Sigmund Freud

Component of Personality
The Id
 The id is the only component of the instinctive and primitive
personality that is present from behaviors.
birth.  According to Freud, the id is the
 This aspect of personality is source of all psychic energy,
entirely unconscious and includes making it the primary component
of personality.
The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all
desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a
state anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce
an immediate attempt to eat or drink.
The Ego
 The ego is the component of expressed in a manner acceptable
personality that is responsible for in the real world.
dealing with reality.  The ego functions in both
 According to Freud, the ego the conscious, preconscious,
develops from the id and ensures and unconscious mind.
that the impulses of the id can be
The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires
in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and
benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses. In many cases,
the id's impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification—the ego
will eventually allow the behavior, but only in the appropriate time and place.
The Superego
The last component of personality to develop is the superego.
 The superego is the aspect of  The superego provides guidelines
personality that holds all of our for making judgments.
internalized moral standards and  According to Freud, the superego
ideals that we acquire from both begins to emerge at around age
parents and society—our sense of five.
right and wrong.
The superego acts to perfect and civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all
unacceptable urges of the id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic
standards rather that upon realistic principles. The superego is present in the
conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.

Erik Erikson
Stages of Psychosocial Development
In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning
point in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either
developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times,
the potential for personal growth is high but so is the potential for failure. If people
successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological
strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively
with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong
sense of self.
Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth
and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. If a child successfully
develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Failure to develop trust
will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. When
this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to
experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.
Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during
early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal
control. At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little
independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making
simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain
control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those
who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that
achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which
is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.
Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years.
At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and
control over the world through directing play and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those
who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of
initiative.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is
achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately age 5 to 11.
Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities. Children who are encouraged and commended by
parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those
who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their
abilities to be successful. Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial
development leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a
belief their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.
Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This
stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will
continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life.
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will
feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal
relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are
enduring and secure.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by
the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the
world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill
will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of
your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a
sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back
on life.
At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and
determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they
did or didn't do.
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted
and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness
and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting
death.

Jean Piaget
Stages of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through
four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature
of intelligence.
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world
through their movements and
sensations.
 Children learn about the world
through basic actions such as
sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening.
The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 Children begin to think
symbolically and learn to use
words and pictures to represent
objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be
egocentric and struggle to see
The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
 During this stage, children begin to
thinking logically about concrete
events.
 They begin to understand the
concept of conservation; that the
amount of liquid in a short, wide
cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny
glass, for example.
The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 At this stage, the adolescent or
young adult begins to think
abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems.
 Abstract thought emerges.
 Teens begin to think more about
moral, philosophical, ethical,
 Infants learn that things continue
to exist even though they cannot
be seen (object permanence).
 They are separate beings from the
people and objects around them.
 They realize that their actions can
cause things to happen in the
world around them.
things from the perspective of
others.
 While they are getting better with
language and thinking, they still
tend to think about things in very
concrete terms.
 Their thinking becomes more
logical and organized, but still very
concrete.
 Children begin using inductive
logic, or reasoning from specific
information to a general principle.
social, and political issues that
require theoretical and abstract
reasoning.
 Begin to use deductive logic, or
reasoning from a general principle
to specific information.
Lawrence KohlbergStages of Moral Development
Level 1: Preconventional level
At the preconventional level, morality is externally controlled. Rules imposed by
authority figures are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards,
Stage 1: Punishment/obedience Stage 2: Instrumental purpose
orientation orientation
Behaviour is determined by Behaviour is determined again by
consequences. The individual will obey consequences. The individual focuses
in order to avoid punishment. on receiving rewards or satisfying
personal needs.
Level 2: Conventional level
At the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the individual.
Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl Stage 4: Law and order orientation
orientation
Social rules and laws determine
Behaviour is determined by social behaviour. The individual now takes into
approval. The individual wants to consideration a larger perspective, that
maintain or win the affection and of societal laws.
approval of others by being a “good
person.”
Level 3: Postconventional or principled level
At the postconventional level, the individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her
own society. Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to
all situations and societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of all
individuals.
Stage 5: Social contract orientation Stage 6: Universal ethical principle
Individual rights determine behaviour. orientation
The individual views laws and rules as According to Kohlberg, this is the
flexible tools for improving human highest stage of functioning. However,
purposes. That is, given the right he claimed that some individuals will
situation, there are exceptions to rules. never reach this level. At this stage, the
When laws are not consistent with appropriate action is determined by
individual rights and the interests of the one’s self-chosen ethical principles
majority, it does not bring about good for of conscience. These principles are
people and alternatives should be abstract and universal in application.
considered.

Lev Vygotsky
Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social
process and the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major
theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky believed everything is
learned on two levels. First, through interaction with others, and then integrated into
the individual’s mental structure.

A second aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive
development is limited to a "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). This "zone" is the
area of exploration for which the student is cognitively prepared, but requires help and
social interaction to fully develop (Briner, 1999). A teacher or more experienced peer is
able to provide the learner with "scaffolding" to support the student’s evolving
understanding of knowledge domains or development of complex skills. Collaborative
learning, discourse, modelling, and scaffolding are strategies for supporting the
intellectual knowledge and skills of learners and facilitating intentional learning.

Urie Bronferebrenner
Ecological Systems Theory
The microsystem is the smallest and most immediate environment in which the child
lives. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer
group or community environment of the child.
Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family
members, classmates, teachers and caregivers, in which influences go back and forth.
How these groups or individuals interact with the child will affect how the child grows.
Similarly, how the child reacts to people in his microsystem will also influence how they
treat the child in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and
relationships will understandably foster the child’s improved development.
The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which
the developing child finds himself in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as
such, involves linkages between home and school, between peer group and family, or
between family and church.
The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings,
one of which may not contain the developing child but affects him indirectly
nonetheless. Other people and places which the child may not directly interact with but
may still have an effect on the child, comprise the exosystem. Such places and people
may include the parents’ workplaces, the larger neighborhood, and extended family
members.
The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to
the child that still exercises significant influence on the child. It is composed of the
child’s cultural patterns and values, specifically the child’s dominant beliefs and ideas,
as well as political and economic systems. Children in war-torn areas, for example, will
experience a different kind of development than children in communities where peace
reigns.
The chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates the
influence of both change and constancy in the child’s environment. The chronosystem
may thus include a change in family structure, address, parent’s employment status, in
addition to immense society changes such as economic cycles and wars.