3.

BASE LEVEL: THEORY OF DIODES AND OF THE CIRCUITS WITH

UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS (DIODES)

3.1 INTRODUCING DIODES

Diodes are semiconductor devices consisting of a P-N junction. Fig. 3.1

shows their current-voltage characteristic:

Fig. 3.1 – Current-Voltage characteristic of diodes

The characteristic parameters shown in the figure are:

• breakdown voltage Vz, at which avalanche effect occurs. At this

voltage, current rapidly increases, conseuqently, if it is not properly
limited, this current provokes the destruction of the diode;

• threshold voltage Vs, at which a diode starts turning on

significantly. As the forward bias voltage attains higher values than
Vs, current will rise rapidly.

In forward bias, current can be expressed by the equation:

⎛ q⋅V ⎞
I = Io ⋅ ⎜ e n ⋅K ⋅T − 1⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

where:

I0 is the reverse current

q is the electron charge being equal to: 1.63·10-19 C
V is the voltage between anode and cathode
n is a constant depending on the type of semiconductor
K is Boltzmann constant being equal to: 1.38·10-23 J/K
T is the temperature of semiconductor (in degrees Kelvin).

12
This equation shows that the current crossing a diode depends not only
on its supply voltage, but also on temperature. Another important
parameter characterizing a semiconductor diode is differential resistance
rd.
This resistance is defined as the ratio between a slight voltage variation
and the corresponding current variation, in the range of a working point;
this parameter is represented graphically as the inverse of the slope of
the curve of Fig. 3.1.
The graphic symbol of a diode is shown in Fig. 3.2:

Fig. 3.2 – Symbol of a diode and of its junction

Diodes will turn on only when they are forward biased. Consequently,
when a diode is powered with alternating voltage, the circuit will be
crossed by current only during the positive half wave, because the
negative half wave will prevent it. Fig. 3.3a shows the simplest circuit
that uses the diode as rectifier.

Fig. 3.3 - Circuit with diode

Current will cross the circuit during half period (duration of a half
wave) and generate a positive voltage hald wave across the load
resistance.

13
 The average value Vm of the voltage rectified across load R will result
from the following formula:

Vm = VM/π = 0.318 VM

The root-mean-square value is the result of the following formula:

Vrms = VM/2

3.2 DIFFUSION AND FIELD CURRENTS, AND POTENTIAL BARRIER

Suppose to assemble a junction by interfacing two doped semiconductor

plates: one of P type and the other of N type, as it is shown in Fig. 3.4

Fig. 3.4 – PN junction

As the “acceptor” atoms are located in the P zone and “donor” atoms in
N zone, near the junction some free electrons will spread from N zone to
P zone, whereas some positive charges (holes) will migrate from P zone
to N zone. As soon as they cross the junction, the holes recombine with
the electrons of N zone, and the electrons entering the P zone will
recombine with the holes.

Thus the free carriers adjacent at the junction will disappear in the
recombination process, and consequently a zone without charge carriers,
called transition region or space-charge region (Fig. 3.5), is created
around the junction.

Fig. 3.5 - Transition region

This space charge, positive in N zone and negative in P zone (refer also
to Fig. 3.6), will determine an electric field and consequently a potential
barrier that will oppose the diffusion process.

14
 Fig. 3.6 – Trends of charge and of potential

Then the generated potential (with the polarities of Fig. 3.6) will oppose
the diffusion of holes from P zone to N zone, and of electrons from N
zone to P zone, whereas it will favour the passage of holes from N zone
to P zone, and of electrons from P zone to N zone.
Therefore, some electric charges of this last type (minority carriers),
generated by thermal effect, can cross the junction freely, producing an
electric current, called minority carrier current or filed current.
Once balanced and in open circuit condition, the two diffusion and field
currents are perfectly equal, so that the resulting current I is equal to
zero.

3.3 FORWARD BIASED P-N JUNCTION

The P region of a P-N junction is called "anode" and its N region

"cathode". When a potential difference is applied to the junction, with
cathode negative with respect to anode (Fig. 3.7b), the potential barrier
of the junction will be reduced.

Fig. 3.7 – Potential difference across the junction

The free electrons of N region are repelled by the negative pole of the
battery and sent towards the junction. At the same time, also the holes
of P regions are addressed towards the junction as a result of the field
produced by the positive pole of the battery. Consequently the result is a
current that crosses the junction in forward direction (P-N): its value
will rise as the applied e.m.f. increases.

15
3.4 REVERSE BIASED P-N JUNCTION

Reversing the polarity of the applied voltage will lead to an increase of

the potential barrier (Fig. 3.7a). Thereby, either the positive charges of P
region and the electrons of N region are repelled by the junction that
empties furtherly of free charges. Now the current crossing the junction
only consists of field currents.

Then it has a negative direction (N→P) and is called "leakage current "
or "reverse current". It does not depend considerably on the applied
voltage and it takes very low values: its highest value does not exceed
few microamperes for germaniun and few nanoamperes for silicon.

3.5 UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

THIS SECTION INCLUDES A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE THEORY OF

THE VARIOUS UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS.

FOR AN EXHAUSTIVE MATHEMATICAL DISSERTATION, PLEASE

REFER TO THE MANY EXCELLENT TEXTS DEALING WITH THIS
ISSUE.

These rectifiers are defined half-wave rectifiers because their output

voltage is a single half wave in the period of the supply alternating
voltage.
An uncontrolled ac/dc rectifier mainly consists of a transformer that
powers a diode rectifier, as it is shown in the figure.

Fig. 3.8 – Uncontrolled ac/dc rectifier

Understanding the relationships between the input parameters (root-

mean-square values) and the output ones (average values) is very
important in the study of rectifiers. In this case, these parameters are:

Uv = Alternating line voltage (root-mean-square value)

Iv = AC line current (root-mean-square value)
and
Ud = Output voltage (average value)
Id = Output current (average value)

16
3.6 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIERS E1UK

The half-wave rectifier shown in fig. 3.9 represents the simplest ac/dc
configuration.

Fig. 3.9 – Half-wave rectifier E1UK

Consider the case of a purely resistive R load. The diode will turn on
during the positive half wave of alternating voltage 2U2 and it turns off
during the negative half wave. Therefore, from an ideal point of view,
the diode is crossed by voltage only when it stops the voltage.
DC voltage Ud consists of the positive half wave of the alternating
voltage.
The trends of voltages and of currents are shown in Fig. 3.10. When the
load is resistive, current Id shows the same sine waveform of voltage Ud
and they phased between each other.

Fig. 3.10 – Waveforms of voltages and currents crossing the circuit

17
 The characteristics parameters of this circuit, with resistive load, are
determined by the following formulae:

Average value of DC voltage: UdAV = 0.45 (2U2)

Root-mean-square value of DC voltage UdRMS = 0.707 (2U2)

Form factor of voltage:

Root-mean-square value of current: IdRMS = 1.57 IdAV

Ripple:

Root-mean-square value of the alternating

UdAC = w UdAV = 1.21 UdAV
component of output voltage:

Reverse peak voltage across the diode: URRM = 3.14 UdAV = 1.41 (2U2)

Efficiency (%) = Podc /Poac 40%

Where:
- Podc: average (AVG) power on the load
- Poac: root-mean-square (RMS) value of the
power on the load

18
3.7 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS M2UK

These rectifiers use center tap transformers that supplies the diodes with
two partial voltages of equal value as it is shown in fig.3.11.

Fig. 3.11 - Full wave rectifier M2UK

When referred to the center tap (neutral), voltages 2U1 and 2U3 are in
phase opposition, consequently, during each half wave only the diode
whose anode is connected with the end of the winding being positive
with respect to the center tap can turn on: the current crossing the load is
supplied by diode D1, during the positive half wave, and by diode D2,
during the negative half wave, always with the same polarity.

Fig. 3.12 – Waveforms of voltages and currents crossing the circuit

19
 The characteristics parameters of this circuit, with resistive load, are
determined by the following formulae:

Average value of DC voltage: UdAV = 0.9 (2U1) = 0.9 (2U3)

Root-mean-square value of DC voltage UdRMS = (2U1) = (2U3)

Form factor of voltage:

IdRMS = 1.11 IdAV

Root-mean-square value of current:

Ripple:

Root-mean-square value of the alternating UdAC = w UdAV = 0.48 UdAV

component of output voltage:

URRM = 3.14 UdAV = 2.82 (2U1)

Reverse peak voltage across the diode:
= 2.82 (2U2)

Efficiency (%) = Podc /Poac 81%

Where:
- Podc: average (AVG) power on the load
- Poac: root-mean-square (RMS) value of the power on the
load

Pros of this circuit with respect to the previous rectifier (E1UK):

- Higher efficiency
- Lower ripple across the load
- Higher average voltage across the load
- Diodes can turn on with lower RMS current

Cons of this circuit with respect to the previous rectifier (E1UK):

- More complex circuit (two diodes + center tap

transformer)
- Diodes can bear a higher reverse peak voltage.

20
3.8 SINGLE PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIERS (Graetz bridge)

This bridge circuit consists of two pairs of diodes in series, connected in

parallel, as it is shown in fig. 3.13.

Fig. 3.13 – Single-phase rectifier using a Graetz bridge

Examining the circuit will lead to state that two diodes: D1 and D2, are
forward connected and they alternate with two other diodes: D3 and D4,
reverse connected. Two diodes turn on during each half wave of the
input sine wave (D1 and D4 during the first half wave of Fig.3.14; D2
and D3 in the following half wave). Load is crossed by current during
both positive and negative half waves of supply voltage 2U2, always
with the same polarity.

Fig. 3.14 - Waveforms of voltages and currents crossing the circuit

21
 The characteristics parameters of this circuit, with resistive load,
are determined by the following formulae:

UdAV = 0.9 (2U2)

Average value of DC voltage:

UdRMS = 2U2
Root-mean-square value of DC voltage

Form factor of voltage:

IdRMS = 1.11 IdAV

Root-mean-square value of current:

Ripple:

Root-mean-square value of the alternating

UdAC = w UdAV = 0.48 UdAV
component of output voltage:

Reverse peak voltage across the diode: URRM = 1.57 UdAV = 1.41 (2U2)

Efficiency (%) = Podc /Poac 81%

Where:
- Podc: average (AVG) power on the load
- Poac: root-mean-square (RMS) value of the power on the
load

Pros of this circuit with respect to the previous rectifier (M2UK):

- Parameters similar to those of circuit M2UK

- Diodes can bear a lower reverse peak voltage.
- No center tap transformer is needed.

Cons of this circuit with respect to the previous rectifier (M2UK):

- Four diodes are necessary.

22
3.9 THREE-PHASE HALF-WAVE RECTIFIERS

Single-phase converters can output powers of only some kilowatts.

When higher power values are necessary, three-phase rectifiers must be
used.
A basic three-phase circuit will include three diodes: each diode will
contribute to generate direct current for one third of the cycle.

Fig. 3.15 – Three-phase rectifier M3UK

Each diode will turn on only when its own anode is positive witrh
respect to its cathode. The phase shift of the 3 three-phase voltages will
lead to the turning on/off cycle of diodes. With resistive load, each
diode will turn on for 120° of the cycle of its phase and that highly
reduces the ripple for the interaction of the 3 phases.

Fig. 3.16 - Waveforms of voltages and currents crossing the circuit

23
 The characteristics parameters of this circuit, with resistive load, are
determined by the following formulae:

Average value of DC voltage: UdAV = 1.17 (Uv0)= 0.675 (Uv)

UdRMS = 1.19 (Uv0) = 0.686 (Uv)

Root-mean-square value of DC voltage

Form factor of voltage:

IdRMS = 1.57 IdAV

Root-mean-square value of current:

Ripple:

Root-mean-square value of the alternating UdAC = w UdAV = 0.183 UdAV

component of output voltage:

URRM = 2.1 UdAV = 2.46 (Uv0) = 1.41 (Uv)

Reverse peak voltage across the diode:

24
3.10 6-PHASE RECTIFIERS

This circuit includes a power transformer whose secondary windings are

equally shared by a central common tap: phase voltages 2U1,2V1, 2W1,
2U3, 2V3, 2W3 are phase shifted of 120° between each other. Diodes are
connected in series with each phase as it is shown in the following
figure.

Fig. 3.17- 6-phase rectifier M6UK

Diodes will turn on at the intersections of phase voltages and each diode
will turn on for 1/6 of the period: that will involve a partial use of the
same diode and this is the reason why this type of rectifier is not used
very often.

Fig. 3.18 - Waveforms of voltages and currents crossing

the circuit

25
 The characteristics parameters of this circuit, with resistive load, are
determined by the following formulae:

UdAV = 1.35 (Uv0)= 0.779 (Uv)

Average value of DC voltage:

UdRMS = 1.1352 (Uv0) = 0.78 (Uv)

Root-mean-square value of DC voltage

Form factor of voltage:

Root-mean-square value of current: IdRMS = 1.001 IdAV

Ripple:

Root-mean-square value of the alternating UdAC = w UdAV = 0.042 UdAV

component of output voltage:

URRM = 2.1 UdAV = 2.83 (Uv0)

Reverse peak voltage across the diode:

26
3.11 THREE-PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIERS B6U

Three-phase bridge rectifier B6U can be considered as the union of two

three-phase half-wave rectifiers M3U (M3UK and M3UA) connected in
series so that the sum of direct currents will power the load.
This circuit is used mostly in applications needing medium/high
powers.

Fig. 3.19 – Three-phase bridge rectifier B6U

When the voltages are applied to the circuit, only one diode at a time
can turn on in the upper part of the bridge (D1, D2, D3). In this case, the
diode will turn on only when its own anode is connected with the phase
of highest value at that time.

The same will occur in the lower part of the bridge (D4, D5, D5): only
one diode at a time can turn on; in this case, the diode will turn on only
when its own cathode is connected with the phase of lowest value at that
time.

Current will cross the load with the same polarity, always through two
diodes: one of the upper part and one of the lower part.

For instance (refer to Fig. 3.19), when 2U2 is the phase of highest value,
current will cross diode D1 and the load, in sequence; then current will
come back crossing diodes D5 and D6 in sequence.

Each diode will turn on for 60° of the period of the phase powering it.

27
 Fig. 3.20 - Waveforms of voltages and currents crossing the circuit

The characteristics parameters of this circuit, with resistive load, are

determined by the following formulae:

Average value of DC voltage: UdAV = 2.342 (Uv0)= 1.35 (Uv)

UdRMS = 2.344 (Uv0) = 1.352 (Uv)

Root-mean-square value of DC voltage

Form factor of voltage:

IdRMS = 1.001 IdAV

Root-mean-square value of current:

Ripple:

Root-mean-square value of the alternating

UdAC = w UdAV = 0.042 UdAV
component of output voltage:
URRM = 1.05 UdAV = 2.46 (Uv0)
Reverse peak voltage across the diode:

28
3.12 TABLE OF SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFIERS AND OF THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Single-phase

Half-wave Full-wave Full-wave Graetz

center-tapped bridge
Type of rectifier

Secondary input voltage per phase

Output voltage across “a-b”

Number of output voltage pulses (N) per

cycle 1 2 2

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Edc versus the root-mean-square value

of input voltage per phase ET(rms) 0·45 ET(rms) 0·90 ET(rms) 0·90 ET(rms)

Edc versus the root-mean-square value

of output voltage Erms 0·636 Erms 0·90 Erms 0·90 Erms

Edc versus the output peak voltage

Emax 0·318 Emax 0·636 Emax 0·636 Emax

Output peak voltage Emax versus Edc

1·57 Edc 1·11 Edc 1·11Edc
Root-mean-square value of output
voltage Erms versus Edc 3·14 Edc 1·57 Edc 1·57 Edc

29
OUTPUT CURRENT

Average current Io across the Idc 0·5Idc 0·5Idc

rectifying branch

Irms across the rectifying R 1·57Idc 0·785Idc 0·785Idc

branch
L 0·707Idc 0·707Idc

Ipk across the rectifying R 3·14Idc 1·57Idc 1·57Idc

branch
L Idc Idc

TRANSFORMER STATES
Root-mean-square value of 2·22Edc 1·11Edc 1·11Edc
secondary voltage across (center tap) (total)
transformer branch ET (rms)
Root-mean-square value R 1·57Idc 0·785Idc 1·11Idc
of secondary current
across transformer branch L 0·707Idc Idc
IT (rms)
Volt-Amp of secondary R 3·48Edc· Idc 1·74Edc· Idc 1·23Edc· Idc
winding V AS
L 1·57Edc· Idc 1·11Edc· Idc

Load factor of secondary R 0·287 0·574 0·813

winding
L 0·636 0·90

Primary voltage across transfomer 2·22Edc 1·11Edc 1·11Edc

branch (Transformation ratio 1:1)

Primary current across R 1·57Idc 1·11Idc 1·11Idc

transfomer branch
(Transformation ratio 1:1) L Idc Idc

Volt-Amp. of primary R 3·48Edc· Idc 1·23Edc· Idc 1·23Edc· Idc

winding
L 1·11Edc· Idc 1·11Edc· Idc

Load factor of primary R 0·287 0·813 0·813

winding Up
L 0·90 0·90

Fundamental ripple frequency fr f 2f 2f

% Ripple = (RMS voltage of 111 47·2 47·2

fundamental ripple) / Edc
* 100

30
Operating peak voltage 3·14Edc 3·14Edc 1·57Edc
versus Edc
versus ET (rms) 1·41ET (rms) 2·82ET (rms) 1·41ET (rms)

R= Resistive load L = Inductive load f = Mains frequency

The forward voltage drop of rectifiers and the impedance of

transformers were not be considered in the calculations shown above.

The magnetizing current crossing the primary winding of transformers

was not considered in the formulae concerning this winding.

31
 Three-phase

Half-wave Full-wave Midpoint Double star

bridge
Type of rectifier

Secondary input voltage per

phase

Output voltage across “a-b”

Number of output voltage pulses (N)

per cycle 3 6 6 6

OUTPUT VOLTAGE

Edc versus input voltage Eef per

phase ET(rms) 1·17 ET(rms) 2·34 ET(rms) 1·35 ET(rms) 1·17 ET(rms)

Edc versus the root-mean-square

value of output voltage Erms 0·98 Erms Erms Erms Erms

Edc versus the output peak

voltage Emax 0·826 Emax 0·955 Emax 0·955 Emax 0·955 Emax

Output peak voltage Emax versus

Edc 1·02 Edc 1·00 Edc 1·00 Edc 1·00 Edc

Root-mean-square value of
output voltage Erms versus Edc 1·21 Edc 1·05 Edc 1·05 Edc 1·05 Edc

32
OUTPUT CURRENT

Average current Io across the 0·33Idc 0·33Idc 0·167Idc 0·167Idc

rectifying branch

Irms across the rectifying R 0·588Idc 0·577Idc 0·408Idc 0·293Idc

branch
L 0·577Idc 0·577Idc 0·408Idc 0·289Idc

Ipk across the rectifying R 1·05Idc 1·05Idc 1·05Idc 0·525Idc

branch
L Idc Idc Idc 0·5Idc

TRANSFORMER STATES

Root-mean-square value of 0·855Edc 0·428Edc 0·74Edc 0·855Edc

secondary voltage across (neutral) (neutral) (neutral) (neutral)
transformer branch ET (rms)
Root-mean-square value R 0·588Idc 0·816Idc 0·408Idc 0·293Idc
of secondary current
across transformer branch L 0·577Idc 0·816Idc 0·408Idc 0·289Idc
IT (rms)
Volt-Amp of secondary R 1·50Edc· Idc 1·05Edc· Idc 1·81Edc· Idc 1·50Edc· Idc
winding V AS
L 1·48Edc· Idc 1·05Edc· Idc 1·81Edc· Idc 1·48Edc· Idc

Load factor of secondary R 0·666 0·95 0·552 0·666

winding
L 0·675 0·95 0·552 0·675

Primary voltage across 0·855Edc 0·428Edc 0·74Edc 0·855Edc

transfomer branch
(Transformation ratio 1:1)

Corrente primaria sul R 0·588Idc 0·816Idc 0·577Idc 0·408Idc

ramo del trasformatore
(Rapporto di L 0·471Idc 0·816Idc 0·577Idc 0·408Idc
trasformazione 1:1)
Volt-Amp. of primary R 1·50Edc· Idc 1·05Edc· Idc 1·28Edc· Idc 1·05Edc· Idc
winding
L 1·21Edc· Idc 1·05Edc· Idc 1·28Edc· Idc 1·05Edc· Idc

Load factor of primary R 0·666 0·95 0·78 0·95

winding Up
L 0·827 0·95 0·78 0·95

33
Fundamental ripple frequency 3f 6f 6f 6f
fr

% Ripple = (RMS voltage of 17·7 4·0 4·0 4·0

fundamental ripple) / Edc
* 100

Operating peak voltage 2·09Edc 1·05Edc 2·09Edc 2·42Edc

versus Edc
versus ET (rms) 2·45ET (rms) 2·45ET (rms) 2·83ET (rms) 2·83ET (rms)

R= Resistive load L = Inductive load f = Mains frequency

The forward voltage drop of rectifiers and the impedance of

transformers were not be considered in the calculations shown above.

The magnetizing current crossing the primary winding of transformers

was not considered in the formulae concerning this winding.

34
3.14 RMS and TRMS INSTRUMENTS
A lot of measuring instruments (including the cheapest multimeters) are
adjusted to show the root mean square value versus the average value of
a rectified sinusoidal voltage. This method can work only if the signal is
a perfect sine wave, but it gives totally wrong results if the signal is
distorted (that is, it is not a sine wave) or it is crossed by a superimposed
direct current. Error increases as signal harmonics increase.
Some instruments can output the true root mean square value by
sampling the signal and calculating in real time. These instruments,
defined as true RMS, can however be digital (applying the above-
mentioned formula) or more rarely analog; in this last case their
operating principle depends on the type of quantity to be measured, such
as, for example, electric current, magnetic field or something else.
The numerical measure (that is made with digital instruments) of the
root mean square value is however granted within a given passband,
which depends on the sampling frequency of the instrument (refer to
Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem), that is the speed of measurement
and recording of value in a single instant. Complex signals, with fast
leading and trailing edges, have a high harmonic resonance. If the
higher harmonics exceed the maximum frequency that can be managed
by the instrument, the measured root mean square value is wrong.

For example:
Suppose a waveform:

u(t) = sin(wt) - 0.5 * sin(3wt) + 0.3 * sin(5wt) - 0.2 * sin(7wt)

where amplitudes are as follows: 50% of the 3rd harmonic, 30% of the
5th harmonic and 20% of the 7th harmonics.
The root mean square value is:

u(t)RMS = SQR (12+0,52+0.32+0.22) = 1,174

and this would be the correct value measured by a TRMS instrument

with passband higher than the 7th harmonic.
The average value (AVG) of this wave is:

u(t)AVG = 0,55
The form factor is:

Form factor = u(t)RMS / u(t)AVG = 2.13

A NON TRMS instrument (instrument with "estimated" root mean

square value) would measure a root mean square value of
0.55*1.11=0.61, which is very far from the result of the TRMS
instrument, that is 1.174.
It is therefore important to have instruments able to measure the true
root mean square value (TRMS), because it is the reference to size the
electronic components, dissipators, the protection devices, fuses,
E.L.C.B.s, etc....

35
4. BASE LEVEL: EXERCISES WITH UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS.

4.1 General and safety remarks

• All the proposed exercises have to be powered by the secondary

winding of the mains transformer.

• Use only the safety connecting cables provided with the equipment.

• Perform the PE equipotential connection

• Set the measuring instruments on the maximum range.

• Before powering the circuits, check if they are correct, in particular

in the case of exercises with a lot of connections and cables.

• Any modification to circuits must be exclusively performed after

the power supply has been disconnected.

In the following exercises the measurements in points of the circuit will be carried
out by the signal acquisition module MDAQ. This module supplies 30 safety
terminals (Ø = 2 mm) in optoisolation with the signals of the connected unit.
Optoisolation ensures the electric safety of students and equipment during the
execution of measurements.

However some precautions to comply with when performing the measurements

with the earthed oscilloscope, are indicated hereafter.

36
Measurements with the oscilloscope

When an earthed oscilloscope is used for measurements, it is necessary

to take the following precautions:

• Circuit NOT INSULATED from the mains

If the circuit is powered directly from the mains, the dual trace
oscilloscope can be used provided that a great attention is taken.
In fact, as the conductive part of the two channels coincides
(internal connection), a short circuit can occur across the probe
even if only one channelis used.

Short circuit across the conductrive part of the probe

On the contrary, applying a differential technique (channel 2 inverted)

enables to measure the line-to-line voltage.

Measurement of line-to-line voltage U13 = U1N - U3N

37
Circuit INSULATED from the mains

The measuring process is simplified by the use of an isolation

transformer for the power supply. the measuring cinductive part is
connected where it is more convenient.

Attention: the conductive part of the

oscilloscope earths a point of the insulated
source (earthed point). The probe enables to
measure the line-to-line voltage.

Notwithstanding the use of the transformer, there is the risk of short

circuit across the conductive part of probes.

Short circuit across the conductive part of probes

38
Measurement of current
The current I crossing a load R can be measured indirectly when the
voltage drop across a shunt resistance Rs is displayed on the
oscilloscope

Measurement of current I = URS/RS

• Measurement of voltage and current

The simultaneous measurement of voltage and current on a load R can
be carried out according to the following diagrams:

Simultaneous measurement of voltage and current.

(with corrected phase)

The measured voltage U considers the voltage drop across the shunt
resistance RS. This error can be ignored if R >> RS.

Simultaneous measurement of voltage and current (with corrected

amplitude)

39
This configuration enables to measure the amplitude of voltage U and of
current I.
The current phase, however, is inverted of 180°. This id the reason why
it is necessary to set the CH2 of the oscilloscope in INV mode in order
to display the current signal correctly.

Note
If a multi-trace oscilloscope is used, connect only a point of the circuit
to oscilloscope's conductive part.

• Isolation amplifier
If available, it is better to use an isolation amplifier as interface
between measuring circuit and oscilloscope, in order to insulate the
measure from circuit voltages.

SAFETY

• Working in a laboratory means always facing many dangers, it is

therefore necessary for the operator to be able to evaluate possible
precautions to be taken and to intervene with proper safety
measures.

• During measurements with electrocution risk, IT IS NOT

ALLOWED FOR OPERATORS TO WORK ALONE: a second
person must be informed and attend the operations.

• Metal parts that generally are not under voltage (for example metal
boxes) must be connected with PE earthing, according to IEC
standards.

• The PE ground cable is provided just for this scope and it must
NEVER be connected with neutral point N!

WARNING FOR ALL EXERCISES

All the results of measurements have been output at a mains
frequency of 50 Hz.

These values could not be exactly repeated because of:

• the tolerance of the components

• the accuracy of instruments
• the possible fluctuations of supply voltage.

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