TFG Fin Prov Combined 16dic

LOST IN INTERCULTURAL TRANSLATION:
A BRIEF STUDY OF TELEVISION COMEDY
TRABAJO DE FIN DE GRADO
FACULTAD DE FILOLOGÍA
Summary
This research project is an exploration of the world of audiovisual translation and how
cultural references might affect the translation of humour in television comedies between
English and Spanish. We shall highlight the complex multidisciplinary task of the
translator, and the variety of strategies and techniques available when building a bridge
between the cultural gaps, that might otherwise lead us to getting lost in intercultural
translation if left unaccompanied.
Autor: Alfredo Herrera Ramos
Tutor: Gina Louise Oxbrow
Grado en: Lenguas Modernas
Curso: 2017-2018
Convocatoria: Diciembre 2018

LIST OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 3
1.1. Justification and Motivation .................................................................................. 3
1.2. Objectives .............................................................................................................. 4
1.3. Methodology .......................................................................................................... 4
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK................................................................................ 6
2.1. Audiovisual Translation ......................................................................................... 6
2.1.1. Audiovisual Texts ............................................................................................ 8
2.1.2. Modalities of Audiovisual Translation ............................................................ 9
2.1.3. Dubbing ......................................................................................................... 10
2.1.4. Subtitling ....................................................................................................... 10
2.1.5. Fan-Subtitling................................................................................................ 11
2.2. Intercultural Competence and Humour in Audiovisual Translation. ................... 12
2.2.1. Culture and Intercultural Competence ......................................................... 12
2.2.2. Cultural References ....................................................................................... 13
2.2.3. Classification of Cultural References. .......................................................... 14
2.3. Humour ................................................................................................................ 15
2.3.1. The Translation of Humour in Audiovisual Texts ......................................... 16
2.3.2. Priorities and Obstacles ................................................................................ 16
2.3.3. Translation Tendencies: Foreignization and Familiarization ...................... 18
2.3.4. Translation Techniques ................................................................................. 18
2.4. Linguistic References .......................................................................................... 21
2.4.1. Wordplay ....................................................................................................... 21
2.4.2. Typology of Wordplay ................................................................................... 22
2.4.3. Strategies to Translate Wordplays. ............................................................... 23
3. ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................ 24
3.1. Research Context ................................................................................................. 24
3.2 Research Methodology ......................................................................................... 25
3.3 Examples of Audiovisual Translation ................................................................... 26
3.3.1. Natural Environment ..................................................................................... 26
3.3.2. Cultural Heritage .......................................................................................... 27
3.3.3. Social Culture................................................................................................ 30
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3.3.4. Linguistic Culture.......................................................................................... 33
3.4. Results .................................................................................................................. 35
4. CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................ 36
5. WORKS CITED ......................................................................................................... 38
6. APPENDICES ............................................................................................................ 43
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Justification and Motivation
The selection of the subject for this final-year dissertation is the result of a mixture
between my personal tastes and academic preferences. Yet, in the first place, I would like
to comment on why I chose to enrol in the degree in ‘Lenguas Modernas’ offered by the
Faculty of Philology at the Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.
In my opinion, knowing different languages is a powerful tool, not only for

communicating with people from all over the world, but also for discovering different
cultures. For me, discovering and getting to know other cultures is a pleasant way to
expand my mind and gain knowledge. This degree has different subjects related to
cultural studies that attracted me when choosing this degree and, which, later on inspired
me when choosing my research topic, and these are ‘Historia Cultural de Gran Bretaña’,
‘Historia Cultural de Estado Unidos’, ‘Tradición Literaria y Clásica y la Cultura Popular’.
Apart from my interest in cultural studies, among my personal hobbies I can cite watching
films and television series; consequently, ‘Narrativa Audiovisual: Cine y Television’ was
another subject that both triggered my decision to study ‘Lenguas Modernas’ and embark
on the current research project.
As I have mentioned above, watching films and television series is one of my

favourite leisure activities, and, since I started to also watch them in their original version,
I have increasingly begun to notice evident changes or mistakes in the script between both
the original and dubbed versions, especially when cultural references appear in television
comedy series. This mismatch in content between languages really attracted my attention
and stimulated my subsequent interest in the translation of audiovisual content. Thus,
drawing on all the knowledge gathered and the relevant competences gained in this
degree, especially by means of those subjects I mentioned in the previous paragraph along
with ‘Traducción Literaria (Inglés – Español)’ and ‘Pragmática de la Lengua Inglesa’,
and also the subject ‘Humour in Translation’ that I enrolled in during my Erasmus
exchange in the Jagiellonian University of Kraków (Poland), I was able to find the
opportunity to design and carry out the current final-year degree project focusing on the
translation of cultural references in television comedy.
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1.2. Objectives
Before starting with the description of the methodology that I have employed in
the current analysis addressing audiovisual translation processes in television comedy, it
is necessary to present the research objectives which I propose to address in this study.
My main aim is to explore and recognise the cultural references that appear in the
fragments of television comedy I have selected for study and then analyse the translation
techniques, tendencies or strategies that the translator has used in each case. However,
not only do I propose a single objective when carrying out this work, but along with the
main objective, I also propose a series of secondary objectives and questions that I expect
to answer at the end of this study, which correspond to the following research aims:
(i) to explore the world of audiovisual translation and, more specifically,

the processes of dubbing and subtitling, which is one of the most important forms
of translation in Spain.
(ii) to become familiar with the role that the translator plays as a cultural
mediator, as well as how translating between cultures takes place, and to
identify the techniques and tendencies of translation are used for the translation of
cultural references.
(iii) to discover whether humour is translatable, or at times untranslatable, and the

problems we can find when dealing with it.
(iv) to compare both dubbed and subtitled versions of selected examples.
1.3. Methodology
Once I had decided on the subject which I was going to base my dissertation on,
several processes were carried out in order to complete this research project. The first of
them was to compile and analyse a collection of published material on the subject as a
means to be able to provide and develop a theoretical background that would later serve
for my own practical analysis. Once I had gathered and reviewed the necessary
background information in relation to the processes involved in audiovisual translation,
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as well as the relevant literature dealing more specifically with the translation of humour
and cultural references, I began to structure the theoretical framework.
Once I had completed the theoretical review, I proceeded with the selection of the
British and American television series on which I shall base my practical analysis: these
are (i) How I Met Your Mother (CBS), (ii) Modern Family (ABC) and (iii) Fawlty Towers
(BBC). Subsequently, I carried out the analysis of example cultural and humorous
references that I found in the examples that I have taken from selected episodes of these
series.
For greater clarity and to help the reader, I decided to present the translation
processes used in each of them by creating a classification table in which the following
aspects appear:
• the episode and minute at which the cultural or humorous reference is found.
• the original version of the context in which the reference is found.
• the dubbed version of the same context already translated.
• the subtitled version in the target language.
Before each table, I will briefly explain the context in which that fragment of the
series takes place in order to be able to better understand the selected example. After each
table, I will specify the cultural reference and then study the translation techniques that
have been used to address all the translation problems that appear in the fragments of the
series in which the cultural and humorous references are found. On those occasions that
I believe the translation to be inappropriate, I provide my own translation proposal. Once
this practical illustrative analysis is complete, I then analyse the results I have found in
our comparison of the translation techniques and finally close the dissertation with the
conclusions I have reached, with the bibliographical references of the documents that I
have used to carry out this study listed in the list of Works Cited and the relevant visual
images, or stills, in illustration of different relevant aspects, provided in the Appendices
(6).
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2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Before proceeding with the current dissertation, which as I have stated in Chapter
1 aims to explore the processes of, and problems with, audiovisual translation using
selected examples from television comedies for further illustration, it is first necessary to
define those concepts that will form part of the practical study, along with the necessary
theoretical background to accompany my own analysis. In order to provide this
conceptual framework, I am going to deal with the relevant areas of translation theory in
relation to the field of audiovisual translation (2.1), the role of culture and intercultural
competence (2.2), and parallel concepts in relation to the nature of humour (2.3) and
linguistic references (2.4) before carrying out my own survey of these aspects in different
authentic contexts in Chapter 3.
2.1. Audiovisual Translation
In the first place, we shall need to explore the field of audiovisual translation
which is the main target of our study in relation to humour. Audiovisual translation is a
variety of translation that works with texts that contain both visual and acoustic
information. This type of translation process obviously started in the realm of cinema, but
it is now extended to plenty of other audiovisual products such as television programmes
and series. Scholars like Mayoral (1998) consider audiovisual translation as simply a
modality of translation where any audiovisual products are involved, and contributes with
his own definition of audiovisual translation along with what he considers to be
audiovisual products, too:
Audiovisual products are those communication products that use auditory signals (dialogue,
narrative, music, effects) and visual signs (images, narrative texts, subtitles) to send a message.
Audiovisual translation does not only involve cinematographic products but also video and
television. Audiovisual translation includes six different types of translation: (I) dubbing, (II)
subtitling, (III) voice-over, (IV) narration, (V) simultaneous translation and (VI) half-dubbing for
different audiovisual genres: fiction, documental, advertising, television news, etc.1 (Mayoral,
1998:1)
1
The author’s own translation.
6
Although there are other scholars who consider audiovisual translation as simply another
area of translation like Mayoral, others do not agree with them. For example, Agost
(1999) is one of the authors who claims audiovisual translation to be a specialized
modality of translation, and she offers the following definition:
Audiovisual translation is a specialized translation that deals with industries like cinema, television,
video and multimedia products. This type of translation has their own characteristics as it demands
special knowledge from the translator. This special knowledge might be related not only with the
subject-matter (which could be multiple), but also the restrictions and techniques which are used
and command the translation.2 (Agost, 1999:15).
In contrast, there are scholars like Martinez Sierra (2008) who do not consider
audiovisual translation to be a specialized branch of translation such as the areas of Legal,
Scientific or Technical Translation are. However, despite their claims, they both agree
the translator must have specialized knowledge of the field they are working in (Martinez
Sierra, 2008:27).
Audiovisual translation deals with a type of text whose characteristics make it a

field of study which can be considered as solid as any other field of translation studies. In
this manner, Mayoral (2001; cited in Martinez Sierra, 2008:28) mentions the attributes of
audiovisual translation and indicates four of its peculiarities, as listed below:
(i) Communication happens through different channels (visual and auditory) and
signs (motion images, still images, text, dialogue, narration, music and noise), thus
it needs work on synchronization and adjustment.
(ii) The translator is not unassisted in the translation. Actors, the dubbing or
subtitling directors, etc. also take part in the process.
(iii) In some cases, the spectator receives the audiovisual product in two or more
different languages simultaneously by the same or different channels.
(iv) Audiovisual translation counts on its own arrangements between the

translated product and the spectator. Once these arrangements are assumed, it
makes it possible for the translated audiovisual product to be perceived as an
original audiovisual product.
2
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In this chapter, we are going to work with the process of audiovisual translation
as a modality of translation which deals with audiovisual texts from the perspective of
Mayoral (1998, 2001) and Martínez Sierra (2008). Thus, we can consider that these types
of texts transmit information using two channels at the same time (visual and auditory)
and they also simultaneously use different codes (linguistic, paralinguistic, visual, etc.)
with signs that build the audiovisual text’s semantic framework. It is, in fact, a variety of
translation which presents its own characteristics that make it different from other written
translation and interpretation processes. These characteristics have to do with different
internal and external conditions which appear in this modality and the strategies they
require (Martinez Sierra, 2008: 29-30). Since audiovisual translation deals with
audiovisual texts, we are going to further explore what the translation of these types of
texts involve in the following sub-section.
2.1.1. Audiovisual Texts
According to Hurtado (2001: 640), the translating process makes possible the
transmission of a text expressed in one language by means of using another language.
However, Martinez Sierra (2008) claims that it is not only a case of transmitting the text
to another language, but also transmitting a text built in a culture to another culture.
In addition to this intercultural component, as Chaume states (2001: 77-

78), when we work with audiovisual texts we encounter texts which transfer information
through at least two channels (auditory and visual). This information is codified using
different systems of codification, and using the following codes: linguistic, musical,
special effects, sound placements, iconography, photographic, mobility, planification,
graphics and syntactic. Therefore, the characteristics of an audiovisual text are marked by
the meaning that each of these codes transmits, as well as by the meaning resulting from
the interaction between them. Agost (1999: 22) points out that the collection of
audiovisual texts that we have access to every day is very diverse: a considerable part of
the public is not aware that many of these texts were created and produced outside their
national borders and that they have reached the target audience after going through a
process of translation, thus hiding their origin.
Audiovisual texts can be very varied but they can also have common characteristics. As
we shall describe below, Agost (1999: 24-26) makes a classification of the common
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characteristics found in audiovisual texts: from a pragmatic perspective, since the
audiovisual text is characterized by (i) the participants in the communicative act, (ii) the
communicative situations and (iii) the communicative intention. In this way, and in the
first place with regard to the participants in the communicative act from the receiver's
perspective, the spectators are those who are in front of either the television or the cinema
screen, so it is a heterogeneous and undefined audience. If we analyse the possible
transmitters, from the perspective of the issuer we find that they can also be very varied,
including journalists, artists, or actors, for instance. However, behind these issuers, there
is always a primary issuer, which can be a director, a producer, or a television network,
who are the ones who condition the message. In the second place, and regarding the
communicative situation, this type of text is often regulated by economic criteria, since
both television and cinema are two powerful industries whose main purpose is to obtain
financial benefits., principally from audience takings and diffusion. Thirdly, when
regarding communicative intention, the audiovisual text has the objective of, for example,
distracting, informing or convincing the audience, and even on some occasions modifying
audience behaviour. Furthermore, we know that audiovisual texts are characterized by
having a diverse intentionality in which exposure, narration (in movies) and instruction
(in advertisements) predominate. These communicative aspects are therefore
fundamental to consider when working with this type of text.
2.1.2. Modalities of Audiovisual Translation
Before going on to present the modalities of audiovisual translation, we will first

proceed to provide a definition of what a translation modality is. Chaume (2003: 109-
110) refers to translation modalities as the techniques that allow us to realize the linguistic
transfer of the audiovisual text from one language to another. We will then consider
audiovisual translation as a form of translation that is made up of a series of specific
modalities of translation, which will be dealt with below. Agost (1999: 16-21) also
recognizes the repercussion that the channel has when configuring a specific translation
model: that is to say for oral texts, the channel dubbing, and for written texts, that of
subtitling. These channels and modalities of audiovisual translation will be further
described below.
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2.1.3. Dubbing
According to the definition of ‘dubbing (cinematic concepts) in given in the

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 3 it is “the process of adding new dialogue or other sounds to
the sound track of a motion picture that has already been shot. Dubbing is most familiar
to audiences as a means of translating foreign-language films into the audience’s
language. (…)”. Martínez Sierra (2008: 48) states that the objective of dubbing is to create
the illusion that the product is homogeneous, although this does not mean that it wants to
trick the spectators and to make them believe that what they are seeing on the screen is
an original product. However, on many occasions, dubbed products do manage to hide or
disguise their foreign origin.
The most frequent modality of audiovisual translation in Spain is dubbing, so we

will focus on this type of modality in the current analysis, since, until recently, most of
the series, television programmes and films that are broadcast in our country are only
available in the dubbed version. The Instituto Cervantes4 states that Spain started to use
dubbing in a massive way under the dictatorship of General Franco, in 1941, as an effect
of imitating Mussolin’s law in Italy which established the law of the defence of language,
which is the spread by force of Italian culture, people, or language. The objective was not
only to protect the national language, but to censor and to manipulate dialogues for
political or moral reasons.
2.1.4. Subtitling
According to Agost (1999: 17-18), subtitling is the incorporation of subtitles

written in the target language projected simultaneously on the screen when a film or
television series is shown in the original version. It might be the most complex modality
because of the restrictions that have to be considered by the translator. It must be
guaranteed that the subtitles coincide approximately with the same interventions of the
actors that appear on the screen, considering that this modality only permits the use of
two lines of subtitles with forty characters in each one. These subtitles must be
synchronized with the beginning and the ending of each character’s intervention;
3
Taken from www.britannica.com/technology/dubbing-cinema
4
Taken from cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_03/galan/p03.htm
10
however, in television products, comprehension is more important than synchronization
(op.cit.).
According to Pérez Vigaray (2006: 5), the number of spectators viewing films in
their original version has increased in the last few decades, and although most of the films
commercially projected in the original version correspond to ‘auteur’ or independent
cinema, especially if those films come from English-speaking countries, the rise of DVD
formats and streaming television platforms in our country (e.g. Netflix or HBO) have
allowed almost every foreign audiovisual product to be displayed in their native language
at home.
2.1.5. Fan-Subtitling
In addition to those already mentioned above, we think it is viable for the current
study to add fan-subtitling as a sub-modality of subtitling due to its huge growth in terms
of unofficially published audiovisual products. In the last two decades, the development
of certain technological elements, especially the Internet and the implantation of mobile
devices as new forms of audiovisual consumption, have led to the creation of new
business models in the exploitation of audiovisual products. An example of this are
content distribution platforms such as Netflix. These platforms allow the user to access a
very broad range of audiovisual products. In this way, clients with a subscription can
watch their favourite films and series whenever and wherever they want. These
companies also face challenges such as piracy (Ojer Goñi and Capapé, 2012: 197-198),
and that is the crux of the matter; piracy allows some webpages to fraudulently distribute
these audiovisual products (mostly films and series) for free, and these products are
usually available in their original language with fan-made subtitles. This sub-modality is
known as fan-sub, and Ferrer Simó has her definition:
Fan-subs are non-official editions of anime, or Japanese animation, subtitled by fans and usually
distributed through the Internet, which do not meet professional, translational and technical criteria.
They are used to promote new series among fans prior to their commercial distribution. The
dimension of this phenomenon is such that fan-subtitling can even influence some decisions in
professional translations, such as the coining of terms within the series, the names of the main
characters or the imposition of a given translation solution by the client. (Ferrer Simó, 2005: 27).
Although Ferrer Simó only mentions ‘anime’ or Japanese animation, it is true that fan-
sub embraces almost every cinema or television product.
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2.2. Intercultural Competence and Humour in Audiovisual Translation.
Having established the different modalities of audiovisual translation that might

be used, in the following sub-section we are going to briefly overview a selection of
relevant definitions of first culture and intercultural competence, before moving on to an
exploration of the nature of humour, and how both terms are related for the current
practical study.
2.2.1. Culture and Intercultural Competence
The widely-used term ‘culture’ has numerous and different connotations. The
definitions provided by the Oxford Dictionary vary from "the arts and other
manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively” to “the more
scientifically related cultivation of bacteria, or tissue cells in an artificial medium
containing nutrient.” 5 The Centre for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition6
(CARLA, University of Minnesota) defines culture as “the shared patterns of behaviours
and interactions, cognitive constructs, and affective understanding that are learned
through a process of socialization. These shared patterns identify the members of a culture
group while also distinguishing those of another group”. Lederach (1995: 9) states that
“culture is the shared knowledge and schemes created by a set of people for perceiving,
interpreting, expressing, and responding to the social realities around them”.
Of greater relevance to the current study, we will refer to the definition given by
Banks (1989):
Most social scientists today view culture as consisting primarily of the symbolic, ideational, and
intangible aspects of human societies. The essence of a culture is not its artifacts, tools, or other
tangible cultural elements but how the members of the group interpret, use, and perceive them. It is
the values, symbols, interpretations, and perspectives that distinguish one people from another in
modernized societies; it is not material objects and other tangible aspects of human societies. People
within a culture usually interpret the meaning of symbols, artifacts, and behaviors in the same or in
similar ways. (Banks, 1989: 8).
We might also refer to the definition by Kroeber and Kluckholn (1952):
Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behaviour acquired and transmitted by
symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments
in artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected)
ideas and especially their attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as
5
Seen in en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/culture.
6
Seen in carla.umn.edu/culture/definitions.html.
12
products of action, and on the other as conditioning elements of further action. (Kroeber &
Kluckhohn, 1952: 181)
If we had to choose one definition among the mentioned for our current analysis, we
would choose the one by Lederach (1995: 9), which states as follows: “culture is the
shared knowledge and schemes created by a set of people for perceiving, interpreting,
expressing, and responding to the social realities around them", since within its simplicity,
it contains enough information to understand what the concept of ‘culture’ implies for our
study.
Translating between different cultures might also present some restrictions which
need to be considered, such as the existence of intertextuality. With respect to this,
Deckert (2017: 137) uses a quotation from Agost (1999) to define intertextuality:
Intertextuality can be defined as the presentation of references in a text to other texts (oral or written,
past or contemporary). These references, termed textual occurrences as well, function as signs in
which the spectator is to know how to decipher if they want to recognise the reference (religious,
cultural, etc.), allusion, a cliché, a famous quote and translate it in the correct way so that the
spectators in the dubbed audiovisual text will have the same possibilities of recognising the
intertextuality as the spectators of the original text. (Agost, 1999: 103, in Deckert. M. 2017: 137)
The translator should be able to identify those intertextual cultural references and be able
to bring them to the target audience which may have a different culture, Sierra (2008:
101) sees translators in this context as intercultural experts which means they have cross-
cultural or intercultural competences. We shall deal with this aspect further in the
following sub-section dealing with the inclusion of cultural references in audiovisual
translation.
2.2.2. Cultural References
According to Nord (1997: 34), a cultural reference is “a social phenomenon of a

culture X that is regarded as relevant by members of this culture and, when compared
with a corresponding social phenomenon in a culture Y, is found to be specific to culture
X”. Molina (2006: 79) bases his definition for cultural reference from Nord’s as a “verbal
or paraverbal element which contains cultural load from a specific culture and, when it
makes contact with another culture through translation, it might provoke some cultural
problem between both original and final texts” 7.
7
The author’s own translation
13
The name for referring to ‘cultural reference’ varies depending on different
scholars as there still seems to be no terminological agreement. Another name used by
scholars as Luque Nadal (2009: 93) is “cultureme”, considering it as a more precise and
solid term. For the purposes of this research project, I am going to treat all these terms as
synonyms and use them interchangeably. In the next sub-section, we shall provide a
classification of cultural references which we will use for the analysis we will carry out
in Chapter 3.
2.2.3. Classification of Cultural References.
We can find different types of classifications for cultural references, most of them
based on cultural contexts. For this study we will choose the categorization used by
Molina (2006:85), where she classifies cultural references according to each cultural
environment, as cited below:
• Natural Environment: flora and fauna, atmospheric phenomena, climate,

winds, landscapes (natural or created by humans)
• Cultural Heritage: characters (real or fictional), historical facts, religious

knowledge, festivities, popular beliefs, folklore, emblematic artwork and
monuments, popular places, tools, objects, musical instruments, farming
techniques, fishing techniques, urbanism, military strategies, transportation,
etc.
• Social Culture: conventions and social habits; forms of address and courtesy,
table manners, style of dressing, ways of speaking, manners, moral values,
greetings, gestures, physical distance between two interlocutors, etc.
• Linguistic Culture: transliterations, sayings and proverbs, fixed phrases and

idioms, proper names with additional meaning, generalized metaphors,
symbolic associations, interjections, blasphemes, insults, etc. 8
We shall refer to these same categories in our subsequent analysis in Chapter 3, and relate
them to the types of humour we shall describe below in the following sub-section for the
purposes of analysing the aspects to be taken into account in the field of audiovisual
translation of television comedy in our selected examples for analysis.
8
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2.3. Humour
In the following section, we shall provide a working definition of ‘humour’ and

how it is closely related to culture for the purposes of our own practical study. Deckert
claims that “to provide a definition of humour three words are essential: entertainment,
laughter and amusement” (2017: 138). He also cites Vandaele (2010: 147): “at first
glance, humour is easy to define. Humour is what causes amusement, mirth, a
spontaneous smile and laughter.” Deckert states that when there is laughter it means that
some sort of content has been created, and “that content may generate a surprise, an
uncertainty or insight making an audience laugh” (2017: 138), which is similar to this
statement by Vandaele (2010: 148): “we can turn uncertainty, surprise and danger into
what we call humour.”
The interpretation of this concept given by Spanakaki (2007) helps us to focus

attention on the field of audiovisual translation, and she also includes the accompanying
elements of culture and intercultural competence, too:
Humour is an essential part of the everyday component of innumerable literary works and
films and of art in general. It is rooted in a specific cultural and linguistic context, but it is
also an indispensable part of intercultural communications and mass entertainment.
(Spanakaki, 2007, n.p.)
In this sense, we can also highlight how “intertextual humour can be defined as a kind of
humour that requires extra knowledge which belongs to a community a nation or culture”
(Deckert, 2017: 138). This means that in order to recognize humour, the audience does
not only need to understand the language in which humour has been expressed; they also
need to have extra information that we call shared knowledge, because as Pérez Vigaray
(2006: 3) states, “if we understand the translation of humorous texts as a merely literal
transference, it will be evident that many of them will not trigger the desired effect in the
target audience” 9. Another aspect to be taken into account is the following:
Humour is not for babies, Martians, or congenital idiots. We share our humour with those
who have shared our history and who understand our way of interpreting experience. There
is a fund of common knowledge and recollection, upon which all jokes draw with
instantaneous effect; though indeed to describe the resources of the fund must seem like an
undertaking of tedious length. (Nash, 1987: 9)
9
The author’s own translation
15
Therefore, we can see how intertextual humour is a result of creating amusement and
laughter by resorting to a fund of shared knowledge (Deckert 2017: 138).
2.3.1. The Translation of Humour in Audiovisual Texts
Bearing in mind the cultural difficulty of translating humour between languages

as specified above, the translation of humour turns into an even more complex matter
when we deal with audiovisual translation. Apart from coping with the complexity of
translating humour between different socio-cultural contexts, the translator also has to
deal with visual restrictions. This means that, for example, if there is a joke about an
element on screen, the translator is forced to search for a translation containing both the
desired humorous content and the physical element of the joke itself. A perfect example
of this might be, in Spanish humour, the use of the image of horns as an indication that
somebody is cheating on their partner. Therefore, audiovisual translations are complex
especially when there are visual restrictions.
When translating humour in audiovisual texts, it is important to establish some

rules or priorities in order to be prepared to take important translation decisions. The most
important point is, firstly, to define the function and the relevance of the humorous
element in the source text, so that the translator can give the best translation treatment to
produce the appropriate effect on the target audience. Therefore, in the following sub-
section we shall give an overview of the priorities and obstacles to be considered in this
audiovisual translation process.
2.3.2. Priorities and Obstacles
In the field of audiovisual translation, the priorities to be taken into account are
dependent on the translation order as described above in the section dealing with the
translation of humour. However, cultural references in comedy texts will mostly have a
humorous intention, and consequently the priority of the translation will be to preserve
that intention. However, there are some questions that should be asked by the translator
before taking an important decision: for example, how legitimate is it to manipulate the
original text with the purpose of causing a humorous effect of hilarity in the target
audience? (Chaume, 2012: 148)
On regarding possible obstacles when translating cultural references, Martinez

Sierra (2007: 107-108) mentions two of them: (i) lack of knowledge of the reference by
16
the target audience from a different socio-cultural context, and (ii) the possible expiry
date of some references. In every joke relating to a cultural reference, background
knowledge exists which is shared by both the transmitter (the one who communicates the
information) and the audience (the receiver), thus making it possible to understand the
joke (Zabalbeascoa, 1993: 234-236). The problem emerges when the target audience
does not get the cultural reference as the result of not sharing the same background
knowledge as the original audience may do (Martinez Sierra, 2008: 123). An example of
this could be the sketch from La Hora de José Mota10 which parodies, in a fake
MasterChef cookery contest scenario, a conversation on Spanish television between the
politicians Pablo Iglesias and Esperanza Aguirre.11 This parody makes reference to a
series of facts that happened in Spanish politics and television,thus, as a consequence,
people from different countries to Spain naturally do not identify these background
circumstances, and they might even not appreciate the perfect imitation of the characters,
which has humorous intentions too.
Additionally, sometimes cultural references which are popularly known stop

being that familiar as time goes by. This is what Martinez Sierra (2007: 108) refers to as
expiry date as an example of possible obstacles in translating cultural references, and
when a reference loses its validity in both the original and in the target culture. An
example could be the Spanish sit-com Aquí No Hay Quien Viva (2013-2016), which,
during its fifth season, introduced a transsexual secondary character named Raquel
Heredia, intended to be a laughing stock during her appearances on screen.12 Today it
would be socially inadmissible to use gender re-affirmation as a reason for laughter. A
solution to this obstacle might be the substitution of the reference by another one which
is more updated. Furthermore, if, for example, a television series has to be rebroadcast,
another solution might be to change the references in the original version (Lorenzo et al.,
2003: 282). In spite of what was recently mentioned, the idea of re-dubbing all
audiovisual content from time to time does not seem to be really functional as it implies
re-writing and re-dubbing complete episodes of television series (Martinez Sierra, 2008:
108). As has been shown previously, the longevity of a cultural reference affects not only
the dubbed version, but the original version as well.
10
See www.youtube.com/watch?v=uDT290Ooa2s
11
See www.youtube.com/watch?v=R2fxFHqwAA8
12
From www.elespanol.com/bluper/noticias/transexualidad-series-de-television-en-espana-cuentame
17
2.3.3. Translation Tendencies: Foreignization and Familiarization
There is a further aspect to be taken into account when translating comedy in

audiovisual texts, as we shall see below in our exploration of the concepts of
‘foreignization’ and ‘familiarization’. Martinez Sierra (2008: 82) prefers the term
‘tendency’ rather than ‘norm’ or ‘rule’ to refer to those aspects or qualities which are
frequent in the translation or a determined text. Hence, foreignization refers to the
tendency where the translation is more faithful or more related to the original culture, and
familiarization is the opposite as the translation is more adapted to the target culture.
Martinez Sierra comments that a translation of a television series might have a tendency
to familiarize, a tendency to domesticate, or even an intermediate point with both of them
(2008: 38). Following the inclination of Martinez Sierra, this study is not going to talk
about norms, but in the analysis, it is going to be highlighted whether the technique used
in the translation of the selected examples follows the foreignization tendency or the
familiarization one.
According to Chaume Varela (2012), in audiovisual translation it is substantial to

fix some limits for foreignization and domestication tendencies, with the purpose of
knowing how long it is effective to use cultural adaptations or foreignisms. The
audiovisual translator has to make a choice and value what is more important in each
case: the message or the culture (2012: 146).
2.3.4. Translation Techniques
In the current sub-section, we will highlight further those translation techniques

used for cultural references. According to Hurtado Albir (2001: 257), the notion of
translation techniques is still confusing in the field of Translation Studies as, depending
on the author, this notion can be denominated as either methods or strategies. Hurtado
Albir explains why she prefers to use the term ‘technique’ rather than ‘method’ or
‘strategy’
Unlike the method, which is a global option that runs through the entire text and affects to the process
and result, the technique affects only the result and small units of the text. In contrast with strategies,
which can be non-verbal and are used in all the phrases of the translation process to solve
encountered problems, techniques are manifested only in the reformulation in a final decision-
18
making phase13 (Hurtado Albir 2001: 257)
Hurtado Albir uses the denomination ‘technique’ to refer to “a concrete verbal

procedure that is visible in the result of the translation in order to achieve translation
equivalents” (Hurtado Albir 2001: 256). Below, there is a list with the translation
techniques which are frequently used to translate cultural references. This list is based on
the classification proposed by Chaume14 (2012: 145-146), so this is not an in-depth list of
all translation techniques available.15
• Literal reproduction of the cultural reference. The original form of the

reference is used in the translation with no modifications. ‘Halloween’, for
example, is an Anglicism which frequently remains in its original form in most of
its translations to other cultures. Some authors conceive this technique to be a sign
of respect to the source culture (Newmark, 1988: 84), and others consider this
technique as a method of diffusion to spread the knowledge and the source culture
(Fuentes, 2001: 161).
• Absolute universalization. The original reference is replaced by another more

universal reference, which can be more reachable for the target audience. For
example, translating Milles Teller, an actor in Whiplash (2014), and Project X
(2012), to a more famous actor like Zac Efron, an actor in Baywatch (2017), High
School Musical (2006), or changing the Coachella Festival (California, USA) to
a more well-known music festival in Spain such as the ‘Festival Internacional de
Benicassim’ (Comunitat Valenciana, Spain).
• Literal Translation. This is when the subject is translated word-by-word. For

example, ‘Thanksgiving Day’ to ‘Día de Acción de Gracias’ in Spain.
• Cultural substitution. This means replacing a cultural element from the source
culture for another element from the target culture, for example ’baseball’ and
’football’. This technique has to be chosen carefully as it depends on what is
13
14
The names of techniques are the author’s own translation
15
See an exhaustive list of translation techniques in Hurtado Albir (2001)
19
shown on the screen, so it depends on visual restrictions. If the original cultural
element is visible on the screen it would have to be translated with the literal
equivalence of it in the target language. The purpose of this is to maintain the
concordance between what is said and what is seen on the screen (Chaume, 2012:
145-146).
• Addition of new references. This technique consists of adding references that do

not appear in the original version. This might happen with the purpose of
compensating for some loss of humorous load in another translation, or to obtain
a more familiar translation.
In addition, three other techniques from Hurtado Albir (2001: 264-267) can be
added to this list because of their frequent use in cultural reference translation.
• Neutralization. The reference is not translated and does not even appear in the
target translation; however, the sense of the sentence is not lost because of it. For
example, instead of saying “Lo vi en ‘Espejo Público’,16 the translation says “I’ve
seen it on the news”.
• Official Translation. This is the case of the names of cities, countries and films
that have an official translation in other languages. For example, the film Die Hard
as La Jungla de Cristal in Spanish, or the national holiday Thanksgiving Day as
Día de Acción de Gracias also in Spanish.
• Over-explanation.17 This is when words or sentences which do not appear in the

original version are added into the translation in order to make the reference more
explicit, and consequently, more accessible to the comprehension of the target
audience. An example is to add the word ‘diet ‘along with the reference ‘Dukan’
(Dukan = the Dukan diet).
However, in the analysis of the cultural references that we will present in Chapter
3, we have realized there is a cultural reference which is more frequently used compared
16
The morning news program of Antena3com, produced by A3Noticias and presented by Susanna Griso.
17
Hurtado Albir (2001) refers to it as “explicitación”. This is an own author’s translation.
20
to others, and this is the linguistic reference. Considering this, we find it reasonable to
make a reference here to these linguistic references. Therefore, below we are going to
deal with the definition of wordplay, along with its typologies and strategies for
translating them in the following sub-section.
2.4. Linguistic References
In Chapter 3, we will analyse different cases of cultural references from a selection

of comedy series, and we have found plenty of verbally expressed humour (VEH) with
the use of wordplay, or puns. Therefore, below, we are going to introduce different
definitions of wordplay according to different scholars.
2.4.1. Wordplay
In the first place, Chiaro states that “the term wordplay includes every conceivable
way in which language is used with the intent to amuse” (1992: 2). According to her,
wordplay is a vehicle which includes jokes, ‘double entendres’, and “[…] an array of
conceits ranging from puns and spoonerisms to wisecracks and funny stories” (1992: 4).
Delabastita (1996: 129-130) differs from Chiaro and says that the intention of wordplay
is not always to amuse or produce humour, and he points out other possible functions as
“adding to the thematic coherence of the text […] forcing the reader or listener into greater
attention, adding persuasive force to the statement, deceiving our socially conditioned
reflex against sexual and other taboo themes, and so forth.” Leppihalme (1997: 141)
points out that, in addition to its function to amuse, wordplay might also make parody or
irony with a certain person or thing becoming the laughing stock.18 Leppihalme continues
by adding that wordplays can be based on several features of the language involved. These
features would be pronunciation, spelling, morphology, vocabulary or syntax (1997: 142).
As the current research study is about the translation of cultural references in comedy, the
definition that we will choose for this study will be the one mentioned by Chiaro where
wordplay would be every form where the language is used with the function to amuse.
Other scholars like Leppihalme (1997) treat puns as a separate subcategory of wordplay;
however, others like Delabastita (1996) and Redfern (1985) use both terms
interchangeably. The latter approach is adopted in this study.
18
21
2.4.2. Typology of Wordplay
In this sub-section, we are going to clarify the categories or typologies of wordplay

which will be used in the current analysis in Chapter 3. As was previously mentioned,
there are many ways to define the concept of wordplay, and therefore there are also
numerous different typologies of wordplay. For this study we choose the typology
provided by Delabastita (1996: 128), which includes (i) homography, (ii) homonymy, (iii)
homophony, and (iv) paronymy (see below). We are going to propose two more
typologies which are firstly intertextual wordplay (Leppihalme, 1997: 141), and secondly
portmanteaux (Nash, 1985: 143).
• Homography: It describes the situation when two words are spelled identically
but there is a difference in sound.
• Homonymy: It refers to the situation where two words have the same sound and
spelling but there is a difference in meaning.
• Homophony: It occurs when two words have identical sounds but are spelled in
a different way.
• Paronymy: Two words share close resemblance, but there are slight differences
in both spelling and sound.
• Intertextual wordplay: According to Leppihalme (1997: 141), intertextual
wordplay is based on a readily available phrase (like a verse, advertising slogan,
proverb, the name of a book or film etc.). The phrase on which the wordplay is
based on is called a frame.
• Portmanteau: A word that results from blending two or more words, such that
the portmanteau word expresses some combination of the meaning of its parts,
e.g. “’mog’ (smoke + fog) or ‘spork’ (spoon + fork).19
Once we have clarified the typology of wordplays that we are going to use in the analysis
in the current, below we will introduce two different strategies for translating them.
19
Seen in www.britannica.com/topic/portmanteau-word
22
2.4.3. Strategies to Translate Wordplays.
As happens with the typologies we described above, there are several different
techniques or strategies to translate wordplays with. Firstly, we are going to see the
proposal of strategies given by Delabastita (1996: 134):
• Pun to pun: a source language pun translated by a target language pun

• Pun to non-pun: an original pun is transferred into a target text word or phrase,
which may preserve all the initial sense
• Pun to related rhetorical devices: metaphors, alliterations, cacophonies, etc.
• Pun to zero: a pun is omitted.
• Pun source text = pun target text: direct copy of the pun into target text.
• Non-pun to pun: a pun is added in target text where there is no pun in source
text.
• Zero to pun: the target text contains wordplays that source text does not.
• Editorial techniques: including footnotes, or an introduction, for example.
Chiaro also uses the expression ‘verbally expressed humour’ which fits with our
definition for wordplay, which is “every conceivable way in which language is used with
the intent to amuse” (1992: 4). The strategies proposed by Chiaro (2010: 6-7) are the
following:
• leave the verbally expressed humour unchanged.

• substitute the verbally expressed humour with a difference instance of verbally
expressed humour in the target language.
• replace the source verbally expressed humour with an idiomatic expression in the
target language.
• ignore the verbally expressed humour altogether.
Having seen all the relevant elements from cultural references that we are going
to need for our research project, along with all the other necessary theoretical framework
that we have surveyed in this Chapter, we provide a visual summary of the key points
below (see Appendices 1 and 2), as we shall apply these concepts and tools to our own
analysis of the audiovisual translation of television comedy in the following chapter.
23
3. ANALYSIS
3.1. Research Context
Before proceeding in this chapter with the examples we have selected for the
analysis of the audiovisual translation techniques used in the context of television humour
described in the previous chapter, we shall first provide a brief summary of the three
British and American television series that are the object of this brief research study and
from which we have extracted the examples for analysis: : (i) Fawlty Towers (BBC); (ii)
How I Met Your Mother (CBS); and (iii) Modern Family (ABC).
(i) Fawlty Towers (1975 – 1979). This is a British comedy which presents a bad-
tempered hotel owner, Basil Fawlty,20 inspired by a real-life English hotelier. The series
was written by and stars the Monty Python21 actor John Cleese and his ex-wife, Connie
Booth, who plays Polly, the long-suffering receptionist / chambermaid / waitress /
factotum, and who is generally responsible for getting Basil out of all the problems he
causes. Basil is married to Sybil, and they have recently hired a Spanish waiter Manuel,
who is himself a stereotypical parody of British xenophobia. The programme's initial run
of six episodes premiered on the BBC in September 1975. A second season of six
episodes ran in February 1979 22 (See Appendix 3).
(ii) How I Met your Mother (2005 – 2014) This is a sit-com about Ted (Josh
Radnor) and how he fell in love. It all starts when Ted's best friend, Marshall (Jason
Segal), tells him that he is going to marry his girlfriend, Lily (Alyson Hannigan), a
kindergarten teacher. Ted realizes that he had better hurry if he hopes to find true love.
Barney (Neil Patrick Harris), a friend with endless opinions, a liking for suits and
foolproof ways to meet women, accept to help him. When Ted meets Robin (Cobie
20
His name is wordplay on the word ‘faulty’, i.e. something which constantly goes wrong or causes
problems.
21
Famous British comedy group created in the seventies that is considered part of the popular British
culture.
22
Information taken from www.rottentomatoes.com/tv/fawlty_towers
24
Smulders), he is sure it is love at first sight, but destiny may have something else planned
for him. The series is narrated through flashbacks from the future 23 (See Appendix 4).
(iii) Modern Family (2009 – present).
This series corresponds to a satirical look at three different inter-related families and the
numerous adventures they face in each of their own funny ways. Modern Family stars the
Pritchett-Dunphy-Tucker clan, a wonderfully large and blended family. Together, these
three families give us an hilarious perspective into the ever-changing concept of the
‘modern family’24 (See Appendix 5).
3.2 Research Methodology
In order to continue with our analysis of examples selected from these three
sitcoms, I will proceed to explain the methodological process with which the study was.
carried out. Firstly, I watched all the episodes of each series, excepting Modern Family
from which only the first season was viewed. Once the selected examples to analyse were
identified in their original, dubbed (Spanish), and subtitled (Spanish) version, we have
ordered them according to the cultural reference they represent (see 2.2.3). Afterwards,
which translation technique was used in each case will be indicated (see 2.3.4), and finally
which translation tendency was applied in each case, too (see 2.3.3.). Taking into
consideration that cultural references related to wordplays or verbally expressed humour
found were numerous during the realisation of this study, those references will be
analysed differently, pointing out which strategy has been used to translate the verbal
humour (see 2.4.3) and what type of wordplay is in each example (see 2.4.2). Finally, we
will provide a brief discussion of the results obtained from this study, taking into account
the objectives established for this (see 1.1).
It is important to be highlight here that this is to be considered a brief study,

meaning that not all the concepts from Chapter 2 might appear in the analysis in order to
preserve its brevity. However, we have found our survey of these concepts to be relevant
as a whole to our central focus and the exploration of audiovisual translation and will
undoubtedly prove to be very highly useful for further development in possible future
23
Information taken from www.filmaffinity.com/en/film460960.html
24
Information taken from www.filmaffinity.com/en/film439937.html
25
lines of investigation to be undertaken.
3.3 Examples of Audiovisual Translation
We shall proceed to divide our examples into four sections; (i) natural
environments; (ii) cultural heritage, (iii) social references and (iv) linguistic references.
3.3.1. Natural Environment
Example 1: Fawlty Towers.

Episode 2x01: ‘Communication Problems’ (min 6:20).
Context: the manager of the hotel, Basil Fawlty, is having a conversation with a stubborn
old lady who is complaining about everything in her room. In this case, she is not satisfied
with the views from her hotel window and demands a discount for it.
Original version Dubbed version Subtitled version

LADY: (…) I shall expect a LADY: (…) espero que me LADY: (…) pero quiero una
reduction. hagan un descuento. rebaja.
BASIL: Why, because BASIL: ¿Por qué? ¿Porque el BASIL: ¿Porque el Krakatoa no
Krakatoa's not erupting at Krakatoa no va a entrar en está en erupción?
the moment? erupción?
Krakatoa, which is a famous, powerful volcano, is ironically mentioned by Basil,

who is fed up with that lady’s complaints and ironically mentions that she might be
missing a view of a famous natural phenomenon. We can see that the translation technique
used is literal reproduction of the reference as there are no changes in the dubbed version
nor subtitled one. In relation to the tendencies of translation we have surveyed in Chapter
2, this example represents the foreignization tendency. A familiarization tendency would
have been to use a more familiar volcano for Spanish audiences like Mt Teide. A
suggestion for translation could be Basil saying “¿Por qué? ¿Porque San Borondón25 no
está emergiendo del mar en este momento?” (See Appendix 6).
25
See www.abc.es/cultura/20150317/abci-isla-errante-borondon-aparece-201503160957.html
26
3.3.2. Cultural Heritage
Example 1: How I Met your Mother.

Episode 1x02: ‘Purple Giraffe’ (min 2:25).
Context: Robin, who is dating Ted, is confessing to Lily that she is not planning to have
a formal relationship, unlike him, and wants this information to be kept secret.

ROBIN: This just stays ROBIN: Que esto quede ROBIN: Que quede
between us, right? entre nosotras, ¿vale? entre nosotras, ¿eh?
LILY: Are you kidding? This LILY: ¿Bromeas? Estos LILY: Este buzón es
flapper? Fort Knox. labios son una tumba. acorazado.
In this example, Lily is comparing her reliability to Fort Knox, a historic military
building in Kentucky (USA) which has been called the most secure vault of the planet.26
Both the dubbing and subtitled versions exclude the reference. The dubbed version uses
the translation technique of adding a new reference, which is the linguistic culture
reference of “estos labios son una tumba”, which is a metaphor usually used in Spanish
to refer to keeping a secret quiet. The subtitled version uses the neutralization technique
as the cultural reference is cancelled, but by using “este buzón es acorazado” it conserves
the sense of the utterance. In this way, the tendency adopted in this translation is
familiarization because of the use of a known expression in the target language. (See
Appendix 7).
Example 2: Modern Family.

Episode 1x04: ‘The Incident’ (min 8:30).
Context: Phil is speaking to Haley, his daughter, in her room after she has had a bad
argument downstairs at home with her mother, Claire.

PHIL: Things with your PHIL: Vaya, las cosas con tu PHIL: ¿Cómo se han
mum got pretty intense madre se han puesto un poco caldeado los ánimos ahí
down there, uh? Like feas antes, ¿eh? Es como abajo, eh? Parecía una
“East Coast-West Coast”, norte y sur, ¿lo pillas? guerra de bandas. ¿Me
you feeling me? sigues?
26
See www.rd.com/culture/fort-knox-security/
27
“East Coast – West Coast” refers to the events that took place in the nineties when
two famous rappers were killed by gangs as the result of the rivalry between the East
Coast rappers and West Coast ones.27 Phil uses this reference because he wants to be seen
by his children as a cool dad. However, the dubbed version could be making reference to
the American Civil War, which was a dispute between North and South armies in the
USA, but, as a Spanish person, at the moment of watching this scene I felt lost, but finally
I understand it as if Haley and Claire were poles apart, which is an expression used in
Spain to refer to people who are, think, and behave totally differently from each other.
Regarding this last thought, we cannot be sure about the intention of the translator or what
technique or tendency were used in it, so we might be facing a failure in translation. The
subtitled version uses the technique of neutralization: it cancels the cultural reference, but
maintains the meaning, and the translation tendency is familiarization as it eliminates a
concrete culturally-bound fact and replaces it with a more general one. (See Appendix 8)

Episode 3x09: ‘Slapsgiving’ / ‘Día de Acción de Tortas’ (min 5:08).
Context: Ted, Robin, Marshall, Lily and Barney are at the café where they usually meet,
and suddenly a man who looks ten years older than them appears. He turns out to be
Robin’s new boyfriend. He and Robin kiss each other and leave the café. After that, Ted
makes the following comment, making emphasis on the age difference between the
couple.

TED: Unbelievable. Robin is TED: Increíble. Robin TED: Es increíble. Robin sale
dating Orville Redenbacher. está saliendo con con Orville Redenbacher.
Matusalén.
Orville Redenbacher is an aged-man who starred in nearly all the commercials of

a brand of popcorn in the USA. The dubbed version uses the technique of absolute
universalization as Orville is replaced by Matusalén (Mathuselah), who is a biblical
character known for his longevity, and he is more universally known than Orville. We do
27
See www.quora.com/Why-is-there-a-rivalry-between-East-Coast-and-West-Coast-hip-hop-and-rap-
groups
28
not consider this as a social culture reference because it does not implicitly appear as “as
old as Mathuselah / más viejo que Matusalén”. The translation tendency is familiarization.
Regarding the subtitled version, the technique used is the literal reproduction of the
reference, which we consider ineffective as Orville Redenbacher and his brand of popcorn
are not known in Spain. The tendency used is foreignization. (See Appendix 9).

Episode 1x06: ‘The Germans’ (min 5:20)
Context: Basil is in the lobby of the hotel. Major Gowen (a permanent hotel resident)
appears and they start speaking. Major Gowen is talking about how he was very keen on
a past girlfriend and mentions an occasion when they went to watch a cricket match
together.

MAJOR GOWEN: I must MAJOR GOWEN: (…) MAJOR GOWEN: (…) la
have been keen on her recuerdo que en una ocasión llevé a ver la India.
because I took her to see la llevé a ver India.
India!
BASIL: India? BASIL: ¿India? BASIL: ¿India?
MAJOR GOWEN: At the MAJOR GOWEN: En el MAJOR GOWEN: Al

Oval! estadio de Oval. críquet.
In the way that Major Gowen is telling the story, it sounds like they went to India,
but then he mentions the Oval, which is a famous British cricket ground, so he is referring
to the India national team playing in England at the Oval cricket ground. The dubbed
version uses the over-explanation technique as it adds information to let us know that the
Oval is a sports ground. However, the Spanish might not be familiarized with cricket, so
we will not get the joke. I prefer the subtitled version, which uses the neutralization
technique, but helps us understand better. Both versions have foreignization translation
tendencies too, because neither the Oval ground nor cricket are sporting concepts people
usually know of in Spain. (See Appendix 10)
29
3.3.3. Social Culture
Example 1; Modern Family.

Episode 1x01: Pilot (min 5:13).
Context: Phil is telling the camera that he is a cool dad, and that he is aware of all the new
tendencies amongst contemporary young people. To show this, Phil lists some of the most
common text abbreviations.

PHIL: I surf the web, I text PHIL: Navego por PHIL: Navego por
LOL, Laugh Out Loud, Internet, escribo MMR, internet. Mando SMS.
OMG, Oh My God, WTF, Me Muero Risa, ADM, M-M-R: “me muero de
Why The Face (…) Ay Dios Mío, QMD, Que risa”. A-D-M: “ay, Dios
Me Dices (…) mío.” Q-M-D: “¿Qué me
dices?” (…)
The major problem with these dubbed and subtitled versions is that those Spanish
abbreviations do not even exist. This translation has opted for the literal translation
technique and familiarization tendency. The result of this translation is introducing us to
Phil as a dad who tries to be cool, but he fails. This might be intentional in order to
produce hilarity, so in this case the technique used would be adding a new reference. (See
Appendix 11).

Episode 1x06: ‘Run for your Wife’ / ‘Corre a por tu esposa’ (min 18:55).
Context: The children have started school, but Phil misreads how Claire is dealing with
the empty house, believing she is bored and needs a challenge. Claire just wants to sit in
the house alone and read her book, but Phil challenges her to a running race, believing he
is faster than her. At the end of their race, Claire gives up and lets Phil win, knowing that
the kids leaving for school was harder on him than it was on her and he needed the win
more than she did.
30
[Phil wins] [Phil wins] [Phil wins]
PHIL: U-S-A! U-S-A! PHIL: ¡Soy el mejor! ¡Soy el PHIL: ¡Viva yo! ¡Viva yo!
(…) mejor! (…) (…)
The U-S-A chant is common in the United Stated. It expresses U.S. pride, and it
is used to support national sports victories. In this case, Phil is celebrating his victory
using the chant, but in the Spanish translation this reference has been cancelled by the
neutralization technique, and a more familiar chant has been substituted (“soy el mejor /
viva yo”), which correspond to the use of the familiarization tendency. A possible
suggestion for translation could be simply reproducing the cultural reference literally, as
the U-S-A chant is already known in Spain, and other series as The Simpsons have also
used it.28 (See Appendix 12)

Episode 4x03: ‘I Heart NJ’ / ‘Nueva Jersey amor – odio’ (min 7:24)
Context: The characters are about to start playing ‘Scrabble’ at Stella’s (who is Ted’s new
wife), and she says the “X” tile is hard to read because it was eaten and digested by her
dog in the past. The doorbell rings, so Stella leaves the room, and Barney makes a joke
about the dog.

BARNEY: Hey, guys. I BARNEY: Eh, chicos. BARNEY: Chicos, seguro que
bet that dog was really Seguro que ese perro estuvo ese perro flipó al tragarse un
flying high after it volando muy alto después de poco de “X”.
swallowed a little “X”. tragarse la “X”.
‘X’ is what Ecstasy, an illegal psychoactive drug, is called on the streets. Barney
makes fun of the situation suggesting that the dog swallowed the ‘X’ tile and experienced
the effects of the drug. ‘To be high’ is an English expression for being under the effects
of a drug. In the dubbed and subtitled version, the translation technique used is the literal
28
The Simpsons 10x23: Thirty minutes over Tokyo, at min 18:40.
31
reproduction of the reference, as they keep the letter ‘X’ to refer to the drug, even if in
Spain this drug might not be known by that name, so the translation tendency of this
example is foreignization. Our suggestion for translation would be using the letter “M”,
which is the letter sometimes used to refer to ecstasy in Spain.29 (See Figure 13).

Episode 3x03: ‘Third Wheel’ / ‘El triciclo’ (min 0:31)
Context: Barney and Marshall are playing a Wimbledon tennis videogame, then
Mashall wins the match and starts celebrating his victory, but Barney warns him that the
competition is not finished yet.

BARNEY: Don’t get BARNEY: No te hagas el BARNEY: No te pongas
cocky. Wimbledon lasts a chulito. Wimbledon dura dos chulo. Wimbledon dura
fortnight. ‘weekends’. una quincena.
MARSHALL: ‘Fortnight’. MARSHALL: ‘Weekends’ MARSHALL:

British words are so cool. Cómo molan las palabras Quincena. Cómo son los
inglesas. ingleses.
As they are playing a tennis videogame set in Wimbledon (UK), Barney uses the
expression ‘fortnight’, a British term referring to a period of two weeks, which is also the
duration of the Wimbledon tennis competition. American speakers seem to find these
kinds of British words and expressions to be elegant, and even pretentious. In this case,
Marshall shows his admiration for such an elegant word. The dubbed version uses the
English word ‘weekend’ instead of ‘fortnight’ to create the same effect of elegance, but
it sounds strange as the characters are from New York where American English is spoken.
The translation technique used is absolute universalization as the reference is substituted
by another reference which is more familiar, so the translation tendency used here is
familiarization. In the subtitled version, the technique used is neutralization as the
reference is cancelled, but the utterance conserves the meaning (See Appendix 14).
29
See www.terapiahiphop.com/2011/11/23/tipos-de-drogas-y-sus-nombres-en-la-calle/
32
3.3.4. Linguistic Culture

Episode 1x01: ‘A Touch of Class’ / Un toque de clase (min 0:45)
Context: Basil is in the lobby of the hotel and Manuel, the waiter (who in the original
British version is Spanish, but is an Italian, Paolo, in the dubbed one), appears with three
trays of food. Basil thinks that there is too much butter and tells Manuel, but the limited
English of the waiter generates problems in communication.

BASIL: There is too BASIL: Son demasiadas BASIL: Hay demasiada
much butter on those bandejas. Un, deux, trois. mantequilla en los tres
trays. platos.
MANUEL: No, no, señor. PAOLO: No, no, signore. No MANUEL: No, señor. No en
Not “on those trays”. No, “un, deux, trois”. No, los tres. Es “un, dos, tres”
Sir, “Uno, dos, tres”, signore, “uno, due, tre”
The type of wordplay of this reference is homophony because “on those trays”
sounds similar to “uno, dos, tres” and makes fun of it. The strategy used in the dubbed
and subtitled version is substitution with a different utterance as “on those trays” is now
“un, deux, trois” (Basil does not speak Italian, but tries with French). The subtitled version
uses the strategy of leaving the verbal humour unchanged. (See Appendix 15).

Episode 1x05: ‘Gourmet Night’ / ‘Noches gastronómicas’ (min 18:00)
Context: The Fawltys are very pleased with their new chef, Kurt, so they decide
to have a gourmet evening on Thursdays to promote the hotel and thus new potential,
upper-class guests. The gourmet night is about to start and Kurt gets incapacitated because
of his excessive drinking caused by an argument with Manuel. The Fawltys are forced to
secretly ask for food from another restaurant who are only able to serve duck. Basil is in
the dining room in order to inform the guests about the unexpected change of menu.
33
GUEST: And what do GUEST: ¿Y si qué hace GUEST: ¿Y si no te gusta el
you do if you don’t like alguien al que no le guste el pato?
duck? pato?
BASIL: Well, if you BASIL: Bueno, si no le gusta BASIL: Si no te gusta el

don’t like duck…uh, you el pato… ayune usted un pato, está usted apañado.
rather stuck. rato.
Basil’s response to the question in the original version is funny because it recurs
to the musicality of words and rhyme. It does not correspond to the typologies that we
provide in Chapter 2. Both dubbed and subtitled versions use the translation strategy of
substituting the verbal humour with a different instance in the target language. (See
Appendix 16).

Episode 2x06: ‘The Germans’ / ‘Los alemanes’ (min 20:20)
Context: Basil has just come back from hospital after receiving a treatment after
receiving a blow on his head, and now he has his head bandaged, as well as feeling
confused due to concussion. An old lady guest asks him about his health.
Original version Dubbed versión Subtitled version

BASIL: My dear woman, BASIL: Señora mía, más BASIL: Un golpe así en la
a blow on the head like vale recibir un golpe en la cabeza es como… dos en la
that is worth two in the cabeza así… que ciento entrepierna.
bush. volando.
Here, Basil in his confusion adapts the proverb “a bird in the hand is worth two in
the bush,” which sounds funny when speaking about his injury and highlights his
confusion. The dubbed version uses the expression in Spanish (“más vale pájaro en mano
que ciento volando”), so it does not change the verbal humour. However, the subtitled
version uses the strategy of substitution with another utterance in target language, and it
plays with the double meaning of ‘bush’ which makes reference to the groin. This
34
example does not contemplate the types of wordplays presented in Chapter 2.4.2. (See
Appendix 17)

Episode 1x01: Pilot / Piloto (min 18:30)
Context: Mitchell and Cameron are hosting a meeting in their house. Gloria, who
is a beautiful Colombian woman, and Mitchell’s father’s second wife, has just arrived and
Phil is greeting her.

PHIL: Hi Gloria, How are PHIL: Hola Gloria, ¿cómo PHIL: Hola Gloria, ¿cómo
you? Oh, what a beautiful estás? ¡Oh, qué vestido tan estás? Qué vestido tan bonito.
dress! bonito!
GLORIA: Gracias, Phil.
GLORIA: Ay, thank you, GLORIA: Ay, gracias Phil.
Phil. PHIL: Sí, es muy… (Starts
PHIL: Si... es muy bonito y… touching her hip)
PHIL:Okay… (Starts touching her hip)
(Starts touching her hip) CLAIRE: Phil, quieto. Se mira
Claire: ¡Quieto! ¡Se mira pero pero no se toca.
CLAIRE: Oh, hey Phil. no se toca! ¿Vale?
She said “Phil”. Not “feel”
Phil supposedly misunderstands his name ‘Phil’ and confuses it with the verb
‘feel’ when Gloria thanks him, so he starts touching her dress on her hip. The typology
of wordplay of this extract is another example of homophony (identical sounds and
different spelling). The translation strategy used in both the dubbed and subtitled versions
is replacement with an idiomatic expression in the target language, as in both versions he
says “se mira pero no se toca” which is an expression in Spanish meaning that touching
or manipulating something is not allowed. This entirely misses the intended double
meaning. (See Appendix 18)
3.4. Results
Having classified our examples in the preceding sub-sections according to our

theoretical framework established in Chapter 2, we can see that the results of our small-
35
scale analysis show that, in first place, cultural references involving natural environment
are not as prone to being used if compared to the rest of the cultural references we have
seen, especially in our examples in which linguistic culture references are more habitual.
Secondly, the translation tendency in our sample which is most frequently found is
familiarization by the use of techniques that cancel the cultural bridge. That is to say there
mostly seems to be an intention to adapt content to the target culture to help the target
audience to understand the references and produce laughter. Regarding linguistic culture
references, the typology which is most frequently found is homonymy, and the most
frequently used strategy is substitution of the reference for a different utterance. This
shows the wide range of tendencies and techniques available to the audiovisual translator
in both dubbed and subtitled translations, and the care which need to be taken to select
the appropriate one according to the target context.
4. CONCLUSIONS
In order to be able to present the conclusions that we have reached in carrying out
the current research project work clearly, we will have to take into account the objectives
mentioned at the beginning.
As we have seen, we have explored the world of audiovisual translation and have
been able get to know in a brief way how it works in relation to dubbing and subtitling
processes. We have also explored the types of cultural references that we can find in
audiovisual contents and the relevant techniques, tendencies and strategies of translation
that exist in order to break the cultural bridges which might separate different countries.
In addition, we have seen the laborious task that translators need to undertake as cultural
mediators in television comedy. Translating cultural references entails having
intercultural competence and making important decisions in order to assure the priority
of producing laughter, which is the main characteristic of humorous television series such
as the ones we have exemplified.
We have also proved that humour can be translated, but sometimes there are cases
where the humorous content only makes sense in a determined culture, and the translator
has to choose between looking for another way to produce a humorous moment in the
target language, or not. In our study, we have discovered that the translation of humour
is a great intercultural challenge that requires the use of many skills, among which the
36
creativity of the translator stands out. We have also seen that in comedy television the
priority is to find a solution that triggers hilarity in the target culture.
Finally, we have found that the process of dubbing is more prone to follow a
familiarizing translation tendency, and it is more likely to use the different translation
techniques without focusing on any in particular. Regarding the results of subtitled
versions, foreignizing and familiarizing tendencies are used equally, and the
neutralization technique is the most frequently used, followed by the literal reproduction
of the reference. Therefore, although it is very true that it is easy to get lost in the
translation of television humour, we have at our disposal a number of techniques and
strategies to help us find our way to intercultural comedy.
37
5. WORKS CITED
In this list of the works cited, we will follow the MLA formatting rules (8th edition).
Agost, Rosa. Traducción y Doblaje: Palabras, Voces e Imágenes, Ariel. 1999.
Bays, Carter and Craig Thomas, creators. How I Met Your Mother. CBS. 2005.
Chaume, Frederic. Audiovisual Translation: Dubbing. St. Jerome Pub., 2012.
Chiaro, Delia. The Language of Jokes: Analysing Verbal Play. Routledge, 1992.
---. (editor). Translation, Humour and Literature: Translation and

Humour. Vol. 1 Bloomsbury Publishing, 2010.
---. (editor). "Translation and Humour, Humour and Translation." 1-29, 2010.
---. "Verbally Expressed Humor and Translation." The Primer of

Humor Research, vol. 8, 2008: 569-609.
---. "Verbally Expressed Humour on Screen: Reflections on Translation and

Reception." The Journal of Specialised Translation, vol. 6, 2006: 198-
208.
Cleese, John and Connie Booth, creators. Fawlty Towers. BBC, 1975.
“Culture.” Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition,

carla.umn.edu/culture/definitions.html. Accessed 4 may. 2018.
“Culture.” Oxford Dictionaries.com,

en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/culture. Accessed 4 may. 2018.
38
Deckert, Mikołaj (editor). Audiovisual Translation: Research and Use.
Peter Lang, 2017.
Delabastita, Dirk (editor). Wordplay and Translation: Special Issue

Dedicated to the Memory of André Lefevere (1945-1996). St. Jerome Pub.,
1996.
Galán, D. Centro Virtual Cervantes, cvc.

Cervantes.es/lengua/anuario_03/galan/p03.htm. Accesed 04 may 2018.
Hurtado Albir, Amparo. "Traducción y Traductología. Introducción a la

Traductología." Cátedra, 2001.
Kroeber, Alfred Louis, and Clyde Kluckhohn. "Culture: A Critical Review of

Concepts and Definitions." In Papers. Peabody Museum of Archaeology
& Ethnology, Harvard University, 1952.
Lederach, John Paul. Preparing for Peace: Conflict Transformation across

Cultures. Syracuse University Press, 1995.
Leppihalme, Ritva. Culture Bumps: An Empirical Approach to the

Translation of Allusions. Vol. 10. Multilingual Matters, 1997.
Lloyd, Christopher and Steven Levitan, creators. Modern Family. ABC, 2009.
Lorenzo, Lourdes, Ana Pereira, and María Xoubanova. "The Simpsons/Los

Simpson: Analysis of an Audiovisual Translation." The Translator,
vol. 9.2, 2003: 269-291.
Luque Nadal, Lucía. "Los Culturemas: ¿Unidades Lingüísticas, Ideológicas o

Culturales?” Language Design: Journal of Theoretical and Experimental
Linguistics, special issue, 2009: 93-120.
39
Luque, Adrián Fuentes. "Consideraciones sobre la Traducción de las
Referencias Culturales Subordinadas." Trasvases culturales: Literatura,
Cine y Traducción, vol. 3. Servicio de Publicaciones, 2001: 159-166
Mayoral Asensio, Roberto. "Traducción Audiovisual. Traducción Intercultural.

Traducción Subordinada." Seminario de Traducción Subordinada,
Sevilla 12, 1998.
Molina Martínez, Lucía. "El Otoño del Pingüino." Análisis Descriptivo de la

Traducción de los Culturemas. Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I,
I,2006. 2006.
Nash, Walter. "The Language of Humor: Style and Technique in Comic

Discourse.” Longman, 1985.
Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation. Vol. 66. Prentice Hall, 1988.
Nord, Christiane. "Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Theories

Explained." Manchester: St. Jerome, 1997.
Ojer Goñi, Teresa, and Elena Capapé. "Nuevos Modelos de Negocio en la

Distribución de Contenidos Audiovisuales: El Caso de Netflix." I
Congreso Internacional de la Red Iberoamericana de Narrativas
Audiovisuales (Red INAV). Málaga-Sevilla, 23-25 de mayo de 2012.
Editores: Virginia Guarinos, María Jesús Ruiz (pp. 197-210).
Universidad de Sevilla, Secretariado de Recursos Audiovisuales y
Nuevas Tecnologías, 2012.
Pérez Vigaray, Fco. Javier. La Traducción del Humor en Austin Powers: La

Espía que Me Achuchó. Análisis Descriptívo-Contrastívo del Doblaje y el
Subtitulado. Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 2006.
40
“PODEMOS. Pablo Iglesias: ‘Repita conmigo, Señora Esperanza Aguirre’.”
Youtube, uploaded by Podemos Ecuador, 21 jul. 2014,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=R2fxFHqwAA8.
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www.britannica.com/technology/dubbing-cinema. Accessed 6 May 2018.
Sierra, Juan José Martínez. Humor y Traducción: Los Simpson cruzan la

frontera. Publicacions de la Universitat Jaume I, Servei de
Comunicació i Publicacions, 2008.
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Influencia del Aficionado en los Criterios Profesionales." Puentes 6, 2005.
Spanakaki, Katia. "Translating Humor for Subtitling." Translation Journal 11.2,

2007: 1- 2007: 1-24.
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Audiovisuales." La Traducción para el Doblaje y la Subtitulación.
Cátedra, 2001.
“Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo.” The Simpsons, created by Matt Groening, season
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Volume 1. John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2010.
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(May 1988): 1550-1552.
Zabalbeascoa Terrán, Patrick. Developing Translation Studies to Better

Account for Audiovisual Texts and Other New Forms of Text
41
Production: With Special Attention to the TV3 Version of Yes,
Minister. Diss. Universitat de Lleida, 1993.
42
6. APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3. Fawlty Towers (BBC)
43
Appendix 4. How I Met Your Mother (CBS)
Appendix 5. Modern Family (ABC)
44
45
46
47
48

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LOST IN INTERCULTURAL TRANSLATION:

A BRIEF STUDY OF TELEVISION COMEDY

TRABAJO DE FIN DE GRADO

Autor: Alfredo Herrera Ramos

Tutor: Gina Louise Oxbrow

Grado en: Lenguas Modernas

Convocatoria: Diciembre 2018

1.1. Justification and Motivation

In my opinion, knowing different languages is a powerful tool, not only for

As I have mentioned above, watching films and television series is one of my

(i) to explore the world of audiovisual translation and, more specifically,

(iii) to discover whether humour is translatable, or at times untranslatable, and the

(iv) to compare both dubbed and subtitled versions of selected examples.

2.1. Audiovisual Translation

Audiovisual translation deals with a type of text whose characteristics make it a

(iv) Audiovisual translation counts on its own arrangements between the

2.1.1. Audiovisual Texts

In addition to this intercultural component, as Chaume states (2001: 77-

2.1.2. Modalities of Audiovisual Translation

Before going on to present the modalities of audiovisual translation, we will first

According to the definition of ‘dubbing (cinematic concepts) in given in the

The most frequent modality of audiovisual translation in Spain is dubbing, so we

According to Agost (1999: 17-18), subtitling is the incorporation of subtitles

Having established the different modalities of audiovisual translation that might

2.2.1. Culture and Intercultural Competence

We might also refer to the definition by Kroeber and Kluckholn (1952):

2.2.2. Cultural References

According to Nord (1997: 34), a cultural reference is “a social phenomenon of a

2.2.3. Classification of Cultural References.

• Natural Environment: flora and fauna, atmospheric phenomena, climate,

• Cultural Heritage: characters (real or fictional), historical facts, religious

• Linguistic Culture: transliterations, sayings and proverbs, fixed phrases and

In the following section, we shall provide a working definition of ‘humour’ and

The interpretation of this concept given by Spanakaki (2007) helps us to focus

2.3.1. The Translation of Humour in Audiovisual Texts

Bearing in mind the cultural difficulty of translating humour between languages

When translating humour in audiovisual texts, it is important to establish some

2.3.2. Priorities and Obstacles

On regarding possible obstacles when translating cultural references, Martinez

Additionally, sometimes cultural references which are popularly known stop

There is a further aspect to be taken into account when translating comedy in

According to Chaume Varela (2012), in audiovisual translation it is substantial to

2.3.4. Translation Techniques

In the current sub-section, we will highlight further those translation techniques

Hurtado Albir uses the denomination ‘technique’ to refer to “a concrete verbal

• Literal reproduction of the cultural reference. The original form of the

• Absolute universalization. The original reference is replaced by another more

• Literal Translation. This is when the subject is translated word-by-word. For

• Addition of new references. This technique consists of adding references that do

• Over-explanation.17 This is when words or sentences which do not appear in the

2.4. Linguistic References

In Chapter 3, we will analyse different cases of cultural references from a selection

In this sub-section, we are going to clarify the categories or typologies of wordplay

• Pun to pun: a source language pun translated by a target language pun

• leave the verbally expressed humour unchanged.

3.1. Research Context

(iii) Modern Family (2009 – present).

3.2 Research Methodology

It is important to be highlight here that this is to be considered a brief study,

3.3 Examples of Audiovisual Translation

3.3.1. Natural Environment

Example 1: Fawlty Towers.

Original version Dubbed version Subtitled version