Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263

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Electrical Power and Energy Systems

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijepes

Unsymmetrical fault diagnosis in transmission/distribution networks

S. Saha a,⇑, M. Aldeen a, C.P. Tan b
a
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Australia
b
School of Engineering, Monash University, Sunway Campus, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, we design a model-based fault diagnosis scheme capable of real time detection of symmet-
Received 7 January 2012 rical and unsymmetrical faults in the transmission/distribution network of a sample power system com-
Received in revised form 30 August 2012 prising a single-machine connected to an infinite bus-bar. A generic state space linear model of the
Accepted 6 September 2012
system is first derived, and then a fault diagnosis scheme is designed, based on sliding mode observer
Available online 17 October 2012
(SMO) theory. Accuracy and real-time fault detection capabilities of the proposed fault diagnosis scheme
are illustrated through simulation studies.
Keywords:
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Symmetrical and unsymmetrical fault
Fault diagnosis
Model based fault detection
Sliding mode observer

1. Introduction
Power systems are large-scale systems consisting of generating
units interlinked by transmission and distribution networks.
Faults, mostly unsymmetrical, occur frequently in the lines of these
networks. Such faults can cause significant disruption of power
supply and may destabilise an entire system if not detected and
isolated in near real-time. Real-time detection of faults is necessary
to allow for the protection system to isolate the faulty line(s)
before major stability problems arise and disruptions to the power
supply occur. Thus detection of faults is of a paramount impor-
tance from economic and operational view points.
Power system transmission/distribution networks extend over
large geographical areas to ensure power supply to distant loca-
tions. They experience frequent short circuit faults due to light-
ning, bush fire, physical damage to structure of towers carrying
the transmission lines, external object coming in contact with
the lines, insulation damage, etc. Statistics show [1] that almost
fifty percent of power system faults occur in the transmission
and distribution networks. Short circuit faults in these networks
result in heavy currents being drawn by the faulty lines, which
may cause significant damage to the lines and to other components
connected to them. For this reason fast and accurate fault detection
and identification of such faults have received a lot of attention
from the research community over the past 3 decades. A summary
of the main reported approaches is given below.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: s.saha@student.unimelb.edu.au (S. Saha), aldeen@unimelb.
eu.au (M. Aldeen), tan.chee.pin@monash.edu (C.P. Tan).
Traditional Relay based methods use the changes in voltage and
current (magnitudes and phase angles), active and reactive powers,
system frequency, etc. to detect the occurrence of a fault [2].
Among the different kinds of relays the most commonly used
one for transmission/distribution line fault analysis is the imped-
ance relay. The relay has an imbedded algorithm to extract the
fundamental frequencies of measured voltage and current, from
which it determines the apparent impedance seen from its end.
This is then compared with a preset threshold in order to deter-
mine whether or not a fault has occurred. The main shortcomings
of such an approach are: (i) in severe faults such as those involving
short circuit of lines to ground, the calculation of fundamental fre-
quency component of the voltage and current signals may be unre-
liable, which may lead to incorrect fault diagnosis, (ii) delays in
response time may cause stability problems, especially rotor
stability. In extreme cases (severe short circuit faults near major
generation centres) delays may lead to blackouts, and (iii) accuracy
is usually below the desired 99% plus limit.
Knowledge based fault detection [3–16] utilises prior knowledge
of the system quantities (voltages and currents and waveforms)
under different fault and system operating conditions. This knowl-
edge is then used to train a learning system to identify abnormal
conditions and classify them. Methods such as Artificial Neural Net-
work [8,9,11–16], Fuzzy theory [6], Fuzzy Neural Network [5], and
Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems [9], have widely been used
for fault analysis in power systems. The above referenced
approaches however suffer from the following limitations: (i) the
dynamics of the excitation and speed governing systems are lar-
gely ignored. As these are integral parts of any generating unit of
power systems they have significant impact on the shape and
magnitude of three phase voltages and currents under fault

0142-0615/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2012.09.005
 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263
Nomenclature
ð1Þ ð1Þ
wd ; wq d and q axis flux linkages corresponding to positive se-
quence stator component
ð1Þ
id ; ið1Þ
q d and q axis stator currents corresponding to positive
sequence stator component
v ð1Þ
d
ð1Þ
; vq d and q axis stator terminal voltage corresponding to
positive sequence stator component
ð1Þ
wf field winding flux linkage corresponding to positive se-
quence stator component
ð1Þ ð1Þ
wD ; wG ; wQ
ð1Þ
damper winding flux linkages corresponding to
positive sequence stator component
ð1Þ
if field winding flux current corresponding to positive se-
quence stator component
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
iD ; iG ; iQ damper winding current linkages corresponding to
positive sequence stator component
r per unit resistance of the stator winding
rf per unit resistance of the field winding
rD, rQ, rG per unit resistances of the damper windings
ð2Þ
iDN negative sequence component of the stator current in DN
axis of DN  QN co-ordinate
ð2Þ
iQN negative sequence component of the stator current in QN
axis of DN  QN co-ordinate
v ð2Þ
DN negative sequence component of the stator voltage in DN
axis of DN  QN co-ordinate
conditions, (ii) synchronous machine models used in the above ref-
erenced approaches are simplified lower order models which do
not describe the complete dynamics of the system and thus accu-
racy is an issue, and (iii) the above approaches require a large
amount of sampled signals (voltages/currents or both) after the
occurrence of the fault. This may cause large delays due to the time
required to acquire the signals plus the time required to process
them. Such time delays may render such approaches unsuitable
for real-time application.
Model Based fault detection approaches have been applied to a
variety of engineering systems over the last a few of decades
[17–27] because of their online fault detection capability. These
approaches are based on the generation of a residual signals (using
observer theory) that reflect the difference between the actual and
estimated values of the output as an indicator of fault occurrence.
Such approaches require comprehensive fault dependent state
space models of the system under study [28]. Even though model
based fault detection approaches have been successfully imple-
mented in aerospace industry [26,27], chemical industry [24] for
on line fault detection, a very few model based fault detection ap-
proaches have been reported in the open literature that adequately
deal with the problem of unsymmetrical fault detection in power
system transmission/distribution lines; note that the model based
power system fault detection approaches reported in [17–21] deal
only with symmetrical faults. The main reason behind the absence
of progress in this area of application may be attributed to the lack
of development of fault dependent state space models suitable for
use in existing model-based fault detection design theory.
In this paper we first derive a linear dynamical fault-dependent
model of the power system incorporating any type of symmetrical
and unsymmetrical faults in the transmission/distribution net-
work. The derived model is capable of capturing the full dynamics
of the system over all time scales and thus is suitable for fault stud-
ies of any kind, we focus in this paper on the most sever types of
faults that can be experienced in any power transmission/distribu-
tion network, which are short circuit faults. These faults present a
challenge because of the time scale involved; they need to be
detected and acted upon within 2–3 cycles, or around 40–60 ms
253
v ð2Þ
QN negative sequence component of the stator voltage in QN
axis of DN  QN co-ordinate
DN  QN co-ordinate rotates in negative sequence direction at
synchronous speed
R(2), L(2) resistance and inductance of negative sequence stator
circuit
ð0Þ
IR zero sequence component of the stator current in real
axis of zero sequence component
ð0Þ
II zero sequence component of the stator current in imag-
inary axis of zero sequence component
ð0Þ
VR zero sequence component of the stator voltage in real
axis of zero sequence component
ð0Þ
VI zero sequence component of the stator voltage in imag-
inary axis of zero sequence component
R(0), L(0) resistance and inductance of zero sequence stator cir-
cuit
d; d_ load angle and speed deviation respectively
Pm mechanical power input to the synchronous machine
0 initial value of any variable 
Subscript R and I represents real and imaginary components
after the occurrence of the fault. These types of faults are in con-
trast to mechanical faults such as fatigues, for example, which take
a long time, possibly days or months, to evolve. We then design a
fault detection scheme based around the theory of robust sliding
mode observer (SMO). It is well known that SMO allows for mod-
elling as well parametric uncertainties, which power systems are
routinely subject to, and thus provides a more practical design out-
come than other methods. We formulate the fault detection prob-
lem as an LMI optimisation problem, the solution to which
provides the necessary information to construct the fault signal
on line and in real time.
The rest of the paper is organised as follows. In Section 2 we will
present linear fault dependent state space model of the example
Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) power system, where the fault
signals appear affinely in the state equation, which is the main
requirement for the design of model based fault detectors. Then
in Section 3 we provide an overview of sliding mode observer
(SMO) theory to be followed by the design of a SMO based fault
detection scheme in Section 4. Validation of online fault detection
ability of the designed fault detector is presented through compre-
hensive simulation studies of different fault scenarios in Section 5.
Finally we conclude the paper in Section 6.
2. State space model of power system
In this section we present for the first time a comprehensive
fault (symmetrical and unsymmetrical)-dependent state space
model for the SMIB power system depicted in Fig. 1. The model
Infinite Bus
Transmission Line 1
GU
Transmission Line 2
η
Fault
Fig. 1. Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) power system.
254 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263

is unique, comprehensive and accurate which describes the SMIB Combining Eqs. (4) and (7) the final output equation is now ex-
power system behaviour under normal and any symmetrical and pressed as
unsymmetrical fault conditions. The accuracy is manifested in
y ¼ C x x þ C i Linv erse x þ Ey f ¼ ðC x þ C i Linv erse Þx þ Ey f ¼ Cx þ Ey f ð8Þ
the inclusion of rotor and stator dynamics in full before, during
and after the fault (symmetrical and unsymmetrical). Literature State space model derived above (Eqs. (6) and (8)) will be used to
search will show that such a state space model has not been re- design a sliding mode observer based fault detector. A brief over-
ported in the open literature before. view of sliding mode observer theory is presented in the following
Referring to Appendix A and combining the generating unit’s section.
linear dynamic equations (A.1)–(A.11), (A.15) and (A.16) with the
generic fault dependent network equations (A.17)–(A.23), a linear
fault dependent state equation for the SMIB power system can be 3. Sliding mode observer theory
expressed as follows
An observer is a mathematical model of any system capable of
x_ ¼ Ax x þ Ai I þ Bu þ Ex f ð1Þ estimating the states of that system, which are usually not avail-
where x is the state vector, u is the reference input vector, I is the able in real systems due to inaccessibility or infeasibility. In tradi-
current vector and f is the fault vector, defined as follows tional Luenberger observers [29], the difference between the actual
system output and the observer output (termed as the output esti-
x ¼ ½xw xd xex xgov xnegseq xzeroseq T mation error) is linearly fed back into the observer so that it can
h i
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ _ xex ¼ ½V R V A EFD V F ; adjust the output to follow that of the actual system. In sliding
xw ¼ wd wf wD wqð1Þ wG wQ ; xd ½d d;
h i h i mode observers, the output estimation error is fed back through
ð2Þ ð2Þ ð0Þ ð0Þ
xgov ¼ ½Pm P GV PSR ; xnegseq ¼ iDN iQ N ; xzeroseq ¼ IR II ; a nonlinear discontinuous term. Different sliding mode observer
h iT may be found in the literature, such as Utkin observer [30],
I ¼ id if iD iq iG iQ 0113 ; u ¼ ½V ref P ref T ; f ¼ ½fSLG f LLG f 3P T
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
Walcott–Zak observer [31] and Edwards–Spurgeon observer [32].
A brief overview of the Edwards et al. observer based fault recon-
The elements of matrices Ax 2 R1919 ; Ai 2 R1919 ; B 2 R192 and struction [33] approach is given in the following, and will be used
Ex 2 R193 are given in Appendix B. in this paper for fault detection.
Let the output variables be defined as Consider a dynamic system:

y ¼ ½d d_ T a jV a j jV b j jV c jT ð2Þ _
xðtÞ ¼ AxðtÞ þ BuðtÞ þ Ef ðtÞ
ð9Þ
where d represents the load angle, d_ is the speed deviation (both (d yðtÞ ¼ CxðtÞ
_ are state variables), Ta is the accelerating torque, jVaj, jVbj, jVcj
and dÞ where A 2 Rnn ; B 2 Rnm ; C 2 Rpn ; E 2 Rnq ; f 2 Rq ; p P q and pair
are the magnitudes of generating unit terminal phase voltages. The ðA; CÞ is assumed to be observable. f 2 Rq is the fault signal. Assume,
expressions for Ta and jVaj, jVbj, jVcj are given in Appendix C. without loss of generality, that the matrices C and E are full rank
From flux-current relationship we can write and the fault function f 2 Rq is unknown but bounded so that
h iT h iT
ð1Þ
id if
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
iD iq iG iQ
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
¼ L1 wd wf wD wqð1Þ wG wQ
ð1Þ
ð3Þ kf k 6 kaðt; y; uÞk ð10Þ
a(t, y, u) is a known function or a constant.
where
2 3
Ld Lad Lad 0 0 0 Theorem 1 [32]. If the following conditions are satisfied
6 L Lf Lad 0 0 0 7
6 ad 7
6 7 (i) rankðCEÞ ¼ rankðEÞ ¼ q; and
6 Lad Lad LD 0 0 0 7
L¼6
6 0
7 (ii) the zeros of ðA; E; CÞ (if any) are stable,then for the state-space
6 0 0 Lq Laq Laq 7
7 model described by (9) there exists a change of coordinates such
6 7
4 0 0 0 Laq LG Laq 5 that the triple ðA; E; CÞ can be re-written as:
0 0 0 Laq Laq LQ    
A11 A12 0
Thus the current vector I may be written as a function of states x as A¼ ; E¼ ; C ¼ ½0 T;
A21 A22 M2
follows   ð11Þ
0
I ¼ Linv erse x ð4Þ M2 ¼
Mo
where for the SMIB power systems
where A11 2 R , matrix T 2 Rpp is orthogonal, M2 2 Rpq ,
ðnpÞðnpÞ
" # qq
½L1 66 ½0613 and M o 2 R is invertible. Any unobservable modes of (A11, A21)
Linv erse ¼ ð5Þ are the invariant zeros of ðA; E; CÞ and are stable. Full proof is given
½0136 ½01313 1919 in [32].
By combining Eqs. (1) and (4) the final state equation is written as
A sliding mode observer [32] for the system (9) that is able to
x_ ¼ Ax x þ Ai Linv erse x þ Bu þ Ex f ¼ ðAx þ Ai Linv erse Þx þ Bu þ Ex f
reconstruct the fault f has been shown to have the following
¼ Ax þ Bu þ Ex f ð6Þ structure

where A = (Ax + AiLinverse) ^x_ ¼ A^x þ Bu  Gl ey þ Gn m

Based on the definition of output variables given in (2), the out- ð12Þ
put equation of the SMIB system may now be written as
^ ¼ C ^x
y

y ¼ C x x þ C i I þ Ey f ð7Þ ^  y and m is a nonlinear switching term defined by

where ey ¼ y
ey
The elements of matrices, C x 2 R619 ; C i 2 R619 and Ey 2 R63 are gi- m ¼ q ; ey – 0; q 2 Rþ ð13Þ
key k
ven in Appendix D.
 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263 255

It has been proven in [32] that a sliding motion will take place in ey
meq ¼ q ð22Þ
finite time on the surface Se ¼ fey ¼ e_ y ¼ 0g if the following condi- key k þ n
tions hold:
and n is a small positive scalar that governs the degree of accuracy
Condition (i): there exists a matrix P with the structure of meq [33]. Note that once sliding motion is achieved and main-
tained fe ? f as shown in [33].
 
P11 P11 L
P¼ >0 ð14Þ
LT P 11 T T Po T þ LT P11 L 4. Design of fault detector

where In this section, we design a fault detector for the SMIB power
system developed in Section 2 using SMO theory overviewed in
P11 2 RðnpÞðnpÞ ; L ¼ ½Lo 0; Lo 2 RðnpÞðpqÞ Section 3 and power system data given in Appendix F.
Using the system data in the state and output equation will
that satisfies the following inequality show that the fault distribution matrix Ey in the output Eq. (8)
has full column rank q = 3. Thus there exists an orthogonal matrix
PðA  Gl CÞ þ ðA  Gl CÞT P < 0 ð15Þ T r 2 R66 such that
Condition (ii): The scalar q in the switching function m satisfies      
0 y1 C1
the following inequality T r Ey ¼ ; Try ¼ ; TrC ¼ ð23Þ
Ey2 y2 C2
q > kPo TM2 k  kf k ð16Þ
where Ey2 is a square and invertible matrix, and C1 and C2 are gen-
Based on the above development, the parameters that need to be eral matrices with no particular structure. For this system the trans-
designed to achieve fault detection are the positive scalar q, gain formation matrix has been found to be
Gl and Gn (see Eqs. (12) and (13)). In [34] the gain matrix Gn is
2 3
shown to have the following structure 0:5773 0:4235 0:6981 0 0 0
" # 6 0:5773 0:3929 0:7158
6 0 0 0 7
7
LT T 6 7
Gn ¼ P1
o ð17Þ 6 0:5774 0:8163 0:0177
6
0 0 0 7
7
TT Tr ¼ 6 ð24Þ
6 0 0 0 0:0177 0:7158 0:6981 7
7
6 7
4 0 0 0 0:8163 0:3929 0:4235 5
Now a statement of the design process [34] is given as follows
0 0 0 0:5774 0:5773 0:5773
Minimise trace(X) subject to the following inequalities: Pre-multiplying (8) with T r and partitioning conformably with (23)
yields
1
PA þ AT P  C T V C þ PWP < 0 ð18Þ
  y1 ¼ C 1 x ð25Þ
P In
<0 ð19Þ y2 ¼ C 2 x þ Ey2 f ð26Þ
In X
As shown in Eq. (8) the fault signal appears in the output equation
  of the SMIB power system, therefore the SMO-based fault detector
P11 P 12
where P ¼ ; P 12 ¼ ½P 121 0; P 121 2 RðnpÞðpqÞ . The matrices in Section 3 cannot be applied directly to it. To overcome this minor
PT12 P 22
P11, P121, P22, X are variables to be solved, and they are all symmetric problem, we define a stable output filter driven by y2 as follows
except for P121. This set of matrix inequalities can be solved using y_ f ¼ Af yf þ Af y2 ¼ Af yf þ Af C 2 x þ Af Ey2 f ð27Þ
standard commercially available software such as the Robust Con-
trol toolbox in Matlab. Let for simplicity be chosen to be Af = Iq, where Iq is an identity ma-
After solutions for P11, P121, P22, X are obtained, the following are trix with dimension q = 3. Then by combining Eqs. (6), (8), (25) and
calculated (27) the following augmented state space system of order
 ¼ n þ q ¼ 19 þ 3 ¼ 22 is obtained.
n
Lo ¼ P1
11 P 121    " #    
1 T 1 x_ A 0 x B Ex
Gl ¼ P C V ð20Þ ¼ þ uþ f
  y_ f Af C 2 Af yf 0 Af Ey2
Po ¼ T P22  PT12 P1 T |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflfflfflffl
ffl {zfflfflfflffl
ffl }
11 P 12 T
x_ x
A Ex
" #  " # ð28Þ
Consequently Gn is be calculated as shown in (17). y1 C1 0 x
¼
The matrices W and V are designer chosen weighting matrices yf 0 Iq yf
|fflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflffl}
and are symmetric positive definite. They are used to systemati- z
C
x

cally tune the ‘magnitude’ of Gl and L0 (in general if the elements

of W have larger values relative to those of V then the elements As shown in Eq. (28) the augmented output equation does not any
 
of Gl and L0 will be larger too, and vice versa). For full rationale be- y
longer include the fault signal. In addition, the output z :¼ 1 is
hind the design method, refer to [34].   yf
y1
When sliding motion has been achieved (i.e. when ey ¼ e_ y ¼ 0), measurable since T r y ¼ and yf is output of the filter driven
y2
the fault signal may be reconstructed from
by y2. For the augmented system it can be shown that the pair
h i ðA; CÞ is observable, rankðCEx Þ ¼ rankðEx Þ ¼ ðq ¼ 3Þ and ðA; Ex ; CÞ
T
fe :¼ 0 M 1
o T P1
o eqm ð21Þ does not have any unstable transmission zeros. Therefore a sliding
mode observer based fault detector can be designed for the system
where meq is a version of m required to achieve and maintain sliding (28) to reconstruct the fault as described in Section 3.
motion. It is computable online from Using the weighting matrices
256 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263
2 3
0:08I16 0163 0163
6 7
W ¼ 4 0316 0:08I3 033 5; V ¼ 0:2I6
0316 033 0:08I3
the gains ðGn 2 Rnq¼226 ; Gl 2 Rnq¼226 Þ are calculated as shown in
Appendix F. In the design process, the scalar parameters q and n
associated with the nonlinear switching term are chosen as 900
and 0.01 respectively.
5. Simulation and case study
Now we investigate the performance of the SMO based fault
detector designed in Section 4. We consider the following chain
of events: (i) from time t = 0  10 s the SMIB system runs unper-
turbed, (ii) at t = 10 s the reference of the excitation system (Vref)
is increased by 5% of its nominal value, (iii) the governor system
reference (Pref) is increased by 5% of its nominal value at time
t = 25 s, (iv) the SMIB system experiences SLG fault in phase a of
the transmission line 2 at time t = 50 s at a location half way along
the transmission line, (v) fault is cleared at time t = 70 s, (vi) once
the fault is cleared the SMIB system remains unperturbed till time
t = 100 s, (vii) at time t = 100 s the SMIB system experiences LLG
fault in phase b, phase c and ground of the transmission line 2 at
a location half way along the transmission line, (viii) fault is
cleared at time t = 130 s.
Initially the SMIB system is running in unperturbed condition
and hence the initial states of the linear SMIB system are zeros.
The initial conditions of the sliding mode observer are chosen arbi-
trarily as follows (the governor and exciter systems are assumed to
remain in equilibrium):
^0 ¼ ½:01 :02 :03 :05 :02 :01 :002 :001 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0T
x Responses t = 25  50 s: Following the 5% step increase in gover-
The estimated system outputs (dotted lines) superimposed on the
actual system output (solid lines) are shown in Figs. 2–7. Estimation
of the fault signals (solid lines) and the actual fault signals (dotted
lines) are shown in Fig. 8 superimposed on each other.
As shown in Figs. 2–7 during time period t = 0  10 s the system
remains unperturbed (in equilibrium). Since initially the observer
states are different from the actual system a small mismatch (see
insets) exists between actual and estimated outputs. Once the ob-
server states converge to the actual system states the estimated
outputs as well as the fault signal converge to their true values.
Responses t = 0  10 s: It may be noticed from Eq. (8) and the
structure of output distribution matrix Ey (Appendix D) that the
expressions of output quantities load angle d, speed deviation d_
0.05
Actual Output
0 Estimated Output using SMO
-0.05
Load Angle
-0.1
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
-0.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (Sec)
Fig. 2. Load angle (d) response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).
and accelerating torque Ta do not contain the fault signals. Thus
output estimation error is small and convergence is fast, see insets
ð29Þ
in Figs. 2–4. On the other hand the expressions of jVaj, jVbj, jVcj con-
tain the fault signal and thus will only converge after convergence
of the fault signal. For this reason the initial estimation error takes
relatively longer time to decay to zero.
Responses t = 10  25 s: Once the excitation system reference
Vref is increased by 5% of its nominal value at t = 10 s the excitation
system reacts by increasing the field winding voltage of the
synchronous machine. This causes the terminal voltage of the
synchronous machine to increase by 5% as shown in Figs. 5–7. With
the increase in terminal voltage the terminal power increases and
thus the accelerating torque becomes negative. As a consequence
the speed of the machine decreases and the load angle slips back.
Since the synchronous machine is connected to the infinite bus
the speed must be synchronised with the bus in order to maintain
stability. This is achieved by the action of the speed governing sys-
tem, which opens the steam control valve and thus allows addi-
tional mechanical power to be injected into the rotor of the
synchronous machine. The adjustment in the mechanical torque
will continue until equilibrium is attained as shown Fig. 4. Once
equilibrium is achieved the speed is restored to its pre-disturbance
value (speed deviation settles to zero) as shown in Fig. 3. Conse-
quently, the load angle stops slipping back further and reaches a
new state as shown in Fig. 2.
As the observer states have already converged to the actual sys-
tem states, the estimation of the outputs by the designed observer
Figs. 2–7 (dotted lines) exactly match the actual outputs. From
Fig. 8 it may be seen that the designed fault detector does not re-
spond to the change in excitation system reference Vref, which is
expected.
nor reference Pref, the mechanical power input to the machine in-
creases. This will cause the accelerating torque to be positive. As
a consequence the speed and load angle increase. As the synchro-
nous machine is connected to the infinite bus the speed must be
decreased to maintain synchronism with the bus as shown in
Fig. 3. Consequently the accelerating torque settles back to zero
as shown in Fig. 4. However, the load angle settles to a new steady
state (Fig. 2) to absorb the increase in additional mechanical power
input in the form of stored kinetic energy.
Since there is no change in the excitation system reference, the
change in the terminal voltages is negligibly small as shown in
Figs. 5–7. It may be seen from the Figs. 2–7 that the estimates of
the output quantities by the observer following the step increase
in Pref matches exactly the actual output of the system. From
Initial mismatch between
actual and estimated
-4
x10 load angle
10
5
0
-5
0 0.5 1
Time (Sec) -3
x 10
 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263 257

0.2

0.15
Actual Output
Estimated Output using SMO
0.1
Initial mismatch between
Speed Deviation actual and estimated
0.05 x 10
-4 speed deviation

15

0 10

5
-0.05 0

-5
-0.1 0 0.5 1 1.5
Time (Sec) x 10
-4

-0.15

-0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (sec)
_ response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).
Fig. 3. Speed deviation ðdÞ

2
Actual output
Estimation of output using SMO
1.5
Initial mismatch between
1 actual and estimated
accelerating torque
Accelerating Torque

0.02
0.5
0

0 -0.02

-0.04
0 0.5 1
-0.5 Time (Sec) x 10-9

-1

-1.5

-2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

Time (Sec)

Fig. 4. Accelerating torque (Ta) response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).

0.8
Magnitude of Phase 'a' terminal voltage

Actual Output
0.6 Estimation of output using SMO
Initial Mismatch between
actual and estimated
0.4 magnitude of
phase 'a' terminal voltage
0.2 0.5

0
0
-0.5
0 5
-0.2 Time (Sec)

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (Sec)

Fig. 5. Magnitude of phase a terminal voltage of generator (Va) response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).
258 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263

0.6
Actual Output

magnitude of phase 'b' terminal voltage

Estimated output using SMO
0.4
Initial Mismatch between
actual and estimated
magnitude of
0.2 phase 'b' terminal voltage
0.5

0 0

-0.5
-0.2 0 5
Time (Sec)
-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (Sec)

Fig. 6. Magnitude of phase b terminal voltage of generator (Vb) response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).

0.6
Actual Output
magnitude of phase 'c' terminal voltage

Estimation of Output using SMO

0.4
Initial Mismatch between
actual and estimated
magnitude of
0.2 phase 'c' terminal voltage
0.5
0
0

-0.2 -0.5
0 5
Time (Sec)
-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Time (Sec)

Fig. 7. Magnitude of phase c terminal voltage of generator (Vc) response of the SMIB system (solid line) and its estimation using SMO (dotted line).

Fig. 8 it may be seen that the designed fault detector does not re- the fault signal resets itself to zero signifying the fact that the fault
spond to the change in speed governor system reference input Pref, is no longer there (cleared). Note also that the fault has been recon-
which is expected. structed in its entirety, and thus may be used for subsequent
Responses t = 50  70 s: As the SMIB system experiences a SLG analysis or control design.
fault in phase a of line 2 of the transmission network, the terminal Responses t = 100  130 s: When the LLG fault occurs between
voltage of the faulted phase undergoes an initial sag as shown in phases b and c of line 2, their terminal voltages undergo an initial
Fig. 5. The excitation system then acts to recover the sag by sag as shown in Figs. 5–7. This will cause the excitation system to
adjusting the field voltage. Consequently the abc phase terminal react by adjusting (increasing) the field voltage. As a result the
voltages settle to new steady states as shown in Figs. 5–7. initial sag is recovered and the voltages settle to a new steady
With the initial fault current rush, terminal power of the syn- state.
chronous machine increases immediately after the fault. This causes Immediately after the occurrence of the fault, the rush current
the accelerating torque to be negative, the speed to decrease and the causes the terminal power to increase, which in turn forces the
load angle to slip back from its pre fault value as shown in Figs. 2–4. accelerating torque to be negative, the speed to decrease and the
With the decrease in the speed, the speed governing system reacts load angle to slip further back as shown in Figs. 2–4. With the de-
by injecting additional mechanical power to force the machine crease in the speed, the speed governing system reacts by injecting
speed to synchronise with the infinite bus and thus drives the speed additional mechanical power until synchronism with the infinite
deviation to be zero. As a result the accelerating torque settles to bus is achieved.
zero and the load angle settles to a new steady state. Responses t = 130  150 s: Once the fault is cleared the output
Responses t = 70  100 s: Once the fault is cleared the output quantities settle, after some transients, to pre fault values as shown
quantities settle, after some transients, to pre fault values as shown in Figs. 2–7.
in Figs. 2–7. Fig. 8 shows clearly that the fault detector reacts immediately
Fig. 8 shows that the designed fault detector immediately and detects and reconstruct the LLG fault in real. Once the fault
responds to the SLG fault in real time. Once the fault is cleared is cleared the fault detector resets the output to zero recognising
 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263 259

initial mismatch
Actual Fault signal (solid lines) and their estimation (dotted lined) between
using designed fault detector actual and estimated fault signals
3 phase Fault 0.1 0.1

3 phase Fault
0
0

-0.1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 150 -0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5
-3
x 10
1 1

SLG Fault
SLG Fault

0
0
-1
-1
-2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 0 1 2 3 4 5
-3
x 10
1
1

LLG Fault
LLG Fault

0
0
-1

-1 -2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 150 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (Sec) Time (Sec)

Fig. 8. Actual fault signals and their estimation using SMO based fault detector.

the fact that the fault has been cleared. The estimated outputs by Further research is currently underway to extend these results
the fault detector match exactly the actual outputs of the system to multi-machine power systems with extensive transmission/dis-
as shown in Figs. 2–7. tribution networks.
The simulation studies above have demonstrated the following
key points:
Appendix A
(i) The validity and real time properties of the fault detector
designed in this paper. The following linear set of differential equations describes the
(ii) Convergence is instantaneous (real time) when the SMO is complete dynamics of the synchronous machine around an initial
permanently switched on. This is because the detector will operating point under any system condition (normal and fault).
converge to the true system and latches onto it and remain
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 _ ð1Þ ð1Þ
so as long as it is switched on. w_ d ¼ xb ð1 þ d_ 0 Þwð1Þ
q þ xb wq d þ xb md þ xb rid ðA:1Þ
(iii) The fault detector in insensitive to any other form of distur- ð1Þ xb r f ð1Þ
bances. It only reacts to faults and nothing else. w_ f ¼ EFD  xb r f if ðA:2Þ
Lad
(iv) The fault detector will signal a fault when it occurs and the ð1Þ ð1Þ
signal remains on until the fault is cleared. w_ ¼ xb r D i
D D ðA:3Þ
(v) The fault detector is able to reconstruct the entire fault sig- ð1Þ ð1Þ0 _ ð1Þ
w_ ð1Þ
q ¼ xb ð1 þ d _0 Þwd x b wd d þx ð1Þ
m þx
b q b riq ðA:4Þ
nal in real time.
ð1Þ ð1Þ
w_ G ¼ x b r G iG ðA:5Þ
6. Conclusions
ð1Þ ð1Þ
w_ Q ¼ x b r Q iQ ðA:6Þ
In this paper we have presented for the first time a fault depen- !
ð2Þ
dent state space model for a SMIB power system that is suitable for _ið2Þ ¼ x  R ið2Þ þ ið2Þ þ d_ 0 ið2Þ þ ið2Þ0 d_  1 v ð2Þ ðA:7Þ
DN b DN QN QN QN DN
use in fault detection studies. The model is then used to design a Lð2Þ Lð2Þ
!
fault detector which has been proven to be capable of detecting ð2Þ
any type (symmetrical and unsymmetrical) of faults in a transmis- _ið2Þ ¼ xb  R ið2Þ  ið2Þ  d_ 0 ið2Þ  ið2Þ0 d_  1 v ð2Þ ðA:8Þ
QN ð2Þ QN DN DN DN QN
L Lð2Þ
sion line of the power system in real time. Such a fault detector has !
not been reported in the literature. ð0Þ
ð0Þ ð0Þ R ð0Þ 1 ð0Þ
Designed fault detector is tested, through extensive simula- I_R ¼ xb IR ð0Þ þ II  ð0Þ V R ðA:9Þ
L L
tions, on the power system under study where disturbances and !
ð0Þ
unsymmetrical faults are applied. The simulation studies quite _Ið0Þ ¼ xb Ið0Þ R  Ið0Þ  1 V ð0Þ ðA:10Þ
clearly demonstrate that the designed fault locator is only sensitive I I R I
Lð0Þ Lð0Þ
to faults and not to any other external disturbance, such changes in  
the reference inputs, load demands, noise, etc. Furthermore the €d ¼  xb kd d_ þ xb T m  T e  T ð2Þ ðA:11Þ
b
fault detector is capable of reconstructing the fault signal accu- 2H 2H
rately and in real time. In addition it has also been shown that Following expressions (A.12)–(A.14) describe the change in
the fault detector can act as a state estimator where the states electrical, mechanical and negative sequence breaking torque
and outputs can be reconstructed in their entireties. around initial operating point.
260 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263

ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ 0 ð2Þ

V DN ¼ V D
ð2Þ ð2Þ
T e ¼ wd iq þ iq wd  wqð1Þ id  id wð1Þ
q ðA:12Þ fSLG fSLG þ VD fLLG fLLG ðA:19Þ
ð2Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ
Pm  T 0 d_ m
VQN ¼ V Q fSLG fSLG þ V Q fLLG fLLG ðA:20Þ
Tm ¼ ðA:13Þ
ð1 þ d_ 0 Þ ð0Þ
VR ¼
ð0Þ
V R fSLG fSLG þ
ð0Þ
V R fLLG fLLG ðA:21Þ
ð2Þ
Tb ¼ 0 ðA:14Þ ð0Þ
VI ¼
ð0Þ
V I fSLG fSLG þ
ð0Þ
V I fLLG fLLG ðA:22Þ
The dynamic equations associated with the excitation system where
are given by ð2Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð2Þ
VD fSLG ¼ An SLG R I R  An SLG I II þ Dn SLG R ¼ VR fSLG ;
1  ð1Þ  
V_ R ¼ V t   V R VD
ð2Þ
¼ An
ð1Þ0
LLG R IR  An
ð1Þ0
LLG I I I þ Dn ¼ VR
ð2Þ
TR fLLG LLG R fLLG ;
0 0
_V A ¼ K A V ref  K A ðV R þ V F Þ  1 V A
ð2Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð2Þ
VQ fSLG ¼ An SLG R I I þ An SLG I IR þ Dn SLG I ¼ VI fSLG ;
TA TA TA ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0
ðA:15Þ VQ
ð2Þ
¼ An
ð2Þ
1 K fLLG LLG R II þ An LLG I I R þ Dn LLG I ¼ VI fLLG ;
E
E_ FD ¼ V A  EFD
TE TE ð0Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0
VR fSLG ¼ Az SLG R IR  Az SLG I I I þ Dz SLG R ;
_V F ¼ K F V A  K F K E EFD  1 V F ð0Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0
TF TE TF TE TF V R fLLG ¼ Az LLG R IR  Az LLG I II þ Dz LLG R

ð0Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0

The set of dynamic equations corresponding to the speed governing V I fSLG ¼ Az SLG R II þ Az SLG I IR þ Dz SLG I ;
system is given below ð0Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0
V I fLLG ¼ Az LLG I II þ Az LLG I IR þ Dz LLG I
1
P_ m ¼ ðPGV  Pm Þ and
T ST    
ð1Þ ð1Þ
1 AP SLG ¼ Z SLG ð1; 1Þ  Z L ; AP LLG ¼ Z LLG ð1; 1Þ  Z L ;
P_ GV ¼ ðPSR  PGV Þ ðA:16Þ 0 1
T SM
! 1
_ @
¼ 
ð1Þ A
  ZL ;
_P SR ¼ 1 Pref  d  PSR AP 3P
ð1Þ ð1Þ
T SR xb Rgov Y L1 þ g1 Y L2
BP SLG ¼ Z SLG ð1; 2Þ; BP LLG ¼ Z LLG ð1; 2Þ; CP SLG ¼ Z SLG ð1; 3Þ;
Vref and Pref are the reference input of the excitation and speed gov-
erning system. CP LLG ¼ Z LLG ð1; 3Þ;
  !
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ  
The generic expressions for v d ; v q ; v DN ; v QN and V ð1Þ
t  describ- ð1Þ ð1Þ
ð1Þ
Y L2 ð1Þ ð1Þ
ing both normal and fault conditions in the SMIB power system DP SLG ¼ Z SLG ð1; 1ÞY L1 V B þ Z SLG ð1; 4Þ VB  VB ;
1g
shown in Fig. 1 are given below
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
0 1
v ð1Þ
d
ð1Þ ð1Þ
¼ v d id id þ v d iq iq þ v d d d þ v d f SLG
fSLG þ v d
ð1Þ
f
fLLG LLG
þ vd
ð1Þ
f
f3P 3P
ðA:17Þ Z LLG ð1; 1ÞY L1 V B
ð1Þ ð1Þ

ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ DP LLG ¼@ ð1Þ
A;
v ð1Þ
q ¼ v q id iq þ v q iq iq þ v q d d þ v q f SLG
fSLG þ v q fLLG fLLG þ vq f3P f3P ðA:18Þ Y ð1Þ
þZ LLG ð1; 4Þ 1L2g V B  V B
ð1Þ

0 1
where ð1Þ
Y
¼ @  V B  V B A ; An
    L1 ð1Þ ð1Þ
BP 3P SLG ¼ Z SLG ð2; 1Þ
v ð1Þ
d id ¼
ð1Þ
VR id sin d0  V I
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
cos d0 ; v d iq ¼ V R iq sin d0  V I iq cos d0 ;
id
ð1Þ ð1Þ
Y L1 þ g1 Y L2
 
ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0
v ð1Þ ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ 0
d d ¼ V R d sin d  V I d cos d þ V R cos d0 þ V I sin d0 ;
  An LLG ¼ Z LLG ð2; 1Þ; Bn SLG ¼ Z SLG ð2; 2Þ; Bn LLG ¼ Z LLG ð2; 2Þ; Cn SLG ¼ Z SLG ð2; 3Þ;
v ð1Þ ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ
d fSLG ¼ V R fSLG sin d  V I fSLG cos d
0
;
0 1
    Z SLG ð2; 1ÞY L1 V B
ð1Þ ð1Þ
v d fLLG ¼ V R fLLG sin d  V I fLLG cos d ; v ð1Þ
ð1Þ ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ
d f3P ¼ V R f3P sin d  V I f3P cos d
0
;
Cn ¼ Z LLG ð2; 3Þ; Dn ¼@ A;
LLG SLG Y
ð1Þ
ð1Þ
v ð1Þ
¼
ð1Þ
V I id sin d þ 0 ð1Þ
V R id cos d ; v0 ð1Þ
¼
ð1Þ
V I iq sin d þ0 ð1Þ
V R iq 0
cos d ; þZ SLG ð2; 4Þ 1L2g V B
q id q iq 0 ð1Þ ð1Þ
1
v ð1Þ
¼
ð1Þ
VI d sin d þ 0 ð1Þ
VR d 0
cos d þ
ð1Þ0
VI cos d  0 ð1Þ0
VR sin d ; 0 Z LLG ð2; 1ÞY L1 V B
q d
  Dn LLG ¼@ Y
ð1Þ
A;
ð1Þ
v ð1Þ
q f SLG
ð1Þ ð1Þ
¼ V I fSLG sin d0 þ V R fSLG cos d0 þZ LLG ð2; 4Þ 1L2g V B
   
v ð1Þ ð1Þ 0 ð1Þ
q fLLG ¼ V I fLLG sin d þ V R fLLG cos d
0 ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
; v q f3P ¼ V I f3P sin d0 þ V R f3P cos d0
    Az SLG ¼ Z SLG ð3; 1Þ; Az LLG ¼ Z LLG ð3; 1Þ; Bz SLG ¼ Z SLG ð3; 2Þ;
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
V R id ¼ sin d0 Z L R þ Z L I cos d0 ; V R iq ¼ cos d0 Z L R  Z L I sin d0 Bz LLG ¼ Z LLG ð3; 2Þ; Cz SLG ¼ Z SLG ð3; 3Þ; Cz LLG ¼ Z LLG ð3; 3Þ;
  !
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ
V R d ¼ iq Z L R sin d0  id Z L I sin d0  iq Z L I cos d0 þ id Z L R cos d0 ð1Þ Y L2 ð1Þ
ð1Þ
  Dz SLG ¼ Z SLG ð3; 1ÞY L1 V B þ Z SLG ð3; 4Þ V ;
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 1g B
V R fSLG ¼ AP SLG R IR  AP SLG I II þ DP SLG R ; !
  Y
ð1Þ
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
V R fLLG ¼ AP LLG R IR  AP LLG I II þ DP LLG R Dz LLG ¼ Z LLG ð3; 1ÞY L1 V B þ Z LLG ð3; 4Þ L2 V B
    1g
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
V I id ¼ sin d0 Z L I  Z L R cos d0 ; V I iq ¼ cos d0 Z L I þ Z L R sin d0
 0  02 311
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ Y
ð1Þ
Y L2
ð1Þ
V I d ¼ id Z L R sin d0 þ iq Z L R cos d0 þ id Z L I cos d0  iq Z L I sin d0 B6 Y L1 þ g
ð1Þ
L2
0 0  g 0 0 0 7C
  B6 ð2Þ
ð2Þ
Y L2
ð2Þ
Y L2 7C
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 B6 0 Y þ 0 0  0 07 C
V I fSLG ¼ AP SLG R II þ AP SLG I IR þ DP SLG I ; B6 L1 g g 7C
B6 ð0Þ Y
ð0Þ
Y L2
ð0Þ
7C
  B6 0 0 Y L1 þ gL2 0 0  g 0 7C
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 B6 7C
V I fLLG ¼ AP LLG R II þ AP LLG I IR þ DP LLG I Z SLG ¼ B6 Y
ð1Þ ð1Þ
Y L2 Y
ð1Þ
7C
B6  gL2 0 0 þ 1L2g 0 0 1 7C
  B6 ð2Þ
g ð2Þ ð2Þ 7C
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 B6 0
Y L2
0 0
Y L2 Y
0 17 C
V R f3P ¼ AP 3P R IR  AP 3P I II þ BP 3P R ; B6  g g þ 1L2g 7C
  B6 ð0Þ ð0Þ ð0Þ 7C
@4 0 0
Y
 gL2 0 0
Y L2 Y
þ 1L2g 1 A
5
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 g
V I f3P ¼ AP 3P R II þ AP 3P I IR þ BP 3P I 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263 261

02 ð1Þ ð1Þ 311 1 KE KF

ð1Þ Y L2 Y L2
Y L1 þ 0 0  0 0 0 Ax ð11; 10Þ ¼ ; Ax ð11; 11Þ ¼  ; Ax ð12; 10Þ ¼ ;
B6 g g 7C TE TE TF TE
B6 ð2Þ ð2Þ 7C
B6 ð2Þ Y L2 Y L2 7C KF KE 1
B6 0 Y L1 þ g 0  g 0 0 0 7C Ax ð12; 11Þ ¼  ; Ax ð12; 12Þ ¼ 
B6 7C TF TE TF
B6 ð0Þ ð0Þ 7C
B6 0 0
ð0Þ
Y L1 þ
Y L2

Y L2
0 0 07 C xb 1 1
B6 g g 7C Ax ð13; 8Þ ¼  ; Ax ð13; 13Þ ¼  ; Ax ð14; 13Þ ¼  ;
B6 7C
Z LLG ¼ B 6 ð1Þ
Y L2 Y L2
ð1Þ
Y L2
ð1Þ 7C T SR Rgov T SR T SM
B6  0 0 1 0 07 C
B6 g g þ 1g 7C 1
B6 7C Ax ð14; 14Þ ¼  ;
B6 ð2Þ
Y L2 Y L2
ð2Þ
Y L2
ð2Þ
7C T SM
B6 0  0 g þ 1g 0 1 07 C
B6 g 7C 1 1
B6 7C ð2Þ0
B6 ð0Þ
Y L2
ð0Þ
Y L2
ð0Þ
Y L2 7C Ax ð15; 14Þ ¼  ; Ax ð15; 15Þ ¼  ; Ax ð16; 8Þ ¼ xb iQ N ;
@4 0 0  g g þ 1g 0 0 1 5A T ST T ST
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 Rð2Þ
Ax ð16; 16Þ ¼ xb ;
ðsÞ ðsÞ
Lð2Þ
Z L1 ; Z L2 : s sequence impedance of line 1 and line 2 of the transmis- ð2Þ0
Ax ð16; 17Þ ¼ xb ð1 þ d_ 0 Þ; Ax ð17; 8Þ ¼ xb iDN ;
sion network
1 1 Ax ð17; 16Þ ¼ xb ð1 þ d_ 0 Þ;
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ðsÞ ðsÞ
Z L ¼ Z L1 kZ L2 ; Y L1 ¼ ; Y L2 ¼ ; s ¼ 0; 1; 2
ðsÞ
Z L1 Z L2
ðsÞ
Rð2Þ
  Ax ð17; 17Þ ¼ xb ;
 ð1Þ  ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
Lð2Þ
V t  ¼ V t id id þ V t iq iq þ V t d d þ V t fSLG fSLG þ V t fLLG fLLG þ V t fLL fLL þ V t f3P f3P
ðA:23Þ
Rð0Þ
Ax ð18; 18Þ ¼ xb ; Ax ð18; 19Þ ¼ xb ;
Lð0Þ
where
Rð0Þ
0 0 0 0 Ax ð19; 18Þ ¼ xb ; Ax ð19; 19Þ ¼ xb ;
Vt
ð1Þ
id
ð1Þ
¼ kV R V R id þ kV I
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
V I id ; V t
ð1Þ
iq
ð1Þ
¼ kV R V R iq þ kV I
ð1Þ ð1Þ
VI
ð1Þ
iq
Lð0Þ
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ The matrix Ai is 19  19 real matrix with the nonzero entries
V t d ¼ kV R V R d þ kV I VI d; Vt fSLG ¼ kV R V R fSLG þ kV I V I fSLG
ð1Þ ð1Þ
ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ Ai ð1; 1Þ ¼ xb v d þ xb r; Ai ð1; 4Þ ¼ xb v d iq ;
Vt fLLG ¼ kV R V R fLLG þ kV I V I fLLG ; V t fLL ¼ kV R V R fLL þ kV I VI fLL ;
id

1 Ai ð2; 2Þ ¼ xb r F ; Ai ð3; 3Þ ¼ xb r D ;

ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ
Vt ¼ kV R V R f3P þ kV I V I f3P ; k ¼ r
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
  ffi ð1Þ ð1Þ
f3P
ð1Þ0
2
ð1Þ0
2 Ai ð4; 1Þ ¼ xb v q id ; Ai ð4; 4Þ ¼ xb v q iq þ xb r;
VR þ VI
Ai ð5; 5Þ ¼ xb r G ; Ai ð6; 6Þ ¼ xb r Q ;
0 0
fSLG, fLLG and f3P define fault signals. Subscript SLG represents single xb wð1Þ
q xb wð1Þ
d
Ai ð8; 1Þ ¼ ; Ai ð8; 4Þ ¼  ;
line to ground fault, LLG represents line to ground fault and 3P 2H 2H
stands for three phase symmetrical fault. The fault signals are de- 1 1
Ai ð9; 1Þ ¼ V t id ; Ai ð9; 4Þ ¼  Vt iq
fined such that in the case of a particular fault corresponding fault TR TR
signal is one and another fault signals are zero. For example in the
The matrix B is 19  2 real matrix with the following nonzero
case of SLG fault fSLG = 1 and fLLG = f3P = 0.
entries
Combining generating unit’s linear dynamic equations (A.1)–
(A.11), (A.15) and (A.16) with the generic fault dependent network KA 1
Bð10; 1Þ ¼ ; Bð13; 2Þ ¼ ;
equations (A.17)–(A.23) we get the complete linear model of SMIB TA T SR
power system.
Ex 2 R193 has the following nonzero elements.
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
Appendix B Ex ð1; 1Þ ¼ xb v d fSLG ; Ex ð1; 2Þ ¼ xb v d fLLG ; Ex ð1; 3Þ ¼ xb v d f3P
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
Ex ð4; 1Þ ¼ xb v q fSLG ; Ex ð4; 2Þ ¼ xb v q fLLG ; Ex ð4; 3Þ ¼ xb v q f3P
The elements of matrices Ax 2 R1919 ; Ai 2 R1919 ; B 2 R192 and ð1Þ
V t fSLG
ð1Þ
V t fLLG
ð1Þ
V t f3P
Ex 2 R193 in the state Eq. (6) of the SMIB power system are given Ex ð9; 1Þ ¼ ; Ex ð9; 2Þ ¼ ; Ex ð9; 3Þ ¼ ;
TR TR TR
below. ð2Þ ð2Þ
x b V D fSLG x b V D fLLG xb V ð2Þ
The matrix Ax 2 R1919 has the following nonzero elements Ex ð16; 1Þ ¼  ; Ex ð16; 2Þ ¼  ; Ex ð16; 3Þ ¼ 
D f3P
ð2Þ ð2Þ
L L Lð2Þ
ð1Þ 0
Ax ð1; 4Þ ¼ xb ð1 þ d_ 0 Þ; Ax ð1; 7Þ ¼ xb v d d ; Ax ð1; 8Þ ¼ xb wð1Þ
q ; xb V ð2Þ
Q fSLG xb V Qð2ÞfLLG xb V ð2Þ
Q f3P
Ex ð17; 1Þ ¼  ; Ex ð17; 2Þ ¼  ; Ex ð17; 3Þ ¼ 
xb r f Lð2Þ Lð2Þ Lð2Þ
Ax ð2; 11Þ ¼ ; xb V ð0Þ xb V ð0Þ xb V ð0Þ
Lad Ex ð18; 1Þ ¼ 
R fSLG
; Ex ð18; 2Þ ¼ 
R fLLG
; Ex ð18; 3Þ ¼ 
R f3P
;
ð1Þ ð1Þ0
Lð0Þ Lð2Þ Lð2Þ
Ax ð4; 1Þ ¼ xb ð1 þ d_ 0 Þ; Ax ð4; 7Þ ¼ xb v q d ; Ax ð4; 8Þ ¼ xb wd ; xb V ð0Þ xb V ð0Þ xb V ð0Þ
I fSLG I fLLG I f3P
Ex ð19; 1Þ ¼  ; Ex ð19; 2Þ ¼  ; Ex ð19; 3Þ ¼ 
0 Lð0Þ Lð0Þ Lð0Þ
xb ið1Þ
q
Ax ð7; 8Þ ¼ 1; Ax ð8; 1Þ ¼  ;
2H
!
k T 0m xb Appendix C
Ax ð8; 8Þ ¼ xb þ ; Ax ð8; 15Þ ¼ ;
2H 2Hð1 þ d_ 0 Þ 2Hð1 þ d_ 0 Þ
Expressions for Ta and jVaj, jVbj, jVcj are given below
1 ð1Þ 1 KA
Ax ð9; 7Þ ¼ V t d ; Ax ð9; 9Þ ¼  ; Ax ð10; 9Þ ¼  ; pm T 0m d_ ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ 0
TR TR TA Ta ¼   wd iq  iq wd þ wð1Þ
q id þ id wð1Þ
q ðC:1Þ
ð1 þ d_ 0 Þ ð1 þ d_ 0 Þ
1 KA ð1Þ ð1Þ
Ax ð10; 10Þ ¼  ; Ax ð10; 12Þ ¼  ; jV a j ¼ Aa d þ Ba id þ C a iq þ Da fSLG þ Ea fLLG þ F a f3P ðC:2Þ
TA TA
262 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263

where Ey ð4; 1Þ ¼ Da ; Ey ð4; 2Þ ¼ Ea ; Ey ð4; 3Þ ¼ F a ;

Ey ð5; 1Þ ¼ Db ; Ey ð5; 2Þ ¼ Eb ; Ey ð5; 3Þ ¼ F b ;
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ
Aa ¼ ka1 V R d þ ka2 V I d ; Ba ¼ ka1 V R id þ ka2 V I id ; C a ¼ ka1 V R iq þ ka2 V I iq ; Ey ð6; 1Þ ¼ Dc ; Ey ð6; 2Þ ¼ Ec ; Ey ð6; 3Þ ¼ F c :
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ ð0Þ ð0Þ
Da ¼ ka1 V R fSLG
þ ka2 V I fSLG
þ ka1 V R fSLG
þ ka2 V I fSLG
þ ka1 V R fSLG
þ ka2 V I fSLG
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ ð0Þ ð0Þ
Ea ¼ ka1 V R fLLG
þ ka2 V I fLLG
þ ka1 V R fLLG
þ ka2 V I fLLG
þ ka1 V R fLLG
þ ka2 V I fLLG Appendix E
ð1Þ ð1Þ
Fa ¼ ka1 V R f3P þ ka2 V I f3P
Synchronous Machine Data (pu)
ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0
VR VI
ka1 ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi r ¼ 0:00054; rF ¼ 0:000108; rD ¼ 0:0051;
  
2  ; ka2 ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2   
2 2
ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0
VR þ VI VR þ VI r G ¼ 0:0011; r Q ¼ 0:0043;
ð1Þ ð1Þ Ld ¼ 0:2768; Lad ¼ 0:2497
jV b j ¼ Ab d þ Bb id þ C b iq þ Db fSLG þ Eb fLLG þ F b f3P ðC:3Þ
Lq ¼ 0:2692; Laq ¼ 0:2422; Lf ¼ 0:2795;
where LD ¼ 0:2806; LG ¼ 0:3804; LQ ¼ 0:2647;
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ Rð2Þ ¼ 0:0075; Lð2Þ ¼ 0:2251; Rð0Þ ¼ 0:005; Lð0Þ ¼ 0:05
Ab ¼ AVb V R d þ BVb V I d ; Bb ¼ AVb V R id þ BVb V I id ; C b ¼ AVb V R iq þ BVb V I iq

Db ¼ AVb V R
ð1Þ
þ BVb V I
ð1Þ
þ C Vb V R
ð2Þ
þ DVb V I
ð2Þ
þ EVb V R
ð0Þ ð0Þ
þ F Vb V I Rated Voltage 13.8 kV, Rated MVA 100 MVA, Rated Frequency
fSLG fSLG fSLG fSLG fSLG fSLG
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ ð0Þ ð0Þ
f = 60 Hz, Damping Coefficient kd = 1, Inertia Constant
Eb ¼ AVb V R fLLG
þ BVb V I fLLG
þ C Vb V R fLLG
þ DVb V I fLLG
þ EVb V R fLLG
þ F Vb V I fLLG H = 2.37 KW s/KVA
ð1Þ ð1Þ
F b ¼ AVb V R fLLG
þ BVb V I fLLG
; AVb ¼ 0:5kb1 kb3  0:866kb2 kb3 ; Excitation System Data (pu)
BVb ¼ 0:5kb2 kb3 þ 0:866kb1 kb3 T R ¼ 0:001; K A ¼ 400; T A ¼ 0:05; K F ¼ 0:04;
C Vb ¼ 0:5kb1 kb3 þ 0:866kb2 kb3 ; DVb ¼ 0:5kb2 kb3  0:866kb1 kb3 ; T F ¼ 1; K E ¼ 1; T E ¼ 0:613
EVb ¼ kb1 kb3 ; F Vb ¼ kb2 kb3 Governor System Data (pu)
ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0
kb1 ¼ 0:5V R þ 0:866V I ; kb2 ¼ 0:5V R  0:866V I ; Rgov ¼ 0:05; T SR ¼ 0:1; T SM ¼ 0:25; T ST ¼ 1
1
kb3 ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Transmission line data (pu)
2 2
ðkb1 Þ þ ðkb2 Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ
Z L1 ¼ Z L2 ¼ 0:02 þ j0:2; Z L1 ¼ Z L2 ¼ 0:02 þ j0:2;
ð1Þ ð1Þ
jV c j ¼ Ac d þ Bc id þ C c iq þ Dc fSLG þ Ec fLLG þ F c f3P ðC:4Þ ð0Þ ð0Þ
Z L1 ¼ Z L2 ¼ 0:06 þ j0:6
where

ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ ð1Þ Appendix F

Ac ¼ AVc V R d þ BVc V I d ; Bc ¼ AVc V R id þ BVc V I id ; C c ¼ AVc V R iq þ BVc V I iq
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ ð0Þ ð0Þ
Dc ¼ AVc V R fSLG þ BVc V I fSLG þ C Vc V R fSLG þ DVc V I fSLG þ EVc V R fSLG þ F Vc V I fSLG
2 3
ð1Þ ð1Þ ð2Þ ð2Þ
Ec ¼ AVc V R fLLG þ BVc V I fLLG þ C Vc V R fLLG þ DVc V I fLLG þ EVc V R fLLG þ F Vc V I fLLG
ð0Þ ð0Þ 0:2299 0:2355 0:0059 0 0 0:0028
6 7
6 0:0002 0:0002 0 0 00:0001 7
ð1Þ ð1Þ
F c ¼ AVc V R f3P þ BVc V I f3P ; AVc ¼ 0:5kc1 kc3 þ 0:866kc2 kc3 ; 6 7
6 7
6 7
6 0:005 0:0051 0:0003 0 0 0:0023 7
BVc ¼ 0:5kc2 kc3  0:866kc1 kc3 6
6
7
7
6 0:8210 0:8418 0:0207 0 0 0:0008 7
C Vc ¼ 0:5kc1 kc3  0:866kc2 kc3 ; DVc ¼ 0:5kc2 kc3 þ 0:866kc1 kc3 ; 6
6
7
7
6 7
EVc ¼ kc1 kc3 ; F Vc ¼ kc2 kc3 ; 6 0:0002 0:0002 0 0 0 0:0001 7
6 7
6 7
ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 6 0:0021 0:0021 0:0001 0 0 0:001 7
kc1 ¼ 0:5V R  0:866V I ; kc2 ¼ 0:5V I þ 0:866V R ; 6
6
7
7
6 7
1 6 0:0002
6 0:0001 0 0 0 0 7
7
kc3 ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 6 7
6 0:0002 0:00001 7
ðkc1 Þ þ ðkc2 Þ2
2
6
6
0 0:0002 0 0 7
7
6 7
6 2:2679 2:3251 0:0574 0 0 0:0039 7
6 7
6 7
6 0:3668 0:3342 0:0092 0:0001 0 0:1323 7
6 7
Appendix D 6 7
6 7
6 0:2124 0:2147 0:0116 0 0 0:0976 7
6 7
Gn ¼ 10000 6 7
The elements of matrices, C x 2 R619 ; C i 2 R619 and Ey 2 R63 in 6 0:0167
6 0:0169 0:0009 0 0 0:0076 7
7
6 7
the SMIB system output Eq. (8) are given below. 6 7
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 7
C x 2 R619 has the following nonzero elements 6
6
7
7
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 7
6 7
6 7
ð1Þ0 ð1Þ0 6 7
C x ð1; 7Þ ¼ 1; Cð2; 8Þ ¼ 1; C x ð3; 1Þ ¼ id ; C x ð3; 4Þ ¼ iq ; 6
6
0 0 0 0 0 0 7
7
6 7
T 0m 1 6 0:0185
6 0:0181 0:0002 0:0791 0:0017 0:0033 7 7
C x ð3; 8Þ ¼  ; C x ð3; 15Þ ¼ 6 7
1 þ d_ 0 1 þ d_ 0 6
6 0:0015 0:0012 0:0002 0:0035 0:0001 0:0003 7
7
6 7
C x ð4; 7Þ ¼ Aa ; C x ð5; 7Þ ¼ Ab ; C x ð6; 7Þ ¼ Ac 6
6 0:0821
7
6 0:0807 0:0008 0:3552 0:0231 0:0145 7
7
6 7
C i 2 R619 is a real matrix with the following nonzero elements 6
6 0:0063 0:0052 0:001 0:0156 0:001 0:0013 7
7
6 7
6 7
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 7
0 0 6 7
C i ð3; 1Þ ¼ wð1Þ ð1Þ
q ; C i ð3; 4Þ ¼ wa ; C i ð4; 1Þ ¼ Ba ; C i ð4; 4Þ ¼ C a ; 6
6
7
7
6 0 0 0 0 0 0 7
C i ð5; 1Þ ¼ Bb ; C i ð5; 4Þ ¼ C b ; C i ð6; 1Þ ¼ Bc ; C i ð6; 4Þ ¼ C c 4 5
0:0052 0:0053 0:0002 0 0 0:0006
Ey is a 6  3 real matrix with the following nonzero elements
 S. Saha et al. / Electrical Power and Energy Systems 45 (2013) 252–263 263

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