MAKTAB RENDAH SAINS MARA

KEPALA BATAS

SCRAP BOOK

Homework for Semester 1 Break 2018

Science KSSM
 Stars and Galaxies in the Universe
 Solar System
 Meteoroid, Asteroid, Comet

MUHAMMAD FAKHRURRAZI BIN RIDUAN

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INDEX

1) STARS AND GALAXIES IN THE UNIVERSE........................................................................................ 3

1.1 TYPES OF GALAXIES IN THE UNIVERSE ................................................................................... 3
i) ELLIPTICAL GALAXY .................................................................................................................. 3
ii) SPIRAL GALAXY ........................................................................................................................ 3
iii) IRREGULAR GALAXY ................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 THE MILKY WAY ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 THE LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR ...................................................................................................... 6
1.4 BIRTH AND DEATH OF A STAR ................................................................................................ 7
1.5 RELATIVE SIZE COMPARISON ................................................................................................. 9
i) RELATIVE SIZE COMPARISON OF PLANETS CLOSE TO THE SUN .............................................. 9
ii) RELATIVE SIZE COMPARISON OF PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM ......................................... 9
iii) RELATIVE SIZE COMPARISON OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM ....................... 9
iv) RELATIVE SIZE COMPARISON BETWEEN THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND THE UNIVERSE .............. 10
1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF STARS .................................................................................................... 11
1.7 SIZES OF STARS...................................................................................................................... 12
i) SUPERGIANT .......................................................................................................................... 12
ii) GIANT..................................................................................................................................... 12
iii) DWARF................................................................................................................................... 13
2) SOLAR SYSTEM .............................................................................................................................. 14
2.1 SOLAR SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................... 14
2.2 ASTRONOMICAL UNIT AND LIGHT YEARS............................................................................ 15
i) ASTRONOMICAL UNIT ........................................................................................................... 15
ii) LIGHT YEARS .............................................................................................................................. 15
2.3 CONVERSION OF ASTRONOMICAL UNIT, LIGHT YEARS AND KILOMETRES ........................ 16
2.4 PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM .......................................................................................... 17
2.5 ROTATIONAL DIRECTION OF PLANETS................................................................................. 18
2.6 NATURAL SATELLITES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH ........................................... 18
i) NATURAL SATELLITES ............................................................................................................ 18
ii) CHARASTERISTICS OF THE EARTH.......................................................................................... 19
2.7 ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT ..................................................................................................... 20
3) METEOROID, ASTEROID, COMET.................................................................................................. 21
3.1 METEOROID, ASTEROID, COMET ......................................................................................... 21

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1) STARS AND GALAXIES IN THE UNIVERSE

1.1 TYPES OF GALAXIES IN THE UNIVERSE

i) ELLIPTICAL GALAXY

Elliptical galaxies are shaped like a spheriod, or elongated sphere. In the

sky, where we can only see two of their three dimensions, these galaxies look like
elliptical, or oval, shaped disks. The light is smooth, with the surface brightness
decreasing as you go farther out from the center. Elliptical galaxies are given a
classification that corresponds to their elongation from a perfect circle, otherwise
known as their ellipticity. The larger the number, the more elliptical the galaxy is.
Elliptical galaxies have no particular axis of rotation.
ii) SPIRAL GALAXY

Spiral galaxies have three main components: a bulge, disk, and halo. The
bulge is a spherical structure found in the center of the galaxy. This feature mostly
contains older stars. The disk is made up of dust, gas, and younger stars. The disk
forms arm structures. Our Sun is located in an arm of our galaxy, the Milky Way.
The halo of a galaxy is a loose, spherical structure located around the bulge and
some of the disk. The halo contains old clusters of stars.

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 iii) IRREGULAR GALAXY

Irregular galaxies have no particular shape. They are among the smallest
galaxies and are full of gas and dust. Having a lot of gas and dust means that these
galaxies have a lot of star formation going on within them. This can make them
very bright. The Large and Small Magellanic Clouds are examples of irregular
galaxies. They are two small galaxies which orbit around our own Milky Way
Galaxy. About 20% of all galaxies are irregulars.

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1.2 THE MILKY WAY

The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System. The descriptive "milky"
is derived from the appearance from Earth of the galaxy which is a band of light
seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be individually distinguished by
the naked eye. From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk-
shaped structure is viewed from within. Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of
light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610. Until the early 1920s, most
astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in
the Universe. Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow
Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky
Way is just one of many galaxies.
The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy with a diameter between 100,000 and
180,000 light-years. It is estimated to contain 100–400 billion stars. There are
probably at least 100 billion planets in the Milky Way. The Solar System is located
within the disk, about 26,000 light-years from the Galactic Center, on the inner edge
of the Orion Arm, one of the spiral-shaped concentrations of gas and dust. The stars
in the innermost 10,000 light-years form a bulge and one or more bars that radiate
from the bulge. The galactic center is an intense radio source known as Sagittarius
A, likely a supermassive black hole.
Stars and gases at a wide range of distances from the Galactic Center orbit at
approximately 220 kilometers per second. The constant rotation speed suggests
that much of the mass of the Milky Way does not emit or absorb electromagnetic
radiation. This mass has been termed "dark matter” . The rotational period is about
240 million years at the position of the Sun. The Milky Way as a whole is moving at
a velocity of approximately 600 km per second with respect to extragalactic frames
of reference. The oldest stars in the Milky Way are nearly as old as the Universe
itself and thus probably formed shortly after the Dark Ages of the Big Bang.

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1.3 THE LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR

Examples of the life cycle of a star

The solar nebular hypothesis describes the formation of our solar system from a
nebula cloud made from a collection of dust and gas. It is believed that the sun,
planets, moons, and asteroids were formed around the same time around 4.5
billion years ago from a nebular.
It's believed that before our solar system was formed 4.5 billion years ago,
a nebula, which is an interstellar cloud of gas and dust, was present in our
location. As gravity does with everything, it began to condense the gas into
varying regions of density. The denser regions began to grow into clumps of
matter, which, over the course of time, would be the seeds for the formation of
our sun, planets, and moons.
As gravity condensed the gas, rotation of the gas increased, spreading the gas
cloud into a rotating disk that would form the plane of the solar system as we
know it today. Evidence of this can be seen because all of the planets revolve
around the sun in the same plane and direction.
The center of the disk of spinning gas experienced the least amount of centripetal
force, which allowed a majority of mass from the nebula cloud to be attracted to
the center by the force of gravity.
As gravity compacted the material in the sun, mostly hydrogen gas, pressure
began to increase and heat the gas. About 4.5 billion years ago, the mass reached
a critical point, and the hydrogen at the center was under so much pressure that it
fused with another hydrogen atom, creating helium. This fusion was the birth of
our star, the sun.

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1.4 BIRTH AND DEATH OF A STAR
i. BIRTH OF A STAR

Birth of a star :- nebulae

A star is born when atoms of light elements are squeezed under enough
pressure for their nuclei. All stars are the result of a balance of forces of gravity
compresses atoms in interstellar gas until the fusion reactions begin. And once the
fusion reactions begin, they exert an outward pressure. As long as the inward
force of gravity and the outward force generated by the fusion reactions are
equal, the star remains stable.

Clouds of gas are common in our galaxy and in other galaxies like ours.
These clouds are called nebulae. A typical nebula is many light-years across and
contains enough mass to make several thousand stars the size of our sun. The
majority of the gas in nebulae consists of molecules of hydrogen and helium but
most nebulae also contain atoms of other elements, as well as some surprisingly
complex organic molecules. These heavier atoms are remnants of older stars,
which have exploded in an event we call a supernova. The source of the organic
molecules is still a mystery.

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 ii. DEATH OF A STAR

Death of a star :- supernova

For stars the size of our Sun, when the core runs out of hydrogen fuel, it will
contract under the weight of gravity. However, some hydrogen fusion will occur in
the upper layers. As the core contracts, it heats up. This heats the upper layers,
causing them to expand. As the outer layers expand, the radius of the star will
increase and it will become a red giant. The radius of the red giant sun will be just
beyond Earth's orbit. At some point after this, the core will become hot enough to
cause the helium to fuse into carbon. When the helium fuel runs out, the core will
expand and cool. The upper layers will expand and eject material that will collect
around the dying star to form a planetary nebula. Finally, the core will cool into
a white dwarf and then eventually into a black dwarf. This entire process will take
a few billion years.
While for stars more massive than the sun, When the core runs out of
hydrogen, these stars fuse helium into carbon just like the sun. However, after the
helium is gone, their mass is enough to fuse carbon into heavier elements such as
oxygen, neon, silicon, magnesium, sulfur and iron. Once the core has turned to
iron, it can burn no longer. The star collapses by its own gravity and the iron core
heats up. The core becomes so tightly packed that protons and electrons merge to
form neutrons. In less than a second, the iron core, which is about the size of
Earth, shrinks to a neutron core with a radius of about 10 kilometers. The outer
layers of the star fall inward on the neutron core, thereby crushing it further. The
core heats to billions of degrees and explodes (supernova), thereby releasing large
amounts of energy and material into space. The shock wave from the supernova
can initiate star formation in other interstellar clouds. The remains of the core can
form a neutron star or a black hole depending upon the mass of the original star.

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1.5 RELATIVE SIZE COMPARISON
i) RELATIVE SIZE COMPARISON OF PLANETS CLOSE TO THE SUN

ii) RELATIVE SIZE COMPARISON OF PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

iii) RELATIVE SIZE COMPARISON OF THE COMPONENTS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

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iv) RELATIVE SIZE COMPARISON BETWEEN THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND THE UNIVERSE

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1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF STARS

Star Approximate Surface

Color Pictures Examples
Type Temperature

O Blue over 25,000 K 10 Lacertra

Rigel,
B Blue 11,000 - 25,000 K
Spica

A Blue 7,500 - 11,000 K Sirius, Vega

Blue to
F 6,000 - 7,500 K Canopus, Procyon
White

White to
G 5,000 - 6,000 K
Yellow Sun, Capella

Orange to
K 3,500 - 5,000 K Arcturus, Aldebaran
Red

M Red under 3,500 K Betelguese, Antares

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1.7 SIZES OF STARS
i) SUPERGIANT

Supergiant stars are the largest stars in the universe. Supergiants come in a
variety of sizes and temperatures, but they are generally classed as being either
red or blue. Supergiant stars can burn all of their remaining hydrogen in just a few
million years, compared to the several billion year lifetime of stars like our Sun.
During this time they will shine at least 100,000 times brighter than the Sun. At
the end of their life, red supergiant stars often explode as a supernova, producing
either a neutron star or a black hole in the process. Blue supergiants are
considerably hotter than red supergiants, but generally much smaller, only about
25 times the size of the Sun
ii) GIANT

Giant star, any star having a relatively large radius for its mass and
temperature; because the radiating area is correspondingly large, the brightness
of such stars is high. Subclasses of giants are supergiants, with even larger radius
and brightness for their masses and temperatures red giants, which have low
temperatures but are of great brightness; and subgiants, which have slightly
reduced radii and brightness. Some giants have luminosities hundreds of
thousands of times that of the Sun. Masses of giants and supergiants may be 10 to
30 times that of the Sun, but their volumes are often 1,000,000 to 10,000,000
times greater. Thus, they are low-density “diffuse” stars.

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 iii) DWARF

Dwarf star, any star of average or low luminosity, mass, and size. Important
subclasses of dwarf stars are white dwarfs and red dwarfs. Dwarf stars include so-
called main-sequence stars, among which is the Sun. The colour of dwarf stars can
range from blue to red, the corresponding temperature varying from high which is
above 10,000 K to low which is a few thousand K.

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2) SOLAR SYSTEM

2.1 SOLAR SYSTEM

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2.2 ASTRONOMICAL UNIT AND LIGHT YEARS
i) ASTRONOMICAL UNIT

An Astronomical Unit (AU) is the average distance between Earth and the Sun,
which is about 93 million miles or 150 million kilometers. Astronomical units
are usually used to measure distances within our Solar System. For example,
the planet Mercury is about 1/3 of an AU from the sun, while the farthest
planet, Pluto, is about 40 AU from the sun.

ii) LIGHT YEARS

A light-year is how astronomers measure distance in space. it’s defined by how

far a beam of light travels in one year which is a distance of 9.5 trillion
kilometres.

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2.3 CONVERSION OF ASTRONOMICAL UNIT, LIGHT YEARS AND KILOMETRES
i) LIGHT YEARS

ii) ASTRONOMICAL UNIT

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2.4 PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM
PLANETS MERCURY VENUS EARTH MARS JUPITER SATURN URANUS NEPTUNE
PICTURES

DISTANCE TO SUN 57.9 108.2 149.6 227.9 778.3 1429 2870 4504
MILLION MILLION MILLION MILLION MILLION MILLION MILLION MILLION
KM KM KM KM KM KM KM KM
RELATIVE MASS TO EARTH 0.055 0.723 1 0.107 317.8 95.3 14.6 17.23
DENSITY (G CM -3) 5.4 5.2 5.5 3.9 1.3 0.7 1.27 1.6
AVERAGE SURFACE 167 457 14 -55 -153 -185 214 -225
TEMPERATURE (Celcius)
TIME TAKEN TO ORBIT THE 88 DAYS 224.7 DAYS 365 DAYS 687 DAYS 11.9 29.5 YEARS 84 YEARS 164.8
SUN YEARS YEARS
TIME TAKEN TO COMPLETE 59 DAYS 243 DAYS 24 HOURS 25 HOURS 10 HOURS 11 HOURS 17 HOURS 16 HOURS
ONE ROTATION ON ITS
AXIS
NUMBER OF MOONS 0 0 1 2 67 62 27 14
MAIN ATMOSPHERIC NONE 96.5% CO2, 78% N, 21% 96% CO2, 89.6% H, 96% H, 3% 83.3% H, 80% H,
CONTENT 3.4% N, O2, 0.1% 1.9% N, 10.1% He, He, 0.4% 15.5% He, 19% He,
0.1% OTHERS 1.9% Ar, 0.3% OTHERS 2.4% 0.1%
OTHERS 0.2% O2 OTHERS methane OTHERS
CONDITION OF SURFACE

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2.5 ROTATIONAL DIRECTION OF PLANETS

Rotational angle and the direction of the planets in the solar system

All planets in the solar system rotate on their axis at different angles as
shown above. All these planets rotate from west to east except Venus which
rotates from east to west and Uranus which rotates on its side.

2.6 NATURAL SATELLITES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EARTH

i) NATURAL SATELLITES
The Earth is orbited by a natural satellite known as the moon. The fifth largest
moon in the solar system, Earth's moon is the only place beyond Earth where
humans have set foot. The brightest and largest object in our night sky, the
moon makes Earth a more livable planet by moderating our home planet's
wobble on its axis, leading to a relatively stable climate. It also causes tides,
creating a rhythm that has guided humans for thousands of years. The moon
was likely formed after a Mars-sized body collided with Earth.

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 ii) CHARASTERISTICS OF THE EARTH

Has a suitable
temperature range for Has a lot of water for
living organisms living processes

THE EARTH

Receives sunlight for

Has high oxygen content
plants to conduct
for respiratory system
photocyntesis

Has gravity that keeps

objects from floating

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 2.7 ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT

USED

WASTES
SOURCES

Ecological Footprint accounting measures the demand on and supply of nature.

The Ecological Footprint tracks the use of six categories of productive surface
areas: cropland, grazing land, fishing grounds, built-up land, forest area, and
carbon demand on land. If a population’s Ecological Footprint exceeds the region’s
biocapacity, that region runs an ecological deficit. Its demand for the goods and
services that its land and seas can provide which are fruits and vegetables, meat,
fish, wood, cotton for clothing, and carbon dioxide absorptio which exceeds what
the region’s ecosystems can renew.

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3) METEOROID, ASTEROID, COMET

3.1 METEOROID, ASTEROID, COMET

Asteroid Meteoroid

Comet

i. ASTEROID

An asteroid is a small rocky body orbiting the sun. Most asteroids in our solar
system are found in the main asteroid belt, a region between Mars and Jupiter.
But they can also hang out in other locations around the solar system. For
example, some asteroids orbit the sun in a path that takes them near Earth.
ii. METEOROID

Sometimes one asteroid or comet can smash into another. This can cause small
pieces of the asteroid to break off. Those pieces are called meteoroids.

iii. COMET

Comets orbit the sun, like asteroids. But comets seem to contain much more
ice and gas, and sometimes comets even develop large and beautiful tails. As a
comet’s orbit takes it toward the sun, the ice and dust begin to vaporize. That
vaporized ice and dust becomes the comet’s tail. You can see a comet even
when it is very far from Earth. However, when you see a meteor, it’s in our
atmosphere.

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