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New Brand Worlds: College Student Consumer Attitudes toward Brand

Placement in Films, Television Shows, Songs, and Video Games
Yongjun Sunga; Federico de Gregoriob
a
University of Texas at Austin, b University of Akron,
To cite this Article Sung, Yongjun and de Gregorio, Federico(2008) 'New Brand Worlds: College Student Consumer
Attitudes toward Brand Placement in Films, Television Shows, Songs, and Video Games', Journal of Promotion
Management, 14: 1, 85 — 101
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Journal of Promotion Management, 14:85–101, 2008
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ISSN: 1049-6491 print / 1540-7594 online
DOI: 10.1080/10496490802498272
New Brand Worlds: College Student Consumer

Attitudes toward Brand Placement in Films,
Television Shows, Songs, and Video Games
YONGJUN SUNG AND FEDERICO DE GREGORIO

Downloaded By: [Romanian Ministry Consortium] At: 14:32 27 October 2010
No previous study has yet quantitatively examined attitudes toward

brand placement in multiple media. A survey was conducted of 437
college students regarding their attitudes toward brand placements
in films, television shows, songs, and video games. A previously
unexamined element in the literature, genre, was incorporated.
Our results suggest that attitudes toward brand placement are pos-
itive overall across media, but that brand placements in songs and
video games are less acceptable than within films and television
programs. In addition, specific genres are considered especially ap-
propriate or inappropriate for the strategy.
KEYWORDS Brand placement, consumer attitudes, media, product

placement, survey
INTRODUCTION
In 2002 hip-hop musician Busta Rhymes released Pass the Courvoisier. The
song remained on Billboard’s Hot 100 music chart for over 20 weeks, the
attendant music video was reportedly shown over 600 times across the MTV
and BET networks, and was played on the radio “more than 97,000 times”
Yongjun Sung (PhD, University of Georgia) is an Assistant Professor of Advertising,

University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A1200, Austin, TX 78712-0116 USA (E-mail:
yjsung@mail.utexas.edu).
Federico de Gregorio (PhD, University of Georgia) is an Assistant Professor of Marketing,
University of Akron, CBA 322, 259 South Broadway Street, Akron, OH 44325-4804 USA (E-mail:
degrego@uakron.edu).
The authors would like to thank Leonard Reid, Joseph Dominick, and Louise Benjamin
for their invaluable contributions and input on this research.
85
86 Y. Sung and F. de Gregorio
(Roberts, 2002, p. 42). Sales of Courvoisier cognac, the main subject matter
of the song, rose by double digits.
The goal of 2001’s Super Monkey Ball video game is to collect as many
bananas as possible within a specific time limit while avoiding obstacles and
roving enemies—each banana is prominently labeled with a Dole company
sticker (Emery, 2002). Contestants on the wildly popular FOX reality show
American Idol wait for their turn on stage in the Coca-Cola Red Room while
the show’s three judges sip out of cups conspicuously labeled with the Coke
logo.
Discussions of brand placement in the popular press and academic
literature predominantly revolve around film. However, the opening exam-
ples and recent content analytic work (e.g., de Gregorio and Sung, 2004;
Ferraro and Avery, 2000; Friedman, 1991) demonstrate that brand appear-
ances within other media are prevalent and continue to increase in incidence
as time progresses. Although scholarly brand placement research has been
ongoing since the late 1980s, there has been a dearth of investigations of the
practice in non-film media (for overviews of the practice see Galician, 2004;
Lehu, 2007).
While there have been numerous recent popular/trade press articles,
and even two websites (AmericanBrandStand and BrandCameo) devoted
to the proliferation of brands in general media content, there are few at-
titudinal studies of this issue. Numerous studies have examined attitudes
toward brand placement in films, and two have gauged perceptions of the
practice in video games (Nelson, 2002; Nelson, Keum, and Yaros, 2004).
However, despite calls by Karrh (1998), to the authors’ knowledge, only a
single, qualitative study has yet examined attitudes toward the practice in
multiple types of media (DeLorme, 1998). This exploratory study builds on
and contributes to previous work by serving as a quantitative comparison of
attitudinal responses to brand placement in films, television shows, songs,
and video games. Based on Lutz’s (1985) discussion of attitudes toward ad-
vertising in general, understanding global perceptions of brand placement
in specific media is a significant first step, as they are likely to serve as an-
tecedents/influencers of attitudes toward placement of specific brand types,
in turn potentially facilitating purchase intentions and behaviors (Fishbein
and Ajzen, 1974). First, a background context for brand placement is pro-
vided, followed by a review of the literature on consumer perceptions of
the inclusion of brands in various forms of media content. Subsequently, the
implementation and results of a survey of 437 college student respondents
are reported, followed by discussion of the findings and implications for
advertisers and policymakers.
College Student Consumer Attitudes toward Brand Placement in Four Media 87
LITERATURE REVIEW
History, Current Status, and Proliferation
The deliberate placement of brands within films is not a new phenomenon.
A prominent pouring of a bottle of Gordon’s Dry Gin over the side of a boat
occurred in 1945’s The African Queen, while even earlier, during the 1890s,
the Lumière brothers had included placements for Lever’s Sunlight Soap
as part of their early film experiments (Newell, 2003). What distinguished
these early days of brand placements from today’s era was the casual and
haphazard nature of the process. Over time, the practice has slowly become
more organized, sophisticated, and in demand, with the 1982 placement of
Reese’s Pieces in E.T. resulting in a notable rise in sales, bringing a tipping
point of interest toward the strategy from practitioners (Wasko, Phillips,
and Purdie, 1993). Currently, the industry has progressed to the point of
having two of its own trade organizations (the Entertainment Resources and
Marketing Association and the Branded Content Marketing Association), with
more than 90 member agencies.
Brand placement in other media is also not a recent phenomenon. Ad-
vertisers produced, sponsored, and inserted their products into television
shows during the 1950s such as the Colgate Comedy Hour and Kraft Tele-
vision Theater (Roberts, 2004), early arcade racing games in the form of
cigarette billboards (Emery, 2002), and even music—a song from 1903 enti-
tled Under the Anheuser-Busch asked listeners to “Come, come, drink some
Budwise [sic] with me” (Barnet, Nemerov, and Taylor, 2004). Brand place-
ments in non-film media have now become an integral part of the organized
structure of the industry, with media-specific placement agencies beginning
to appear, such as Maven Strategies (songs) and Massive, Inc. (video games).
Along with the expansion and increasingly structured nature of the
placement industry over time, has been a simultaneous rise in the incidence
of brands within media content. While there have been relatively few empir-
ical examinations of this trend, those that have been conducted have found a
longitudinally increasing rate of brand appearances. In a film context, Sapol-
sky and Kinney’s (1994) analysis of the top 25 movies of 1989 and 1991, and
Galician and Bourdeau’s (2004) examination of the top 15 box office hits of
1977, 1987, and 1997 uncovered a combined 402 unique brand occurrences,
a longitudinal increase over time, and automobiles, alcohol, and soda as
the most popular brand product categories. In a series of content analyses
looking at the spread of brands and products into various written media,
Friedman (1991) examined brand mentions over time in popular novels
(1946–1975), British and American plays (1946–1980), and lyrics of hit songs
(1946–1980). Across all these media forms, he observed a sizable increase in
the rate and number of brand insertions over time. Finally, de Gregorio
and Sung (2004) have found a longitudinally persistent increase in the
proliferation of brands within popular American songs between 1981 and

2000, with a noticeable jump during the early 1990s coinciding with the
spread of hip-hop into mainstream culture.
Brand Placement—Advertisers and Content Creators

A primary reason for the recent popularity of advertisers seeking brand
placement deals is the cost-benefit ratio of the practice and the potential
for extended audiences, in light of ever-increasing media placement prices
(Wasko et al., 1993). With a single film placement, advertisers’ brands are
not only seen or heard by consumers at the cinema, but reach an even
wider audience when that film later appears on video and DVD, and is later
broadcast on network television and pay cable channels. Placement in other

media reaps similar benefits—popular songs are played on regular rotation
on the radio, successful television shows are commonly re-run in syndication,
and video games are re-played multiple times (Evangelista, 1999).
Brand placement as a deliberate marketing/advertising tactic has re-
ceived particular consideration in recent years due to the advent of digital
video recording (DVR) hardware that allows consumers to skip commercials
with the single press of a button—in fact, they never have to see a com-
mercial at all if they do not wish to. While there have been no published
accounts to date regarding rates of commercial skipping among adopters of
PVRs, industry reports suggest that PVR service subscribers skip anywhere
from 50 to 90% of commercials (McCarthy, 2001), mirroring results found in
the advertising avoidance literature (e.g., Speck and Elliott, 1997).
One of the most appealing aspects of brand placement for those in-
volved in the content creation side of media (e.g., directors, music producers,
video game developers) is financial in nature. Brand placement deals assist in
offsetting the costs of producing and marketing media products (Evangelista,
1999). The average cost of producing and marketing a Hollywood film in
2003 rose to $102.9 million, with marketing costs accounting for $39 million.
As a point of comparison, 1993’s average combined marketing/production
cost of a film was $44 million (Motion Picture Association, 2004).
Video game costs are also rising, averaging $15 million in production
and $10 million in marketing per game, up from $5 million and $2 million,
respectively, in 2001 (Fritz and Graser, 2004). It is thus not surprising that
content creators have been increasingly open to accepting brand placements
as one way of reducing their levels of spending, be it in the form of money
paid directly to creators by advertisers, or negotiated deals whereby branded
products or locations such as cars and hotels are provided for “free” in return
for exposure within the content.
There is also an often-cited aesthetic reason for content creators to
purposively include real brands, namely the enhancement of the realism
of the world that has been created in their product (Govani, 1999). Many
claim that if they were to not use real brands, products would either have to
be brand-less (unrealistic), labeled with fictitious brand names, or identified
with generic labels such as “watch”—any of which are disliked by consumers
and causes a “break” in their level of immersion.
Attitudes toward Brand Placement

A distinct stream of the brand placement literature has been devoted to the
gauging of audience opinions about and attitudes toward brand placements
in films. Studies focusing on U.S. subjects have found that the practice of
brand placement within films is, on the whole, seen as acceptable when
compared with more obtrusive promotion types (Nebenzahl and Secunda,
1993); generally accepted but considered offensive if too blatant and/or

frequent (DeLorme and Reid, 1999); tolerable for most product types except
for ethically charged categories such as alcohol, cigarettes, and firearms
(Gupta and Gould, 1997); and overall ethical and acceptable (Ong and Meri,
1994).
Cross-cultural investigations reveal complex interactions and fine differ-
ences related to nationality but that overall attitudes toward the tactic are
positive for Austrian, French, and German audiences except in the case of
ethically questionable products such as guns (Gould, Gupta, and Grabner-
Kräuter, 2000; Rössler and Bacher, 2002), as well as lesser acceptance of
brand placement on ethical grounds among Singaporean respondents than
among U.S. respondents (Karrh, Frith, and Callison, 2001). More negative
attitudes toward placement on the part of Chinese audiences versus Ameri-
can ones have also been found, although both voiced concerns over placing
brands of products perceived as more ethically questionable (McKechnie
and Zhou, 2003).
DeLorme’s (1998) series of focus groups and in-depth interviews, to
the authors’ knowledge, has thus far been the only comparison of audi-
ence attitudes toward placements in various non-movie media. While not
framing her results in terms of an overall positive or negative, DeLorme
found exposures to brands in television sit-coms, popular songs, novels,
and music videos often provide a sense of familiarity and reassurance,
in addition to helping consumers construct their social realities. Nelson
(2002) and Nelson et al. (2004) have found game players generally
accepting of brand inclusions, but that there exists a concern regarding
over-commercialization.
Research Questions
As previously stated, to the authors’ knowledge, there exists no prior quan-
titative comparison of attitudes toward brand placement across different
media. As such, two research questions were derived from the extant litera-
ture to serve as a guide for the study. The bulk of movie-focused attitudinal
investigations have shown generally positive perceptions of brand place-
ment, and preliminary work by Delorme (1998), Nelson (2002), and Nelson
et al. (2004) into non-film brand placements would indicate that the posi-
tive perceptions revealed by investigations of filmic contexts are potentially
applicable across different media. Based on these findings, the following
research question was posed:
RQ1: What patterns, similarities, and differences, if any, can be discerned

in attitudes toward brand placement in films, television shows, popular
songs, and video games among college students?
Two content analyses of popular songs over time revealed a noticeable

spike in the incidence of brand mentions over time, particularly during the
mid 1990s, corresponding with the explosion in popularity of hip-hop music
in the mainstream (de Gregorio and Sung, 2004; Friedman, 1991). Based
on these findings, and a growing number of popular and academic press
articles discussing the disproportionately high number of brands contained
within hip-hop (e.g., Roberts, 2002; Watts, 1997), the authors reviewed the
brand placement literature and found no studies that had incorporated genre
as a variable of study. The only (brief) reference to genre was in DeLorme
(1998), where it was noted that focus group participants mentioned differ-
ent (types of) brands depending on the music being discussed (e.g. beer,
tobacco, and truck brands for country music, and automobile, fashion, and
footwear brands when discussing hip-hop). However, such genre associa-
tions were limited to songs. Due to familiarity with such common media
forms, consumers may have specific notions of whether certain genres are
particularly acceptable or unacceptable for brand placement purposes.
RQ2: Which genres, if any, of movies, television shows, songs, and video
games are considered especially appropriate and inappropriate for brand
placement purposes?
METHOD
Survey Instrument
Attitude toward Brand Placement. The survey contained multiple brand
placement items measured along a 5-point, Likert-type scale across movies,
television shows, music (including radio listening, CDs, tapes, and MP3s),
and video games. Specific scale items were derived from both Gupta and
Gould’s (1997) and Karrh et al.’s (2001) instruments. There were over
50 items across both studies and several items overlapped. Moreover, both
instruments were specifically developed to measure attitude toward brand
placement in movies. Thus, we conducted pretest with 40 undergraduate
volunteers to obtain a more manageable and relevant number of items ap-
plicable across all four media types. The final scale consisted of 15 items,
modified appropriately for each medium (e.g., “I prefer to see real brands in
video games rather than fake/fictitious brands” was modified to “I prefer to
hear real brands in music rather than fake/fictitious brands” under the music
section).
Genre. Respondents were provided with a list of genres appropriate

to each medium and asked to select any that they felt were particularly
appropriate and inappropriate for brand placement. Due to the fact that
there are no concrete genres for each of the four media of interest, genre
categories were obtained from a diverse set of sources. Movie genres were
derived from Eliashberg and Shugan (1997), television genres from Ferraro
and Avery (2000), music genres were based on Billboard’s classifications (the
major music industry trade publication), and video/computer game genres
were obtained from Sherry, Lucas, Rechsteiner, Brooks, and Wilson (2001).
Sample
The study employed a convenience sample of college students at a large
Southeastern university. While there exists debate as to the merits of data
yielded by college students in consumer research, the use of such a sample
is appropriate to this study. The 18- to 25-year-old group that comprises
the majority of college students is a highly sought after audience for film-
makers, television and music producers, and video game designers. Industry
reports estimate college-aged students comprise 26–45% of music audiences
(Recording Industry Association of America, 2002; Whelan and Yin, 2001),
and approximately 36% of the movie-going population (Motion Picture Asso-
ciation of America, 2004; Nielsen Media Research, 2003). A study conducted
for the Pew Internet and American Life Project (Jones, 2003) on gaming
habits among college students revealed that 65% of respondents considered
themselves regular/occasional players.
The initial sample consisted of 455 volunteer students enrolled in large
introductory courses. All volunteers were given extra course credit as an
incentive. The final sample size (n= 437) reflects a reduction of the initial
number of volunteers who were eliminated due to incomplete surveys and
the halo effect (i.e., marking the same responses on all questions). Among
the 437 respondents, 268 were female and 169 were male. The majority
were between 18 and 25 years old (98.4%), with a range from 18 to 32 years.
Caucasians comprised 85.4% of the sample. Before respondents started, they
were provided with a definition and example of brand placement on the

front page of the questionnaire for the purposes of clarity.
RESULTS
One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA and Research Question 1
To discern any brand placement attitude differences across media types
(RQ1), the mean scores of 15 brand placement attitude items were compared.
In addition, a series of one-way within-subjects ANOVAs were conducted. As
shown in Table 1, the overall mean scores indicated that respondents have
more positive perceptions of placements in movies and television shows than
in music and video/computer games. The results of the one-way within-
subjects ANOVA (see Table 1) revealed significant differences among the

media on all 15 brand placement attitude measures. Post-hoc tests were
performed on each brand placement attitudinal measure as a follow-up test to
the ANOVA. The Bonferroni post-hoc analysis demonstrated that, in general,
perceptions of placements in music significantly differ from all other media
types. Also, the results show that opinions regarding movie and TV show
placements tend to be more similar than those dealing with music and video
games.
For movies, respondents felt that brand placement increases realism
(3.87) and preferred to see real brands rather than fake/fictitious brands
(3.68). In addition, they did not mind if movie producers receive money
for placing brands (3.60) but believed that viewers are subconsciously influ-
enced by the brands they see in such contexts. However, they disagreed with
the statements that the government should regulate the placement of brands
in films (2.00) and that manufacturers are misleading viewers by disguising
brands as props in movies (2.36).
Similarly, respondents believe that brand placements in television shows
make programs more realistic (3.79) and desire to see real brands in such
programming (3.62). Respondents evinced little concern about the regula-
tion of brand placement (2.03) and the notion that it is highly unethical to
influence audiences through brand placement (2.30), but clearly have reser-
vations regarding the placement of brands for ethically charged products
(3.31).
With respect to music, respondents tend to express strong disagreement
with statements that they are more likely to buy brands they are exposed to
in music than those they see advertised (2.11), and that they have bought
brands because of placement in music (2.24). They also believe that the
government should not regulate the placement of brands in music (2.16). In
addition, respondents show uncertainty or a lack of consensus (e.g., between
2.5 and 3.5 on the 5-point scale) toward the following items: dislike hearing
brands in music (3.22), do not mind if music producers receive money for
TABLE 1 One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA and Means of Brand Placement Attitude

Measures1
Mean∗
Variables Film TV Music Game F Sig
I hate seeing (hearing) brands in 2

2.72 2.58 3.22 2.81 30.17 .00∗∗
if they are placed for commercial
purpose.
I don’t mind if producers receive 3.60 3.63 3.05 3.45 36.05 .00∗∗
money or other compensation
from manufacturers for placing
their brands.
It is unethical to influence viewers 2.25 2.30 2.66 2.49 26.13 .00∗∗
(listeners, players) by placing
brands in .
.00∗∗
Manufacturers are misleading 2.36 2.38 2.70 2.52 14.62

viewers by disguising brands as
props in .
The government should regulate the 2.00 2.03 2.16 2.21 6.63 .00∗∗
placement of brands in .
Brands placed in a for which the 2.59 2.59 2.40 2.78 47.31 .00∗∗
producers receive payment from
brand manufacturers should be
disclosed at the beginning of the
.
I prefer to see (hear) real brands in 3.67 3.62 3.36 3.30 18.72 .00∗∗
rather than fake/fictitious
brands.
The presence of brand name 3.87 3.79 3.01 3.39 81.14 .00∗∗
products in a makes it more
realistic.
Viewers (listeners, players) are 3.50 3.37 3.39 3.14 14.51 .00∗∗
subconsciously influenced by the
brands they see (hear, interact
with) in .
I have bought brands because I have 2.63 2.80 2.24 2.12 45.23 .00∗∗
seen or heard them in .
When I see (listen to) characters 2.69 2.77 2.44 2.39 13.86 .00∗∗
(artists) I like, I pay attention to
the brands they use.
I am more likely to buy brands I am 2.29 2.38 2.11 2.21 8.93 .00∗∗
exposed to in a than those I
see advertised.
I have learned about new brands 2.91 3.07 2.65 2.33 41.04 .00∗∗
from watching (listening to,
playing) .
The brands in are “true” to what 2.88 2.89 2.98 2.73 6.35 .00∗∗
the characters (artists) would use
in real life.
1 Mean scores are based on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being “strongly disagree” and 5 being
“strongly agree.”
2“ ” indicates each medium (e.g., movies, television shows, songs, and video/computer
games).
∗ The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.
∗∗ The mean difference is significant at the .01 level.
placements (3.05), prefer to hear real brands (3.36), the presence of brands
enhances realism (3.01), and learn about new brands from listening to music
(2.65).
Finally, respondents indicated that they were less likely to buy brands
because they have seen or heard of them in video/computer games (2.12)
and disagreed that they have learned about new brands from playing
video/computer games (2.33). They also showed uncertainty regarding sev-
eral items, such as hate seeing brands in games (2.81), realism enhancement
(3.39), and preference for seeing real brands (3.30).
Research Question 2
Respondents were to check particularly appropriate and inappropriate genres
for brand placement across the four media of interest. As shown in Table 2,
for movies, 84.6% of respondents indicated that comedy is an appropriate
genre, followed by action (73.2%), drama (56.7%), and romance (53.4%). On
the other hand, 63.8% of respondents felt that brand placement in historical
films is particularly unacceptable, followed by political (56.5%) and animated
films (51.6%). For television genres, 77.3% of the sample felt that the reality
genre is appropriate for brand placement, with only 11.7% evaluating it as
inappropriate.
The findings also suggest that, in addition to reality shows, situation
comedies (76.1%), game shows (70.2%), and sports events (69.5%), are ac-
ceptable television genres for brand placement. The majority of respondents
(63.7 %) agreed that cartoons are a particularly inappropriate genre for plac-
ing branded goods and services as props or plot devices. Regarding music,
68.7% of the sample selected hip-hop/rap/R&B genre as being particularly
appropriate for brand placement, followed by pop (56.5%), country (47.7%),
and rock (41.5%). The two most inappropriate genres for brand placement
Christian (74.1%) and classical/opera (73.4%), followed by jazz (56.8%), and
blues (47.3%). Finally, over 70% of respondents indicated sports (71.2%) and
racing (70.6%) games were very appropriate for placement of brand-name
products. However, puzzle games were considered the most inappropri-
ate (45.8%), followed by strategy (42.5%), fantasy/role-playing (39.2%), and
shooting (36.4%).
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The descriptive results of this study reveal several interesting findings. The
findings of research question 1 demonstrate that opinions regarding movie
and TV show placements tend to be rather similar and more positive (per-
haps due to perceived similarities of their media’s characteristics) than those
dealing with music and video games. In reference to films and television
TABLE 2 Appropriateness Results by Media Genre
Appropriate Inappropriate
Media Genres N Yes % Yes %
FILM Comedy 437 369 84.6 14 3.2

Action 437 319 73.2 17 3.9
Drama 437 247 56.7 68 15.7
Romance 437 233 53.4 72 16.6
Adventure 437 232 53.2 48 11.1
Crime 437 184 42.2 77 17.7
Historical 437 105 24.1 277 63.8
Political 437 100 22.9 245 56.5
Science fiction/fantasy 437 85 19.5 197 45.4
Animated 437 82 18.8 224 51.6
TV Reality show 437 337 77.3 51 11.7

Situational comedy 437 332 76.1 36 8.3
Game show 437 306 70.2 63 14.5
Sports 437 303 69.5 76 17.5
Comedy/skit 437 274 62.8 52 12.0
Drama 437 194 44.5 111 25.5
Cartoon 437 64 14.7 277 63.7
SONGS Hip-hop/rap/R&B 437 298 68.7 75 17.3

Pop 437 245 56.5 78 18.0
Country 437 207 47.7 102 23.6
Rock 437 180 41.5 114 26.3
Electronic/dance/techno 437 76 17.5 198 45.7
Blues 437 67 15.4 205 47.3
Reggae 437 64 14.7 188 43.4
Jazz 437 46 10.6 246 56.8
Christian 437 43 9.9 321 74.1
Classical/opera 437 34 7.8 318 73.4
GAMES Sports 361 257 71.2 38 10.6

Racing 361 255 70.6 31 8.6
Simulations 361 139 38.5 70 19.5
Action-adventure 361 136 37.7 81 22.5
Fantasy/role-playing 361 109 30.2 141 39.2
Fighting games 361 99 27.4 123 34.2
Shooting games 361 96 26.6 131 36.4
Puzzle 361 75 20.8 165 45.8
Strategy 361 62 17.2 153 42.5
Note: For genre questions, we asked two separate questions for each medium (e.g., “which of
the following genres would be particularly appropriate for brand placement?” and “Which of
the following genres would be particularly inappropriate for brand placement?”). Thus, the two
columns of percentages do not constitute 100%.
programs, respondents tend to perceive music and video game placements

as more inappropriate, less effective enhancers of content realism, inferior
sources of brand information, less influential in purchase behavior, and more
unethical and misleading.
Although video game and music placements are generally viewed more
negatively than television or film, it cannot be said that attitudes toward
placement in the former two media are negative overall. In fact, across all
four media, respondents generally do not mind if content creators receive
compensation for placed brands, would rather see/hear actual brands in me-
dia than fictitious ones, agree that brands enhance the realism of content,
do not feel that placement practice should be governmentally regulated,
conceive brand placement as a form of paid advertising, and are concerned
about the placement of brands of ethically charged products/brands. This
perhaps indicates that the interactivity of computer games and the combined
audio-visual nature of films and television shows are considered to enhance
the potentially negative effects of such placements to a greater extent that
the audio-only music medium. Our overall results mirror those of previous
attitudinal investigations focusing on a single medium (mostly film). How-

ever, it cannot be concluded that there are no differences in attitudes across
media.
As no previous study has looked at content genre within the context
of brand placement, our incorporation throws further light on, and expands
understanding about, consumer perceptions of placement strategy. Table 2
indicates that film and television have more genres considered appropri-
ate for brand integrations than music or video games. This may be due to
the novelty of considering the latter two media as avenues of placements
(most popular press discussions of the practice revolve around television
and film contexts) rather than perceptions of the genres themselves. It is
interesting to note that animated fare for both movies and television is con-
sidered particularly inappropriate for brand placements by more than 50% of
respondents—perhaps due to the association of animation with children and
childhood innocence, and, hence, a reaction against its commercialization.
It is also notable that genre appropriateness for music tends to be split
based on “mainstreamness”—country, rock, and hip hop being considered
appropriate (genres generally well represented on the weekly mainstream
music charts), and blues, jazz, Christian, and classical/opera inappropriate
(genres rarely on the mainstream music charts). For video games, sports is
clearly the genre of choice among respondents (it is possible that racing
was considered a type of sport, thereby explaining the closeness of percent-
ages) and is also viewed as especially appropriate for brand placement as a
television genre. This would seem to point to an association of sports with
branding, which is reasonable as sporting events tend to be brimming with
sponsorships and advertisements.
Implications for Advertisers and Policymakers

While caution must be taken in generalizing to the larger media audience,
the findings of this exploratory survey of attitudes have several positive
implications for advertisers and brand placement brokers. College-aged con-

sumers do not seem to harbor negative overall perceptions of placement
practice (except for ethically charged products) and, in fact, are rather posi-
tively disposed toward it across movies, television shows, songs, and video
games. Thus, advertisers seeking to place brands within heretofore rarely uti-
lized media, such as songs or video games, may take heart that their initial
attempts would be acceptable to consumers. Furthermore, the study has shed
light on the specific types of genres within each medium that consumers find
especially suitable and unsuitable for placement.
Marketers are cautioned to take into account the appropriateness of the
specific genre of the particular media program into which they intend to
place brands. Advertisers desiring, for example, to explore songs as brand
vehicles are generally recommended to limit placement to the genres pop-
ular among the dominant mainstream charts, while those inclined more
toward the three other media may achieve greater acceptability in sports
programming (in addition to the other genres specifically appropriate for
each medium). Additionally, our results provide preliminary evidence that
two ways advertisers can potentially segment their brand placement audience
is according to acceptance of advertising in general and level of involvement
with brands. Greater research is needed, however, to develop more detailed
and precise points of segmentation for the two criteria than our separation
of high/low and more/less.
The results of this study are also relevant for policymakers. In con-
trast to the opinions voiced by many social critics and consumer interest
groups, it appears that audiences are generally accepting of brand place-
ments, do not find them as unethical or unacceptable as the former groups
would believe, and feel that they actually enhance the aesthetic realism of
content. Moreover, respondents were clearly disinclined to have the gov-
ernment regulate placements of brands, irrespective of medium. This is de-
spite the fact that respondents concomitantly evinced the belief that people
are subconsciously influenced by the integration of brands into media con-
tent. These findings generally mirror those revealed by prior film-specific
attitudinal brand-placement studies. Based on our results and the accumu-
lated prior findings in this area, policymakers are cautioned to consider the
utility of taking regulatory action that may be unwelcome by media audi-
ences (perhaps being viewed as patronizing or unnecessary).
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Although the current study reinforced previous movie-specific findings in

the brand placement attitude literature, has been first to extend the scope
of investigations to several other media simultaneously, and expanded the
body of knowledge regarding this marketing tactic by incorporating genre,
advertising attitude, and brand involvement variables, there are several limi-
tations that must be borne in mind. First, our sample was limited to college
students. Although they are justifiable as a sample group due to their status
as prime consumers and target markets of media content creators, they by
no means comprise the entire media consuming public. Thus, to ascertain if
there are significant differences among these groups, future research should
focus on the perceptions of non-college students regarding brand placements
in various media types. A related issue is the type of students that comprised
the sample. While the courses from which students were recruited were not
restricted by major, roughly 80% of respondents were Business and Commu-
nications majors. It is possible that students in majors not so closely linked
with advertising/marketing (such as the hard sciences or the humanities)
would hold differing opinions regarding placement practice.
Even though the results of this study have yielded positive news for
advertisers in that attitudes toward brand placements are rather favorable
across media types in terms of the practice in general, it would be unwise
to assume that consumers would also be willing to take action as a result
(e.g., purchase, brand inquiry, etc.). Understanding attitudes at a global level
is a crucial first step, as a negative overall attitude would greatly minimize
the likelihood of marketer-intended responses on the part of consumers. Ac-
cording to the correspondence principle, however, in order to validly predict
action, measurements of attitude must be at the same level of specificity as
the behavior in question (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977). As such, if one wished
to predict whether people would be willing to purchase products based on
exposure to some form of placement, the attitudinal measure would have
to specifically address purchase-resulting exposure to placements. Our ex-
ploratory study goes further toward establishing the acceptability of brand
placement practice, but the next step in attitudinal investigations of this strat-
egy would do well to focus on perceptions of particular actions arising from
placement exposures in order to be able to postulate actual behavior.
While this study has yielded some interesting preliminary results regard-
ing consumer opinions about the integration of brands into various media
and genres, in addition to replications and extensions of such attitudinal
studies, there is a need for experimental investigations gauging the impact of
medium type and genre on brand placement effectiveness. While a few stud-
ies have looked at the effectiveness of placements in non-film media (see,
e.g., Nelson, 2002, for video games and Russell, 2002, for television shows),
the incorporation and comparison of two or more media in single studies
is necessary so that how, which, and why certain characteristics/features of
different genres and media influence consumer recall, recognition, cogni-
tive processing, and implicit memory of brand placements may be better
understood.
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New Brand Worlds: College Student Consumer Attitudes toward Brand

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Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf

New Brand Worlds: College Student Consumer

YONGJUN SUNG AND FEDERICO DE GREGORIO

No previous study has yet quantitatively examined attitudes toward

KEYWORDS Brand placement, consumer attitudes, media, product

Yongjun Sung (PhD, University of Georgia) is an Assistant Professor of Advertising,

proliferation of brands within popular American songs between 1981 and

Brand Placement—Advertisers and Content Creators

broadcast on network television and pay cable channels. Placement in other

Attitudes toward Brand Placement

1993); generally accepted but considered offensive if too blatant and/or

RQ1: What patterns, similarities, and differences, if any, can be discerned

Two content analyses of popular songs over time revealed a noticeable

Genre. Respondents were provided with a list of genres appropriate

were provided with a definition and example of brand placement on the

subjects ANOVA (see Table 1) revealed significant differences among the

TABLE 1 One-Way Within-Subjects ANOVA and Means of Brand Placement Attitude

Variables Film TV Music Game F Sig

I hate seeing (hearing) brands in 2

Manufacturers are misleading 2.36 2.38 2.70 2.52 14.62

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

TABLE 2 Appropriateness Results by Media Genre

Media Genres N Yes % Yes %

FILM Comedy 437 369 84.6 14 3.2

TV Reality show 437 337 77.3 51 11.7

SONGS Hip-hop/rap/R&B 437 298 68.7 75 17.3

GAMES Sports 361 257 71.2 38 10.6

programs, respondents tend to perceive music and video game placements

attitudinal investigations focusing on a single medium (mostly film). How-

Implications for Advertisers and Policymakers

implications for advertisers and brand placement brokers. College-aged con-

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Although the current study reinforced previous movie-specific findings in

Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1977). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis

DeLorme, D. E., & Reid, L. N. (1999). Moviegoers’ experiences and interpretations

NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 45–63.

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