed out that for the defects of the same length, the depth of
defect and the amplitude of the MFL signal are approximately linear. For the defects of the same
depth, there is basically a linear relationship between the defect length and the width of the MFL
signal. Through the combination of a finite element simulation model with a genetic algorithm,
K.C. Hari et al. restructured the shape of a pipe defect [27]. Reza Khalaj Amineh et al. introduced
the tangent component of a MFL signal to describe the direction, length and depth of surface crack
defects [28]. Yang Lijian et al. built a MFL three-axis in-line inspection simulation model for pipeline,
established the relationships of axial, radial and circumferential components of the magnetic leakage
field with the defect size of the pipeline, and eventually developed the pipeline MFL in-line inspection
equipment successfully through continuous efforts [29–31]. Additionally, domestic and overseas
scholars studied the speed effect in the MFL inspection process through finite element simulation,
and put forward the speed effect compensation method [32–34].
(2) Neural Network
The application of a neural network in approaching the functional relationship between
geometrical parameters and MFL signals of a defect has become a hot topic of research, and has made
great progress. Shen-Tun Li put forward the defect pattern recognition method for nondestructive
testing based on fuzzy subset theory, and applied the radial basis function neural network in the
interpolation calculation and non-linear approximation of a magnetic leakage field. Also, he created
a radial basis function (RBF) network model and proposed the learning algorithm, so as to provide
a feasible method for pipeline defect sizing [35]. R. Christen et al. proposed the practical algorithm
based on model feature extraction and neural network for automatic defect detection in the MFL
inspection [36]. Hwang Kyungtae [37], Ameet Joshi et al. [38], and Pradeep Ramuhalli et al. [39]
recommended applying the wavelet neural network to simulate the relationships between geometric
parameters and MFL signals of a defect, and put forward the inversion algorithm based on the neural
network of the adaptive wavelet basis function, which could greatly restructure the defect outline
when there is any noise.
With regard to the domestic studies on the neural network of a pipeline defect,
Wang Taiyong et al. [40,41] employed the entropy spectral analysis method to characterize MFL
signals, put forward the pipe defect sizing and identification technology based on the neural network
of radial basis function, and also studied the sizing technique for the MFL inspection of oil and
gas transport pipeline defects. Jin Shijiu et al. [42,43] applied the radial basis neural network and
wavelet neural network to predict the nonlinear relationships between MFL signals and geometrical
parameters of a defect. Yang Lijian et al. [44,45] utilized the finite element analysis method to study the
relationships between MFL signals and defect parameters, and introduced the pipeline defect sizing
and identification method based on the neural network and data fusion.

3.1.3. Inspection Reliability

The three-axis high-resolution MFL inspection for the volumetric defects (corrosion and scratch)
of long-distance transport pipelines has the dimensional accuracy of ±10%, and its confidence level
exceeds 90%, so it can satisfy the regular needs of the inspection of volumetric defects in oil and gas
pipelines [8,46]. Nevertheless, three-axis high-resolution MFL inspection is not a mature technology
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 9 of 24

for the inspection and sizing of volumetric defects and crack defects in the pipeline girth weld.
Through a traction test and field test, PetroChina Pipeline Company (Langfang, China) carried out the
systematic assessment of three-axis high-resolution MFL inspection reliability [22,24]. The probability
of volumetric defect inspection for long-distance transport pipeline girth weld was higher than 93%,
while the defect depth was more than 98% within ±25% wall thickness (wt). The sizing of the depth for
girth weld defects with a 3 mm and 5 mm opening was the most accurate. The sizing of circumferential
length of defects was accurate and acceptable, but the sized length of the opening was much larger than
the actual length. Nevertheless, it failed to detect five girth weld defects at the 5◦ skewed connection,
and the depth of one girth weld defect with variable wall thickness was beyond the deviation ±20%.
Furthermore, it was impossible to separate internal and external defects of a pipeline under the
effect of weld.
In the reliability evaluation of simulated girth weld defect inspection for cracks, there were
102 defects, including seven defects to the report threshold of MFL in-line inspection and 39 defects
(accounting for 38.2%) indicated in the MFL signal. The accuracy of all defect depths was within
25% wt, but it required the defect width at least 0.25 mm. Three-axis high-resolution MFL inspection
technology could poorly detect girth weld crack defects and had poor accuracy of defect sizing, so it
had some limitations. It should be noted that varying wall thickness, skewed weld and mismatched
weld joint affect the signal identification of the girth weld defect significantly, and it is now very
difficult to differentiate the signals of girth weld defects and mismatched weld joints.
Based on the girth weld defect signal of three-axis high-resolution MFL inspection for a crude oil
pipeline (X65), the excavation examination was conducted at those 32 defects in a focused manner,
including lack of fusion/incomplete penetration at eight positions, missing cap at 10 positions and
other defects at 14 positions. The defect depth deviation was ±6%, and the confidence level was 90%.
A gas pipeline was cut for girth weld defects at 13 positions, including lack of fusion at 11 positions,
which were all detected through MFL4, but crack defects at two positions (with an opening of 0.3 mm)
were not detected. The deviation of the defect depth for lack of fusion in girth weld during MFL4
in-line inspection was ±15%. The defects with the opening width of 0.3 mm could not be detected
in MFL4.
MFL inspection has some limitations for the crack defects of girth weld, but it does not need
a coupling agent, and is able to detect the girth weld defects of gas pipelines as well as many types of
defects. Hence, it is comprehensively concluded that this technology is the first choice for baseline
screening of girth weld defects.

3.2. Ultrasonic Inspection for Oil Transport Pipeline Girth Weld Cracks
Ultrasonic crack inspection equipment can identify tiny cracks [47,48], stress corrosion cracks [49]
and fatigue cracks [50], etc. This technology has very high accuracy of inspection with regard to crack
defects, but it must rely on the coupling between liquid medium and pipe wall, so it is difficult to
apply it in the gas pipeline.

3.2.1. Inspection Principle and Signal Analysis

Crack ultrasonic inspection equipment follows the principle of ultrasonic measurement based
on pulse echo time technology. In the common ultrasonic nondestructive testing technology,
45◦ wave technique is successfully utilized to achieve the axial crack ultrasonic inspection of pipelines.
This technology employs ultrasonic sensors to transmit the ultrasonic waves into pipe wall at a specified
incident angle. When ultrasonic waves encounter any reflective characteristics (e.g., edge, crack),
some ultrasonic waves are reflected back to the original position (Figure 11). By assessing the time of
flight of the echo signal and all kinds of signal characteristics, it can predict the positions and sizes of
these characteristics. For a circumferential defect, its length can be determined based on the number of
sensors receiving the echo signal.
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 10 of 24
Sensors 2017,
Sensors 2017, 17,
17, 50
50 10 of
10 of 24
24

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Principle
Principle of
of ultrasonic
ultrasonic measurement.
measurement.
Figure 11. Principle of ultrasonic measurement.
At present,
At present, this
this technology
technology has has not
not been
been applied
applied in in the
the practical
practical girth
girth weld
weld defect
defect inspection
inspection ofof
At present,
pipelines in
pipelines in other this technology
other countries. has
countries. Through not been
Through cooperation applied
cooperation with in the
with GE practical
GE PII, girth
PII, PetroChina weld
PetroChina Pipelinedefect inspection
Pipeline Company
Company
of pipelines
(Langfang, in other
China) countries.
has carried Through
out a cooperation
series of with
studies GE
[51] PII,
and PetroChina
improved
(Langfang, China) has carried out a series of studies [51] and improved the applicability of Pipeline
the Company
applicability of
(Langfang,
equipment China)
to has carried
circumferential out a series
defects byof studies
resetting [51]
theand improved
direction of the applicability
sensors.
equipment to circumferential defects by resetting the direction of sensors. The inspection for The of equipment
inspection for
to circumferential
circumferential
circumferential defects
crack
crack by resetting
defects
defects of girththe
of girth direction
weld
weld of sensors.configuration
has aa different
has different The inspection
configuration of for
of circumferential
sensor
sensor andcrack
carrier and
carrier data
data
defects of
recognitiongirth weld
from has a different
traditional configuration
axial crack of
inspection.sensor carrier
Sensors and
can data
be
recognition from traditional axial crack inspection. Sensors can be divided into upstream and recognition
divided into from traditional
upstream and
axial crack inspection.
downstream directions.
downstream Sensors
directions. In can be
In addition, divided
addition, each
each trackinto
track isupstream
is equipped and
equipped with downstream
with two directions.
two perpendicular In addition,
perpendicular ultrasonic
ultrasonic
each track
sensors to is equipped
measure the with
wall two perpendicular
thickness and ultrasonic
identify sensors
characteristic to measure
location.
sensors to measure the wall thickness and identify characteristic location. External cracks the
External wall thickness
cracks can be
can be
and identify
identified by characteristic
half or location.
one-and-a-half External
skip cracks
reflection, can
while be identified
internal cracksby half
depend or
identified by half or one-and-a-half skip reflection, while internal cracks depend on one or two skips one-and-a-half
on one or two skip
skips
reflection,
for while internal
for identification,
identification, as shown
as showncracks depend
in Figure
in Figure 12.on one or two skips for identification, as shown in Figure 12.
12.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Principle
Principle of
of sensors
sensors in
in ultrasonic
ultrasonic inspection
inspection equipment.
equipment.

During identification,
During identification, the the girth
girth weld
weld defect
defect is
is comprehensively
comprehensively analyzed analyzed based
based on on the
the signals
signals ofof
During identification, the girth weld defect is comprehensively analyzed based on the signals of
C-scan view,
C-scan view, overlap
view, overlap view,
overlap view, and
view, and
and 3D3D view
3D view (Figure
view (Figure 13).
(Figure 13). Figure
13). Figure
Figure 13a 13a is
13a is an
is an overlap view, which represents
C-scan an overlap
overlap view, which represents
view, which represents
all recorded
all recorded readings
readings at at the
the same
same position
position and
and stands
stands forfor the
the number
number of of sensors
sensors recognizing
recognizing the the
all recorded readings at the same position and stands for the number of sensors recognizing the
characteristic. Figure
characteristic. Figure 13b 13b is
is aa CC scan
scan view,
view, representing
representing the the strength
strength of of the
the reflected
reflected signal.
signal. TheThe
characteristic. Figure 13b is a C scan view, representing the strength of the reflected signal. The higher
higher
higher the strength
the strength of the reflected
of the reflected signal,
signal, the darker
thethe
darker the color is. Figure 13c is a 3D view, in which
the strength of the reflected signal, the darker colorthe
is. color
Figure is.13c
Figure 13cview,
is a 3D is a 3D view, in
in which which
the blue
the blue
the blue area
area stands
stands for for the
the upstream
upstream edgeedge ofof the
the weld
weld detected
detected by by the
the upstream
upstream sensor
sensor (blue),
(blue), andand
area stands for the upstream edge of the weld detected by the upstream sensor (blue), and the red area
the red
the red area
area is is the
the downstream
downstream edge edge ofof the
the weld
weld detected
detected by by the
the downstream
downstream sensor sensor (red).
(red). The
is the downstream edge of the weld detected by the downstream sensor (red). The yellow area isThethe
yellow area
yellowofarea is the center
is the where of
centerupstreamthe weld,
of the weld, where upstream
where upstream and downstream
andcoincide.
downstream sensors coincide. If the
the
center the weld, and downstream sensors If the sensors
positioncoincide. If
of color (red or
position of
position of color (red(red oror blue)
blue) inin the
the signal
signal is
is different
different from
from thethe normal
normal weldweld characteristic, there there may
may
blue) in thecolor
signal is different from the normal weld characteristic, there maycharacteristic,
be some abnormalities.
be some
be some abnormalities.
abnormalities. Generally,
Generally, if if there
there is
is any abnormality
abnormality at the the same position
position in in the
the CC scan
scan view,
view,
Generally, if there is any abnormality at the any
same position inat the Csamescan view, overlap view and 3D
overlap
overlap view and 3D view, the position is recognized as the linear defect characteristic.
view, theview and is
position 3Drecognized
view, the position is recognized
as the linear as the linear defect characteristic.
defect characteristic.
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 11 of 24
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 11 of 24

(a) Overlap scan (b) C scan (c) 3D scan

Figure 13. Signal characteristic of a premade girth weld defect during ultrasonic in-line inspection.
Figure 13. Signal characteristic of a premade girth weld defect during ultrasonic in-line inspection.
(a) Overlap scan; (b) C scan; (c) 3D scan.
(a) Overlap scan; (b) C scan; (c) 3D scan.

3.2.2. Defect Sizing Method

3.2.2. Defect Sizing Method
Theoretically, the physical measurement of defect depth is conducted based on the number of
Theoretically, the physical measurement of defect depth is conducted based on the number of
sampling points. In the experiment process, the zero position of the sensor and the difference
sampling points. In the experiment process, the zero position of the sensor and the difference between
between the acoustic velocities of ultrasonic waves in the base metal and weld have a significant
the acoustic velocities of ultrasonic waves in the base metal and weld have a significant influence
influence on the accuracy of the experiment. Hence, it is necessary to calibrate the acoustic velocity
on the accuracy of the experiment. Hence, it is necessary to calibrate the acoustic velocity during
during the experiment, and determine the zero position of the sensor, which is a very complicated
the experiment, and determine the zero position of the sensor, which is a very complicated process.
process. The neural network intelligent method can simplify the experiment process, and be applied
The neural network intelligent method can simplify the experiment process, and be applied in the
in the defect sizing of long-distance transport pipelines. Masnata and co-workers [52] made 135
defect sizing of long-distance transport pipelines. Masnata and co-workers [52] made 135 artificial
artificial defects including crack and slag inclusion, and utilized the Fisher method to process the
defects including crack and slag inclusion, and utilized the Fisher method to process the parameters
parameters obtained through ultrasonic inspection. They selected 16 values of waveform, including
obtained through ultrasonic inspection. They selected 16 values of waveform, including rise time,
rise time, fall time, and continuous response as the input of the neural network, and accurately
fall time, and continuous response as the input of the neural network, and accurately realized the
realized the classification and identification of three types of defects. Reference [53] analyzed the
classification and identification of three types of defects. Reference [53] analyzed the frequency
frequency domain of echo signal, and characterized copper and aluminum to identify and study the
domain of echo signal, and characterized copper and aluminum to identify and study the category
category of these materials by means of a feed-forward artificial neural network. Zhao Jing et al. [54,55]
of these materials by means of a feed-forward artificial neural network. Zhao Jing et al. [54,55]
characterized the echo signal based on different energy values when the crack signal is contained in
characterized the echo signal based on different energy values when the crack signal is contained in the
the ultrasonic echo signal. By characterizing the entropy after wavelet packet analysis, the support
ultrasonic echo signal. By characterizing the entropy after wavelet packet analysis, the support vector
vector machine is utilized to select the suitable kernel function for automatic identification and
machine is utilized to select the suitable kernel function for automatic identification and classification
classification of corrosion cracks. Yang Zhuoran [56] particularly performed the analysis and
of corrosion cracks. Yang Zhuoran [56] particularly performed the analysis and modeling of crack
modeling of crack echo signals obtained; employed the wavelet transformation for delicate
echo signals obtained; employed the wavelet transformation for delicate processing; and created the
processing; and created the in-line inspection position model for cracks. Chen Guohua et al. [57]
in-line inspection position model for cracks. Chen Guohua et al. [57] further explored the method
further explored the method and feasibility of intelligent recognition for crack defects based on the
and feasibility of intelligent recognition for crack defects based on the wavelet extraction of ultrasonic
wavelet extraction of ultrasonic echo signal defect characteristics, the structural parameters of the
echo signal defect characteristics, the structural parameters of the neural network and the training and
neural network and the training and testing network, etc.
testing network, etc.
3.2.3. Inspection
3.2.3. Inspection Reliability
Reliability
Liquid ultrasonic
Liquid ultrasonic inspection
inspection technology
technology achieves
achieves satisfying
satisfying results
results in
in the
the inspection
inspection and
and defect
defect
sizing of
sizing of axial
axial cracks
cracks(stress
(stresscorrosion
corrosioncrack
crackand
andfatigue
fatiguecrack) inin
crack) long-distance
long-distance transport pipeline,
transport so
pipeline,
as to effectively lower the risk of an axial crack in the pipeline [9,58–60]. Nevertheless, there
so as to effectively lower the risk of an axial crack in the pipeline [9,58–60]. Nevertheless, there are are few
overseas public reports on the liquid ultrasonic inspection of a pipeline girth weld crack defect.
PetroChina Pipeline Company verified the reliability of this technology through the results of a
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 12 of 24

few overseas public reports on the liquid ultrasonic inspection of a pipeline girth weld crack defect.
PetroChina Pipeline Company verified the reliability of this technology through the results of a traction
test and actual in-line inspection, and its research achievements revealed that [51] ultrasonic in-line
inspection technology could effectively detect the crack defects inside girth weld, especially cracks on
the inner surface.
Sensors 2017, 17,The
50 detection rate of girth weld crack defects in the simulation was larger 12 of than
24 90%,
and the undetected crack defects mostly have the length of 30 mm and below and the depth of 1–2 mm.
tractionthe
Nevertheless, testsizing
and actual in-line
model forinspection, and its research
this technology had notachievements
been perfected,revealed thatdefects
so the [51] ultrasonic
could only be
in-line inspection technology could effectively detect the crack defects inside girth weld, especially
classified roughly in terms of their depth, and it was impossible to provide the specific size of defects.
cracks on the inner surface. The detection rate of girth weld crack defects in the simulation was
Defects larger
were than
only90%,classified
and theinto two categories,
undetected crack defects ≥2.5 mm
i.e.,mostly haveand <2.5 mm.
the length of 30Now,
mm and thebelow
judgment
and is not
highly accurate. For crack defects of lower depth, the judgment results are more
the depth of 1–2 mm. Nevertheless, the sizing model for this technology had not been perfected, so inaccurate. However,
the defects of higher
the defects could depth (above
only be 40 mm
classified long,
roughly 4 mmofdeep)
in terms are more
their depth, and itaccurately
was impossibleidentified.
to provide
the specific
Based size of defects.
on the results of liquid Defects were only
ultrasonic crackclassified
inspectionintofor
twoa categories,
pipeline, 42i.e.,defects
≥2.5 mm wereandselected
<2.5 mm. Now, the judgment is not highly accurate. For crack defects of lower depth, the judgment
for excavation verification [22,24]. For 18 linear defects in the ultrasonic inspection report, excavation
results are more inaccurate. However, the defects of higher depth (above 40 mm long, 4 mm deep)
verification revealed lack of fusion of the girth weld at two positions, incomplete penetration at one
are more accurately identified.
position andBasedno defect
on the at three
results ofpositions. Mostcrack
liquid ultrasonic defects identified
inspection in ultrasonic
for a pipeline, inspection
42 defects belonged to
were selected
geometrical defects, e.g.,
for excavation uneven[22,24].
verification surface,Forrepair welding,
18 linear defectsundercut, and slaginspection
in the ultrasonic inclusion, etc. For the
report,
excavation
ultrasonic in-lineverification
inspectionrevealed lack of fusion
of pipelines, of theidentification
the defect girth weld at twobased positions, incomplete
on ultrasonic waves is
penetration
significantly affectedat one
byposition and nowall
the interior defect
ofatthe
three positions.
pipe, Most defects
air bubbles identified
in motion, and in geometry
ultrasonic of the
inspection belonged to geometrical defects, e.g., uneven surface, repair welding, undercut, and slag
girth weld, which should be further studied.
inclusion, etc. For the ultrasonic in-line inspection of pipelines, the defect identification based on
ultrasonic waves is significantly affected by the interior wall of the pipe, air bubbles in motion, and
3.3. Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer Inspection of Natural Gas Pipeline Girth Weld Defects
geometry of the girth weld, which should be further studied.
EMAT technology follows the principle of electromagnetic induction eddy current to generate
3.3. Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer Inspection of Natural Gas Pipeline Girth Weld Defects
ultrasonic waves, and its converter can be kept separate from the surface of the inspected object,
and does not EMAT technology
require follows the
any coupling principleIn
medium. of addition
electromagnetic
to its induction
suitabilityeddy
forcurrent
sulfidetocorrosion
generate crack
ultrasonic waves, and its converter can be kept separate from the surface of the inspected object,
(SCC) crack detection, it will enjoy a bright future in the in-line inspection of oil and gas pipelines. and
does not require any coupling medium. In addition to its suitability for sulfide corrosion crack (SCC)
crack detection, it will enjoy a bright future in the in-line inspection of oil and gas pipelines.
3.3.1. Inspection Principle
EMAT3.3.1.inspection
Inspection Principle
technology is also known as eddy current-acoustic inspection technology, and its
inspection principle is presented
EMAT inspection in Figure
technology is also 14 [61].asWhen
known eddy the coil with high-frequency
current-acoustic current gets
inspection technology,
close toand
theits inspection
pipeline, principle is presented
high-frequency eddyincurrent
Figure 14 [61].
will beWhen the coil with
inductively high-frequency
generated on the current
surface of the
pipeline,gets close to the
resulting pipeline,
in the high-frequency
Lorentz force under eddy
thecurrent
effect ofwillthe
be magnetic
inductivelyfield.
generated
The on the surface
collision of Lorentz
of the pipeline, resulting in the Lorentz force under the effect of the magnetic field. The collision of
force against metal lattice or another microscopic process is passed to the inspected material, creating
Lorentz force against metal lattice or another microscopic process is passed to the inspected material,
a sourcecreating
of ultrasonic
a sourcewaves. The waves.
of ultrasonic ultrasonic waves reflected
The ultrasonic from the
waves reflected from defect of the
the defect pipeline
of the pipelineform the
eddy current
form theunder
eddythe effectunder
current of anthe
external magnetic
effect of an externalfield, while the
magnetic magnetic
field, while thefield generated
magnetic field by the
eddy current
generatedleads
by to
thethe
eddychange
currentofleads
voltage at change
to the both ends of theatcoil.
of voltage bothThrough analyzing
ends of the the voltage
coil. Through
analyzing
signal, the defectthe voltage
can signal, and
be located the defect can be If
classified. located and classified.
the material If the material the
is ferromagnetic, is ferromagnetic,
dynamic magnetic
the dynamic
field generated magnetic
by the field generated
alternating current hasby an
the interaction
alternating current
with the hasmagnetization
an interaction with the of the
intensity
magnetization intensity of the material under the influence of magnetostriction, which results in an
material under the influence of magnetostriction, which results in an ultrasonic coupling source.
ultrasonic coupling source.

Figure 14. The comparison of electromagnetic and piezoelectric ultrasonic testing.

Figure 14. The comparison of electromagnetic and piezoelectric ultrasonic testing.
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 13 of 24
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 13 of 24

Common
Common ultrasonic ultrasonicand and electromagnetic
electromagnetic ultrasonic
ultrasonic technologytechnology
share many share many similarities
similarities (Figure 14)
(Figure 14) except that the generation is achieved by piezoelectric
except that the generation is achieved by piezoelectric chip or electromagnetic induction. chip or electromagnetic induction.
Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic ultrasonic
ultrasonic technology
technology utilizesutilizes thethe electromagnetic
electromagnetic effect effect to
to generate
generate an an ultrasonic
ultrasonic
signal
signal in the inspected metal pipe, which does not need a coupling agent due to direct contact, so
in the inspected metal pipe, which does not need a coupling agent due to direct contact, so it
it
can directly inspect the pipeline with the settled layer or protective
can directly inspect the pipeline with the settled layer or protective layer on the surface [62]. layer on the surface [62]. However,
the electromagnetic
However, ultrasonic signal
the electromagnetic ultrasonichas lower
signalamplitude
has lower and higher sensitivity
amplitude and highertosensitivity
the noise to in the
the
surroundings [63,64].
noise in the surroundings [63,64].
TransCanada,
TransCanada, aa Canadian Canadian company,
company, started started an an attempt
attempt associated
associated withwith PIIPII to
to apply
apply the the EMAT
EMAT
technology in pipeline inspection equipment [65], and employed
technology in pipeline inspection equipment [65], and employed the EMAT sensors to generate the the EMAT sensors to generate
the shear
shear horizontal
horizontal wave wave (SH (SH wave),
wave), surface
surface wave(RH
wave (RHwave) wave)and andLambLamb wavewave forfor measurement
measurement
(Figure
(Figure 15).
15). The TheSH SHwavewaveisisa horizontal
a horizontal polarization
polarization shear shear
wave, wave,
whichwhich travels
travels insideinside
the pipethe pipe
wall
wall and can be used to detect any crack and size the crack
and can be used to detect any crack and size the crack depth. The SH wave has some special depth. The SH wave has some special
advantages.
advantages. When Whenititisisreflected
reflectedatatthe theboundary,
boundary,the thereflected
reflectedwave wavedoes doesnotnot cause
cause thethe conversion
conversion of
of waveform,
waveform, butbut contains
contains only
only thetheSH SHwave.
wave.WhenWhenititisisused usedin inmeasurement,
measurement, the the signal
signal analysis
analysis is is
simplified. The surface wave (RH wave) travels only in the inner surface
simplified. The surface wave (RH wave) travels only in the inner surface of the pipe wall and can be of the pipe wall and can be
used
used to
to identify
identify the the defects
defects of of inner
inner andand outer
outer surfaces.
surfaces. The The Lamb
Lamb wavewave transmits
transmits intointo the
the pipe
pipe wall
wall
directly, and travels circumferentially inside the pipe, so it can be used
directly, and travels circumferentially inside the pipe, so it can be used to measure the wall thicknessto measure the wall thickness of
the pipe, and distinguish cracks from no damage. Now, this technology
of the pipe, and distinguish cracks from no damage. Now, this technology has been proved to be has been proved to be effective
to detect to
effective thedetect
stressthecorrosion crack andcrack
stress corrosion longitudinal weld crack
and longitudinal weld of gas
crack pipelines [66–68]. [66–68].
of gas pipelines GE PII and GE
Rosen have developed the mature in-line inspection equipment
PII and Rosen have developed the mature in-line inspection equipment [69,70], and some Chinese [69,70], and some Chinese universities
have been engaging
universities have been inengaging
studies on in the technology
studies and equipment
on the technology of EMAT of
and equipment inspection for pipeline
EMAT inspection for
defect,
pipeline including
defect, Tianjin
including University
Tianjin[71], Shenyang[71],
University University
Shenyang of Technology
University[72,73], Beijing University
of Technology [72,73],
of Chemical
Beijing Technology
University [74] and
of Chemical Tsinghua University
Technology [74] and Tsinghua[63]. University [63].
The
The inspection
inspection of of aa girth
girth weld
weld crackcrack is is similar
similar to to that
that ofof aa longitudinal
longitudinal weld weld crack,
crack, but but it
it is
is
relatively more difficult to inspect the circumferential crack. PetroChina
relatively more difficult to inspect the circumferential crack. PetroChina Pipeline Company and PII Pipeline Company and PII
carried
carried out
outthe thefeasibility
feasibilitystudy
study onon thetheEMAT EMAT inspection
inspection technology
technology and and
equipment
equipmentfor pipeline girth
for pipeline
weld defects,
girth weld and employed
defects, and employed the axially
the axially arranged
arranged EMAT EMAT converter
converterbased
basedon the
on thecharacteristics
characteristics of
aofpipeline girth weld defect [75]. To guarantee the full circumferential
a pipeline girth weld defect [75]. To guarantee the full circumferential coverage of pipeline girth coverage of pipeline girth weld,
pairs
weld,ofpairs
EMAT converters
of EMAT are distributed
converters along the
are distributed circumference
along (Figure 16)
the circumference to solve
(Figure 16) the problem
to solve the
of potential
problem of noise
potentialcausednoisebycaused
the numberby theofnumber
collection of channels
collectionand the crosstalk
channels and thebetween
crosstalk converters.
between
Moreover,
converters.sufficient
Moreover, counts per revolution
sufficient counts permust be realized,
revolution must and a minimum
be realized, andcrack length of
a minimum the
crack
inspected
length of the object is utilized
inspected to optimize
object is utilizedthe to width
optimize of the
theEMATwidth converters.
of the EMAT converters.

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic Acoustic
Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) inline
Transducer (EMAT) inline inspection
inspection tool
tool sensor
sensor carrier
carrier and
and
sensor types.
sensor types.
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 14 of 24
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 14 of 24

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Allocation
Allocation of
of EMAT
EMATinspection
inspectionsensors
sensorsfor
forcircumferential
circumferentialdefects
defects(unit:
(unit:mm).
mm).

3.3.2. Signal
3.3.2. Signal Recognition
Recognition and
and Defect
DefectSizing
Sizing
Now, international
Now, international studies
studies on on electromagnetic
electromagnetic ultrasonic
ultrasonic signal
signal focus
focus onon the
the suitable
suitable signal
signal
processing methods, such as, wavelet conversion, to eliminate
processing methods, such as, wavelet conversion, to eliminate noise and identify the defect. noise and identify the defect. The
band-pass filter based on discrete Fourier transform can be utilized to
The band-pass filter based on discrete Fourier transform can be utilized to effectively eliminate effectively eliminate electronic
noise, but noise,
electronic this method
but thisbecomes
methodineffective when the frequency
becomes ineffective of the input
when the frequency of signal varies
the input withvaries
signal time,
and loses the information on time domain of signal peak [76]. The time
with time, and loses the information on time domain of signal peak [76]. The time frequency signal frequency signal processing
method, e.g.,
processing nonlinear
method, adaptive adaptive
e.g., nonlinear filter, has veryhas
filter, good
veryperformance
good performance to deal to with nonlinear
deal with nonlinearand
non-stationary
and non-stationary problems,
problems,but its
butstructure
its structureis complicated, and its
is complicated, andsensitivity depends
its sensitivity muchmuch
depends on initial
on
parameters [77]. The receiving signal of electromagnetic ultrasonic technology
initial parameters [77]. The receiving signal of electromagnetic ultrasonic technology can be regarded can be regarded as a
non-stationary
as a non-stationary signal due to
signal duethetooverlapping
the overlapping of noise, while while
of noise, the amplitude and phase,
the amplitude etc., among
and phase, etc.,
sine components under different frequencies are time-varying
among sine components under different frequencies are time-varying parameters. EMAT signalparameters. EMAT signal processing
means to extract
processing means to the singlethesine
extract signal
single sinefrom
signalthe fromgiven multi-component
the given multi-component inputinput
signals [78,79].
signals To
[78,79].
extract
To a non-stationary
extract a non-stationary signal, reference
signal, reference[80] [80]
proposed a nonlinear
proposed a nonlinearand adaptive time-domain
and adaptive time-domainsignal
processing method based on traditional Fourier
signal processing method based on traditional Fourier transform. transform.
Yang Han
Yang Han et et al.
al. [81]
[81] demarcated
demarcated the the EMAT
EMAT echo echo signal
signalbased
basedon onthe
thesize
sizeofofa aknown
known defect
defectto
obtain
to obtainthethe
corresponding
corresponding relationship
relationship between
between the the
echo signal
echo andand
signal sizesize
of aofcrack-like
a crack-like defect, and
defect,
utilized the suitable data analysis method to calculate the depth and length
and utilized the suitable data analysis method to calculate the depth and length of a crack, so as to of a crack, so as to realize
the sizing
realize the of the crack
sizing of thedefect. PetroChina
crack defect. Pipeline
PetroChina Company
Pipeline (Langfang,
Company China)China)
(Langfang, carried out the
carried outstudy
the
of pipeline girth weld defect inspection together with GE Oil &
study of pipeline girth weld defect inspection together with GE Oil & Gas Pipeline-inline-inspectionGas Pipeline-inline-inspection
Solutions(GE
Solutions (GEPII,PII,Newcastle,
Newcastle,UK) UK)[75][75]to toreveal
revealthatthatthe
thetime
timeof offlight
flightof ofthe
theincident
incidentwavewavecouldcouldnot not
beaasufficient
be sufficientfactor
factorforfor
thethe identification
identification of the
of the girthgirth
weldweld
notch,notch,
but the butdata
theanalysis
data analysis
based on based
signalon
signal amplitude might be conducted to detect and identify the girth
amplitude might be conducted to detect and identify the girth weld notch. The girth weld defect weld notch. The girth weld
defect inspection
inspection and sizingandbased
sizingon based
signalonamplitude
signal amplitudeshould should
be further be further
studied.studied.

3.3.3. Inspection
3.3.3. Inspection Reliability
Reliability
Based on
Based on thethe problem
problem of of girth
girth weld
weld crack
crack defect
defect inspection
inspection for for long-distance
long-distance natural
natural gasgas
transportpipelines,
transport pipelines,PetroChina
PetroChinaPipeline
Pipeline Company(Langfang,
Company(Langfang, China)
China) is cooperating
is cooperating withwith GE&Oil
GE Oil Gas &
Gas Pipeline-inline-inspection Solutions (GE PII, Newcastle, UK) to conduct
Pipeline-inline-inspection Solutions (GE PII, Newcastle, UK) to conduct the preliminary study on the preliminary study
on EMAT
the the EMAT inspection
inspection technology
technology of weld
of girth girth crack
weld defects.
crack defects. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the reliability
the reliability of EMAT of
EMAT inspection for girth weld crack defects has not been publicly reported.
inspection for girth weld crack defects has not been publicly reported. Hence, the reliability of EMATHence, the reliability
of EMAT inspection
inspection for pipeline foraxial
pipeline
cracksaxial cracks is introduced
is introduced for reference.
for reference.
TransCanada(Calgary,
TransCanada (Calgary,AB,AB,Canada)
Canada)Pipeline
Pipelinegeneralized
generalizedthethedata
dataof ofelectromagnetic
electromagneticultrasonic
ultrasonic
inspection for axial cracks and stress corrosion
inspection for axial cracks and stress corrosion cracks (SCC) cracks (SCC) in 13 pipelines from 2008 to 2011 [82].
Theresults
The resultsrevealed
revealedthatthatthe
theEMAT
EMATdetection
detectionraterate
ofof axial
axial cracks
cracks exceeded
exceeded 90%,
90%, and
and thethe success
success raterate
of
of EMAT
EMAT inspection
inspection fordepth
for the the depth of a pipeline
of a pipeline axial ranged
axial crack crack ranged 86%–100%,
86%–100%, and improved
and improved from 86% fromin
86% in 2008 to 100% in 2011. Nevertheless, the length involved in in-line inspection
2008 to 100% in 2011. Nevertheless, the length involved in in-line inspection was the total length of the was the total
length
crack of thetocrack
subject cracksubject
cluster to
or crack clustersoorit interaction,
interaction, so it was
was more difficult more difficult
to determine to determine
the length the
of the crack
length of the crack than the depth. The success rate of inspection for the length of axial SCC was
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 15 of 24

Sensors 2017, 17, 50 15 of 24

than the depth. The success rate of inspection for the length of axial SCC was 0%–33%. The length
0%–33%.
of the crack Theislength
not very of the crack is
sensitive tonot very sensitive
integrity, but furtherto integrity,
work should but further workout
be carried should be carried
to analyze and
out to analyze and improve
improve the accuracy of inspection. the accuracy of inspection.
Kinder Morgan
Kinder Morgan studied
studiedthe thereliability
reliabilityofof EMAT
EMAT inspection
inspection forfor
axial cracks
axial of pipelines
cracks [83]. [83].
of pipelines The
EMAT
The EMAT inspection hadhad
inspection the the
defect depth
defect depthmeasurement
measurement ±18%,
±18%,certainty
certaintyof 80% andand
of 80% confidence
confidence level of
level
90%. The EMAT inspection was highly accurate and increased along
of 90%. The EMAT inspection was highly accurate and increased along with defect depth, but the with defect depth, but the
inspection results
inspection resultstended
tendedtotobebe overestimated.
overestimated. Any Any
2 mm 2 mmdeepdeepand 40 and mm40 long
mm crack
long could
crack becould be
highly
highly identified, but any blunt crack with a depth of 1–2 mm could not
identified, but any blunt crack with a depth of 1–2 mm could not be highly identified. The inspection be highly identified. The
inspection
results wereresults were not
not reliable for reliable
cracks offor cracks
less than of less before
1 mm than 1 themmsurface.
before the surface.
In 2008,
In 2008, Pipeline
Pipeline Research
Research Council
Council International
International (PRCI)
(PRCI) initiated
initiated aa program
program forfor assessment
assessment of of
EMAT in-line inspection performance, and employed the technologies
EMAT in-line inspection performance, and employed the technologies including magnetic particle, including magnetic particle,
ultrasonic inspection,
ultrasonic inspection, phase-array
phase-arrayultrasonic
ultrasonicimaging
imaging andandcrack
crack interruption
interruption to compare
to compare the size of a
the size
pipeline
of defect
a pipeline fromfrom
defect EMAT in-line
EMAT inspection
in-line with with
inspection the datathe of
datafield
of excavation inspection
field excavation [84]. After
inspection [84].
comparing the EMAT and non-destructive evaluation (NDE) data of
After comparing the EMAT and non-destructive evaluation (NDE) data of the crack surface for onethe crack surface for one crack,
the crack
crack, the outline was consistent
crack outline in both
was consistent inspections,
in both and the
inspections, andmaximum
the maximum crackcrack
depth waswas
depth within the
within
deviation ±1 mm. When the actual crack depth was 2.7 mm, the size
the deviation ±1 mm. When the actual crack depth was 2.7 mm, the size from the EMAT inspectionfrom the EMAT inspection was
1.1 mm
was 1.1 mmlarger thanthan
larger thethe
actual defect
actual defectdepth,
depth, andandslightly
slightlyhigher
higherthanthanthe theaccuracy
accuracy range
range of NDE
of NDE
((−0.2
−0.2 mm–0.8
mm–0.8 mm). mm). The Thecrack
cracklength
length deviation
deviation at the
at the maximum
maximum depth depth was within
was within 10%, but10%,
thebut the
length
length in the EMAT in-line inspection report was the length of the crack cluster,
in the EMAT in-line inspection report was the length of the crack cluster, instead of the length of the instead of the length
of the deepest
deepest crack. crack.

Inspection
3.4. Electromagnetic Eddy Current Inspection
eddy current
In recent years, remote field eddy current (RFEC)
(RFEC) inspection
inspection has been an important technology
for natural gas pipeline girth weld crack defect inspection. Reference [85] reported that the accuracy
of Russell Corporation’s RFEC depth inspection for a natural gas pipelinepipeline crack
crack could
could reach
reach 5%.
Now, the
Now, theapplication
application
of of
thisthis technology
technology in natural
in natural gas pipeline
gas pipeline crack inspection
crack inspection has attention
has attracted attracted
attention
from from and
domestic domestic andpipeline
overseas overseasoperation
pipeline operation
companiescompanies and inspection
and inspection companies.companies.

3.4.1. Inspection Principle

Electromagnetic eddy current in-line inspection technology can effectively receive the magnetic
field
field that
thatpasses
passesthethetube
tubewall andand
wall returns to the
returns to inside tube by
the inside employing
tube the excitation
by employing coil or placing
the excitation coil or
aplacing
measurement coil with coil
a measurement a certain
with distance
a certainfrom the excitation
distance from the coil, so as to
excitation effectively
coil, so as to detect the interior
effectively detect
wall defect of the metal tube. The inspection principle is as shown in Figure 17 [86].
the interior wall defect of the metal tube. The inspection principle is as shown in Figure17 [86]. The The inspection coil
of RFEC is located
inspection in the “remote
coil of RFEC is locatedfield area”
in the with a field
“remote distance equivalent
area” to 2~3 times
with a distance of the tube’s
equivalent to 2~3inside
times
diameter frominside
of the tube’s the excitation
diametercoil.fromInthe
thisexcitation
area, the amplitude
coil. In thisand phase
area, of the electromagnetic
the amplitude and phase of eddy
the
current signal decrease at a very low speed, which is the same inside and outside
electromagnetic eddy current signal decrease at a very low speed, which is the same inside and the tube. The phase
delay
outside ofthe
induced electric
tube. The phase potential
delay ofisinduced
roughlyelectric
directlypotential
proportional to thedirectly
is roughly thickness of the tubetowall
proportional the
that it passes
thickness of through,
the tubeand wallit can
thatbeitcalculated approximately
passes through, and itbycan
employing the phase
be calculated formula for the
approximately by
one-dimensional skin effect for calculation [87].
employing the phase formula for the one-dimensional skin effect for calculation [87].

Figure 17.
Figure 17. Schematic
Schematic diagram of the
diagram of the electromagnetic
electromagnetic eddy
eddy current
current inspection
inspection principle.
principle.

Unlike the common eddy current testing which is the impedance plane analysis form, the
remote field eddy current (RFEC) technique reduces problems such as lift-off. As the excitation
source frequency is generally low, RFEC does not have the skin effect, and the RFEC signal is not
sensitive to the lift-off effect. With the same inspection sensitivity to crack defects on the inner and
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 16 of 24

Unlike the common eddy current testing which is the impedance plane analysis form, the remote
field eddy current (RFEC) technique reduces problems such as lift-off. As the excitation source
frequency is generally low, RFEC does not have the skin effect, and the RFEC signal is not sensitive to
the lift-off effect. With the same inspection sensitivity to crack defects on the inner and outer surfaces
of pipelines, it can effectively overcome the limitations of the common eddy current inspection method,
so it is more suitable for the inspection of natural gas pipeline surface cracks. JENTEK Sensors Inc.,
a U.S. company, has developed the electromagnetic eddy current technology with a magnetic winding
meter (MWM) array to improve the identification of imperfections sensitive to lift-off value, which has
been proved to be suitable for the identification and sizing of axial cracks in oil and gas pipeline. In the
stress corrosion crack inspection, the technology has been verified to excel other inspection methods in
the possibility of detection (POD), lift-off value modification and speed modification, etc. [88]. RFEC
inspection has the same sensitivity to the defects in the interior and exterior walls of pipeline, but it
is still a technical problem to distinguish these defects [89]. Yang Lijian et al. [90,91] in Shenyang
University of Technology designed and optimized the RFEC inspection system based on simulation
analysis, and distinguished the defects in the interior and exterior walls of pipeline based on the
amplitude of the output voltage signal.
The RFEC technology with the traditional sine excitation also has some limitations, such as,
weak signal, slow speed and low rate, and the sine excitation signal causes very high power
consumption at sensors [92,93]. Based on the problems in the traditional RFEC technology, pulsed
RFEC technology has been developed recently, which allows one to place the inspection coil in
the transitional area closer to the excitation coil. In this new technology, the detection signal is
the superimposition of the pulsed magnetic field component and the eddy current magnetic field
component, which can realize the effect of the far-field eddy current detection, and the detection
signal amplitude increases, which is advantageous for the signal characteristic extraction. Shenyang
University of Technology [94] and National University of Defense Technology [95] have carried out
some studies on the pulsed RFEC inspection equipment, but RFEC inspection is mainly applied in the
inspection of pipeline axial cracks at present.

3.4.2. Defect Sizing Method

Electromagnetic RFEC inspection is carried out to detect imperfections based on the signal phase
difference rather than signal amplitude, and the phase difference between signals has an approximate
linear relationship with defect depth [96]. Wu Dehui et al. [97,98] carried out the systematic finite
element simulation for the magnetic field of the RFEC defect in pipeline, and concluded that there was
an exponential relationship between defect depth and phase of inspection signal, and a logarithmic
relationship between defect width and phase of inspection signal. Liu Chunyan [99] performed
the simulation analysis on the RFEC inspection of axial and circumferential cracks and pitting
defects, employed the phase difference and amplitude variation curve to represent the symmetrical
defects in the voltage planar polar diagram, and provided the basis for defect shape restructuring.
Zhang Wei et al. [100] put forward a waveform approximation technique based on minimization
criterion of mean-square error to characterize the waveform of the inspection signal at high accuracy.
By building a nonlinear polynomial inversion model, a Back-Propagation (BP) Neural Network
inversion model based on one-dimensional search and optimization, and a support vector machine
inversion model based on particle swarm search and optimization, they realized the quantification
inversion from the waveform characteristics of inspection signal to the size of crack defect. The relative
deviation of calculation with the inversion model was lower than 5%, and the model had a strong
ability of interference resistance, so it was a powerful tool for quantification inversion of the crack
defect. Liu Hongqing [101] conducted the systematic finite element simulation for the pipeline RFEC
defect magnetic field, and utilized a three-dimensional model to simulate the dent and crack defects
that were not axially symmetric, so as to obtain three signal characteristics of dent crack and axial
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 17 of 24

crack defect in different directions. Also, Liu analyzed how the signal characteristics of an axial defect
related to its circumferential width, axial length and radial depth.
For defect sizing in pulsed RFEC inspection, Yang Binfeng et al. [102,103] and Yang Lijian et al. [104]
analyzed the RFEC inspection mechanism under pulse excitation, and took the zero-crossing time in the
inspection signal as the characteristic value of defect sizing. The experiment was conducted to verify
the quantitative assessment of length and depth for axial crack defects in the pipeline with the RFEC
technology under pulse excitation, and effectively distinguish the defects in the full circumference
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 17 of 24
inside and outside the pipe wall.
RFEC inspection technology can detect the defects on the surface of natural gas pipelines without
RFEC technology under pulse excitation, and effectively distinguish the defects in the full
beingcircumference
significantlyinside affected
and by lift-off
outside theand
pipeeccentricity,
wall. etc. Nevertheless, the RFEC inspection signal
is weak andRFEC slow, so its overall
inspection inspection
technology efficiency
can detect is very
the defects on low. For this
the surface of reason,
natural RFEC technology
gas pipelines
should be further
without beingstudied in the affected
significantly future. by lift-off and eccentricity, etc. Nevertheless, the RFEC
inspection signal is weak and slow, so its overall inspection efficiency is very low. For this reason,
4. New Technologies
RFEC for Pipeline
technology should Defect
be further In-Line
studied Inspection
in the future.
To improve the accuracy of pipeline defect inspection, domestic and overseas science and
4. New Technologies for Pipeline Defect In-Line Inspection
technology personnel are constantly exploring the new pipeline defect inspection methods, including
Pulse echoTo(PE)/TOFD
improve thecomposite
accuracy of pipeline defect
inspection inspection,
technology, domestic and
laser ultrasonic, overseas science and
magnetostriction, and other
technology personnel are constantly exploring the new pipeline defect inspection methods, including
contactless inspection technologies, which have great potential of application in the long-distance
Pulse echo (PE)/TOFD composite inspection technology, laser ultrasonic, magnetostriction, and
transport pipeline girth weld defect inspection. Hence, these technologies are briefly described in the
other contactless inspection technologies, which have great potential of application in the
following sections.
long-distance transport pipeline girth weld defect inspection. Hence, these technologies are briefly
described in the following sections.
4.1. Composite Ultrasonic Inspection
4.1. Composite
Statoil [105] Ultrasonic Inspection
has developed a new composite ultrasonic inspection technology to detect the
girth weld crack
Statoil defects
[105] of submarine
has developed pipeline, ultrasonic
a new composite i.e., pulse-echo
inspection(PE)/TOFD
technologycomposite
to detect theinspection.
girth
weld crack defects
This technology consistsofofsubmarine pipeline, i.e.,
a TOFD inspection unitpulse-echo (PE)/TOFDunit
and a PE inspection composite
(Figureinspection.
18), whichThiscombine
technology
the rapid detectionconsists
of PEofinspection
a TOFD inspection
with the unit
crackand a PEsizing
defect inspection unit (Figure18),
of TOFD. For the crack which combine
defect, the depth
the rapid
inspection detectionisof1 PE
accuracy mm,inspection with the length
the minimum crack defect
of a sizing
crack of is TOFD.
10 mmFor the the
and crack defect, the
detection rate is
depth inspection accuracy is 1mm, the minimum length of a crack is 10 mm and the detection rate is
90%, which satisfy the expectations of industrial application. TOHO, a Japanese company [106] and
90%, which satisfy the expectations of industrial application. TOHO, a Japanese company [106] and
Tianjin University [107] have taken the composite aperture focusing ultrasonic imaging technique as
Tianjin University [107] have taken the composite aperture focusing ultrasonic imaging technique as
an ultrasonic processing method, and employed the point-by-point focusing method to achieve no
an ultrasonic processing method, and employed the point-by-point focusing method to achieve no
variation of image
variation of image resolution with
resolution location
with locationand
anddepth.
depth.When
When the samearray
the same arrayelement
elementsensor
sensor carrier of
carrier
converter is employed,
of converter the composite
is employed, aperture
the composite focusing
aperture method
focusing is utilized
method to obtain
is utilized thethe
to obtain rebuilt images
rebuilt
with images
higherwithresolution, so as tosoprovide
higher resolution, a more
as to provide reliable
a more basis
reliable basisfor
for the characterization
the characterization andand sizing
sizing of of
a defect.
a defect.

Figure 18. Setup of the 10° tethered inspection tool (top). (Lower left) TOFD scanner; (Lower right)
Figure 18. Setup of the 10◦ tethered inspection tool (top). (Lower left) TOFD scanner; (Lower right)
Sensor carrier for pulse-echo inspection.
Sensor carrier for pulse-echo inspection.
4.2. Laser Ultrasonic Inspection
Laser ultrasonic inspection is a new technology, popular in recent years. Ultrasonic waves are
generated on the surface of the inspected work piece by pulsed laser beam irradiation. After
changing the experimental parameters, the laser ultrasonic source can induce many kinds of guided
waves, including longitudinal wave, lateral wave and surface wave. The ultrasonic signal can be
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 18 of 24

4.2. Laser Ultrasonic Inspection

Laser ultrasonic inspection is a new technology, popular in recent years. Ultrasonic waves are
generated on the surface of the inspected work piece by pulsed laser beam irradiation. After changing
the experimental parameters, the laser ultrasonic source can induce many kinds of guided waves,
including longitudinal wave, lateral wave and surface wave. The ultrasonic signal can be generated
by laser excitation and detected by the optical method, so it can realize completely contactless
inspection and quick scan imaging, and facilitate the realization of nondestructive testing under
adverse conditions, e.g., high temperature and strong vibration [108]. Additionally, a mode-locking
laser can be utilized to more easily obtain the ultrasonic pulse with the width similar to laser pulse,
and its frequency band is much wider than the ultrasonic wave generated by a common converter.
Hence, the defect inspection technology based on ultrasonic diffraction is very sensitive to the tiny
cracks on the surface and near the surface of the inspected work piece, and has higher inspection
accuracy than other nondestructive testing techniques [109]. APPLUS RTD has utilized the one-time
laser ultrasonic inspection technique in the TOFD technology to measure the depth of SCC reliably
and accurately. Moreover, this technology is also suitable for measuring the depth of other cracks,
e.g., crack abnormalities [110]. Intelligent Optical Systems has successfully applied this technology in
the inspection of pipeline girth weld detects [111].

4.3. Magnetostriction Inspection

Magnetostriction is an innate feature of ferromagnetic materials. The magnetostriction effect and
its reverse effect can be utilized to generate and receive the ultrasonic guided waves inside ferromagnet.
A magnetostriction sensor can be utilized to detect the crack, corrosion and other defects of wire rope,
metal rod, pipe and plate [112,113]. Even if the air gap between the inspection probe and inspected pipe
surface is relatively large, the magnetostriction sensor can also transmit and detect the guided waves,
and themagnetostriction effect is very strong at the end of a crack. Thanks to the good characteristics of
transmission and the same inspection sensitivity to defects on the inner and outer surfaces of pipeline,
more and more nondestructive testing scholars at home and abroad have paid attention to the study
on the application of magnetostriction in the quick inspection and crack identification of pipelines in
recent years.

5. Conclusions and Prospects

This paper analyzes the characteristics of long-distance transport pipeline girth weld defects,
and summarizes the inspection principle, defect signal identification, defect sizing method and
inspection reliability of existing girth weld defect in-line inspection technologies systematically, as well
as the new technology of pipe defect in-line inspection. It is comprehensively concluded that:

1. Three-axis high-resolution MFL inspection technology can identify a lot of long-distance transport
pipeline girth weld defects. It is highly adaptive and able to effectively detect the volumetric
defects, but the accuracy of defect sizing is not high.
2. Neither three-axis high-resolution MFL inspection nor liquid ultrasonic inspection can effectively
detect the closed crack defect of long-distance transport pipeline girth weld, except the defects
with a large opening (about >0.5 mm).
3. The future development will focus on improving the existing electromagnetic ultrasonic crack
inspection and RFEC inspection, developing and applying new crack inspection technology and
realizing the effective inspection of girth weld crack defects.
4. Due to the complexity of the on-line inspection condition and the principle of detection
technologyfor long-distance transport pipeline girth weld, it is very difficult to detect and
quantify the girth weld defects. The irregular outline of girth weld, surface condition of pipeline
and other factors have inevitable influence on the inspection and sizing of girth weld defects,
Sensors 2017, 17, 50 19 of 24

and attention should be paid to the actual pipeline inspection factors during inspection data
analysis and sizing.
5. At present, the finite element method and the neural network method are used to quantify the
defects of girth welds, but the accuracy is far from satisfying the requirements. The type and
sizing of defects need to be studied systematically.
6. In order to improve the accuracy of pipeline defect inspection, the new technologies for contactless
inspection have been applied in the in-line inspection of pipeline defects, including composite
inspection, laser ultrasonic and magnetostriction.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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