Example

cosh 2𝑥−1
Prove that tanh2 𝑥 = cosh 2𝑥+1

Solution
tanh2 𝑥

2
sinh 𝑥 2
tanh 𝑥 = ( )
cosh 𝑥
sinh2 𝑥
= cosh2 𝑥

1
sinh2 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
2
1 𝑥
cosh2 𝑥 = (𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
2
1 𝑥
(𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 cosh 2𝑥 − 1
= 2 =
1 𝑥
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2 cosh 2𝑥 + 1
2
1 2𝑥
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 2)
= 2
1 2𝑥
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2)
2
𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒 −2𝑥
+ 2 −1
= 22𝑥
𝑒 𝑒 −2𝑥
+
2 2 +1
1 2𝑥
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 ) − 1
2
1 2𝑥
(𝑒 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 ) + 1
2
cosh 2𝑥 − 1
=
cosh 2𝑥 + 1
Hence proved

Example 21.1.3

Prove thatcosh(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cosh 𝐴 cosh 𝐵 + sinh 𝐴 sinh 𝐵

Solution

From the left-hand side

 𝑒 𝐴 + 𝑒 −𝐴 𝑒 𝐵 + 𝑒 −𝐵 𝑒 𝐴 − 𝑒 −𝐴 𝑒 𝐵 − 𝑒 −𝐵
cosh 𝐴 cosh 𝐵 + sinh 𝐴 sinh 𝐵 = ( )( )+( )( )
2 2 2 2

𝑒 𝐴+𝐵 + 𝑒 𝐴−𝐵 + 𝑒 𝐵−𝐴 + 𝑒 −𝐴−𝐵 𝑒 𝐴+𝐵 − 𝑒 𝐴−𝐵 − 𝑒 𝐵−𝐴 + 𝑒 −𝐴−𝐵

=( )+( )
4 4

2𝑒 𝐴+𝐵 + 2𝑒 −𝐴−𝐵
=
4

2(𝑒 𝐴+𝐵 + 𝑒 −𝐴−𝐵 )

=
4

(𝑒 𝐴+𝐵 + 𝑒 −(𝐴+𝐵) )
=
2

= cosh(𝐴 + 𝐵).

Hence cosh(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cosh 𝐴 cosh 𝐵 + sinh 𝐴 sinh 𝐵

INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥 means 𝑥 = cosh 𝑦 , 𝑦 ≥ 0, 𝑥 ≥ 1

GRAPHS OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 y

1
𝑦 = 2 𝑒𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥

0
 y
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑥
𝑦=1

x
𝑦 = −1

𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥
𝑦=1
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑥
0 x

y 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑥
ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
The Concept of a Limit
Consider the functions
𝑥2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2
The function is undefined at 𝑥 = 2
Let us examine the behavior of the function at 𝑥 = 2

𝑥 2 −4 𝑥 2 −4
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2 𝑥−2

1.9 3.9 2.1 4.1

1.99 3.99 2.01 4.01
1.999 3.999 2.001 4.001
1.9999 3.9999 2.0001 4.0001

Notice that as you move down the first column of the table, the 𝑥 −values get closer to 2
but are less than 2. We use the notation
𝑥 → 2− to indicate 𝑥 approaches 2 from the left.
𝑥 → 2+ to indicate 𝑥 approaches 2 from the right.
We call lim 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) one sided limit.
𝑥 → 2− 𝑥 → 2−

Theorem
A limit exists if and only if both corresponding one sided limits exists and are equal.
That is
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 for some number 𝐿if and only if
𝑥→𝑎
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 → a− 𝑥 → a+
Example
Determine if the limit exists for the following
𝑥 2 −4
a) lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

𝑥
b) lim |𝑥|
𝑥→0

Solution
𝑥 2 −4 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
a) lim− = lim−
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2

lim (𝑥 + 2) = 4
𝑥→2−

and
𝑥 2 −4 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
lim+ = lim+
𝑥→2 𝑥−2 𝑥→2 𝑥−2

lim (𝑥 + 2) = 4
𝑥→2−

∴ lim− = 4 = lim+
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

Hence the limit exists.

𝑥
b) lim |𝑥|
𝑥→0

Solution
𝑥, 𝑥≥0
|𝑥| = {
−𝑥, 𝑥<0

𝑥
lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ =1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑥
lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− = −1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 −𝑥

Since lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim− 𝑓(𝑥) the limit does not exist.
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
 y
1
𝑓(𝑥)
0←𝑥
𝑥→0
𝑓(𝑥)

-1

By definition
𝑥 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 = −1

Theorem 1.2
sin 𝑥
lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

Example
Evaluate the following
cos2 𝑥 tan3 𝑥
a) lim b) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution
cos2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥
a) lim = 2 lim =2
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 2𝑥

tan3 𝑥 tan3 𝑥
b) lim = lim3 ( )=3
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 3𝑥
COMPUTATION OF LIMITS
For any constant 𝑐 and any real number 𝑎,
lim 𝑐 = 𝑐 (1)
𝑥→𝑎

For any real number 𝑎,

lim 𝑥 = 𝑎 (2)
𝑥→𝑎

Theorem 2.1
Suppose that lim 𝑓( 𝑥) and lim 𝑔( 𝑥) both exists, and let 𝑐 be any constant. The
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
following then apply;
i) lim [𝑐. 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
ii) lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
iii) lim [𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)] = [lim 𝑓(𝑥)[ lim 𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
iv) lim 𝑔(𝑥) = if lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

Example
Apply the rule of limits to evaluate
a) lim(3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4)
𝑥→2

𝑥 3 −5𝑥+4
b) lim
𝑥→3 𝑥 2 −2

𝑥 2 −1
c) lim
𝑥→1 1−𝑥

√𝑥+2−√2
d) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution
a) lim(3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4) = lim3𝑥 2 − lim5𝑥 + lim4
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= 12 − 10 + 4
=6
 𝑥 3 −5𝑥+4 (3)3 −5(3)+4 16
b) lim = =
𝑥→3 𝑥 2 −2 (3)2 −2 7

𝑥 2 −1 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)
c) lim = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = −2
𝑥→1 1−𝑥 𝑥→1 −(𝑥−1)

√𝑥+2−√2
d) lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

(√𝑥+2−√2)(√𝑥+2+√2)
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥(√𝑥+2+√2)

𝑥+2−2
lim 𝑥(√𝑥+2+√2)
𝑥→0
𝑥
lim
𝑥→0 𝑥(√𝑥+2+√2)

1
lim
𝑥→0 (√𝑥 + 2 + √2)

1 1
=
√2 + √2 2√2

Theorem 2.2
For any polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) and any real number 𝑎,
lim 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎

Theorem 2.3
Suppose that lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 and 𝑛 is any positive integer, Then
𝑥→𝑎

𝑛 𝑛
lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Where for 𝑛 even, we assume that 𝐿 > 0

Theorem 2.4
For any real number 𝑎, we have;
i) lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
ii) lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
 iii) lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
iv) lim ln 𝑥 = ln 𝑎 for 𝑎 > 0
𝑥→𝑎
v) lim sin−1 𝑥 = sin−1 𝑎 for −1 < 𝑎 < 1
𝑥→𝑎
vi) lim cos−1 𝑥 = cos−1 𝑎 for −1 < 𝑎 < 1
𝑥→𝑎
vii) lim tan−1 𝑥 = tan−1 𝑎 for −∞ < 𝑎 < ∞
𝑥→𝑎
and

If P is a polynomial and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, then

𝑥→𝑎

lim 𝑓(𝑝(𝑥)) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

Example
5
a) Evaluate lim √3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
𝑥→2

𝑥+1
b) Evaluate lim sin−1 ( )
𝑥→0 2

c) Evaluate lim(𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥)
𝑥→0

Solution
5 5
a) lim √3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 5√lim3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = √8
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

𝑥+1 1 𝜋
b) lim sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 (2) =
𝑥→0 2 6

c) lim(𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥) = (lim 𝑥) (lim𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥) = 0.0 ?

𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0

cos 𝑥 𝑥
∴ lim(𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥) = lim (𝑥. sin 𝑥 ) = lim (sin 𝑥) (cos 𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
𝑥
(lim ) (lim cos 𝑥)
sin 𝑥 𝑥→0
𝑥→0
1
lim ( sin 𝑥 ) (lim cos 𝑥) = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0
Theorem 2.5 SQUEEZ THEOREM
Suppose that
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥)
For all 𝑥 in some interval (𝑐, 𝑑), except possibly at the point 𝑎 ∈ (𝑐, 𝑑) and that
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

For some number 𝐿. Then it follows that

lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 also.
𝑥→𝑎

Example
1
Evaluate 𝑡ℎ𝑒 lim [𝑥 2 cos (𝑥)]
𝑥→0

Solution
1
lim [𝑥 2 cos ( )]
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
(−1 ≤ cos ( ) ≤ 1) 𝑥 2
𝑥
1
−𝑥 2 ≤ 𝑥 2 cos ( ) ≤ 𝑥 2
𝑥
𝑥≠0
lim−𝑥 2 = 0 = lim𝑥 2
𝑥→0 𝑥→0

∴ from the squeeze theorem, it follows that

1
lim𝑥 2 cos ( ) = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥

A LIMIT FOR A PIECEWISE FUNCTION

Example
Evaluate lim𝑓(𝑥), where 𝑓(𝑥) is defined by
𝑥→0

𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 < 0,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) = {
𝑒 𝑥 − 4, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0
Solution
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− (𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 1) = 3
𝑥→0− 𝑥→0

and also
lim (𝑒 𝑥 − 4) = 𝑒 0 − 4 = 1 − 4 = −3
𝑥→0−

Thus lim𝑓(𝑥) does not exist

𝑥→0

LIMITS INVOLVING INFINITY; ASYMPTOTES

Example
1
Examine lim
𝑥→0 𝑥

solution

𝑓(𝑥)

0
𝑓(𝑥)

1
lim+ =∞
𝑥→0 𝑥
1
lim− = −∞ the limit does not exist
𝑥→0 𝑥

1
The graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 approaches the vertical line 𝑥 = 0, as 𝑥 → 0 as shown above

When this occurs, we say that the line 𝑥 = 0.

Example
1
Evaluate lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥 2

solution
0
 1
lim+ =∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 2
1
lim− 2 = −∞
𝑥→0 𝑥
The limit does not exist.
LIMITS AT INFINTY
1 1
Returning to 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , we can see that as 𝑥 → ∞, 𝑥 → 0. In view of this, we write

1
lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

1
lim =0
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥

The graph appears to approach the horizontal line 𝑦 = 0, as 𝑥 → ∞ and as 𝑥 → −∞.

In this case, we call 𝑦 = 0 a horizontal asymptote.
A LIMIT OF A QUOTIENT THAT IS NOT THE QUOTIENT OF A LIMIT
Example
5𝑥−7
Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ 4𝑥+3

Solution
5𝑥−7 lim (5𝑥−7) ∞
lim = 𝑥→∞ =∞ ?
𝑥→∞ 4𝑥+3 lim (4𝑥+3)
𝑥→∞

NOTE:
∞
i) indeterminate form
∞
∞
ii) 0
iii) ∞. ∞
iv) 0.0
Rule of thumbs
∞
When faced with the indeterminate form ∞ in calculating limits of a rational function,
divide numerator and denominator by the highest power of x appearing in the
denominator.
Here we have
5𝑥 7 7
5𝑥 − 7 −𝑥 5−𝑥 5
lim = 𝑥 = lim =
𝑥→∞ 4𝑥 + 3 4𝑥 3 𝑥→∞ 3 4
𝑥 +𝑥 4+𝑥

Example
4𝑥 3 +5
Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ −6𝑥 2 −7𝑥

Solution
4𝑥 3 5
4𝑥 3 + 5 + 2
lim = lim 𝑥2 𝑥
𝑥→∞ −6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 𝑥→∞ 6𝑥 2 7𝑥
− 2 − 2
𝑥 𝑥
5
4𝑥 +2
lim 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→∞ 7
−6 − 𝑥

Two LIMITS OF AN INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION

Evaluate lim tan−1 𝑥 and lim tan−1 𝑥
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞

y = tan−1 𝑥

𝜋 𝜋
−2 2

𝜋
lim tan−1 𝑥 =
𝑥→∞ 2
𝜋
lim tan−1 𝑥 = −
𝑥→−∞ 2
 𝜋
2
𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥

𝜋
−2

Example

Evaluate lim (√𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛)

𝑥→∞

Solution
(√𝑛+1−√𝑛)
lim (√𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛) (
𝑥→∞ √𝑛+1−√𝑛)

𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛 √𝑛 + 1 − √𝑛 √𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛
lim
𝑥→∞ √𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛
1
lim
𝑥→∞ √𝑛 + 1 + √𝑛
1
𝑛+1
√𝑛 √ 𝑛 + √𝑛

1
lim
𝑥→∞
√𝑛 √ 1
( 1 + 𝑛 + 1)
√ 𝑛
1
√𝑛 0
lim = =0
𝑥→∞
√𝑛 √ 1 2
( 1 + 𝑛 + 1)
√𝑛
CONTINUITY
Definition
A function f is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 when
i) 𝑓(𝑥) is defined
ii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists
𝑥→𝑎
iii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎

Otherwise,𝑓 is said to be discontinuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎

As an example of a continuous function, let us investigate
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
At some fixed value 𝑥 = 𝑐. certainly
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑐 2
at 𝑥 = 𝑐. Furthermore, the difference
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑐 2 = (𝑥 − 𝑐)(𝑥 + 𝑐)
Approaches zero as a limit when 𝑥 − 𝑐 approaches zero, since as when 𝑥 ⟶ 𝑐,
We have
lim[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑐)] = lim(𝑥 − 𝑐)lim(𝑥 + 𝑐)
0.2𝑐 = 0
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is continuous at any point where 𝑥 = 𝑐

Example 3.1
Finding where a rational function is continuous
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3
Determine where 𝑓(𝑥) = is continuous
𝑥−1

Solution
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3 (𝑥−1)(𝑥+3)
𝑓(𝑥) = = =𝑥+3
𝑥−1 𝑥−1

for 𝑥 ≠ 1
this says that the graph of 𝑓 is a straight line but with a hole in it at 𝑥 = 1
∴ 𝑓 is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 1 but continuous everywhere
{𝐷: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ|𝑥 ≠ 1}
y

𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3
𝑦= 𝑥−1

5 x

Example
Removing a discontinuity
Let us redefine example 3.1 to make it continuous everywhere

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3
𝑔(𝑥) = { 𝑥 − 1 , 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 1
𝑎, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥=1

𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 3 (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)
lim𝑔(𝑥) = lim = lim
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1 𝑥→1 𝑥−1
lim(𝑥 + 3) = 4
𝑥→1

Now if we choose 𝑎 = 4,then

lim𝑔(𝑥) = 4 = 𝑔(1) and so g is continuous at 𝑥 = 1.
𝑥→1

NOTE:
When we can remove a discontinuity by redefining the function at that point, we call the
discontinuity a removable discontinuity.
Example
sin 𝑥
The function f defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = for 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥

has a removable discontinuity at 𝑥 = 0 , the formula is not valid when 𝑥 = 0

sin 𝑥
but lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
 sin 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ≠ 0
1, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0
by so defining the value of f at 0, we have made f continuous there, since we now have
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches zero.
Non-removable discontinuity
The discontinuity at 𝑥 = 0 in the foregoing example could be removed because f had a
limit, namely 1, as 𝑥 approaches zero. On the other hand, if
|𝑥|
𝑔(𝑥) = for 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥

Then there is a discontinuity at 0, that can be removed.

𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = {
−𝑥, 𝑥<0
𝑥
lim+ =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

𝑥
lim− = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥

∴ the limit does not exist.

If we assign the value 0 to g(0), the resulting function is the signum function ( or sign
function) of 𝑥.
+1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 0
sign𝑥 = { 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 0
−1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0

the signum function is defined for all 𝑥, but it is not continuous at 𝑥 = 0. It is continuous
for 𝑥 ≠ 0
Example
Non-removable discontinuity
1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥2
Solution
We should observe from the diagram

1
lim =∞
𝑥→0 𝑥 2

∴ the limit does not exist .

-3 3
Hence 𝑓 is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 0 and non- removable.
Theorem
All polynomials are continuous everywhere. Additionally, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥, tan−1 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 𝑥 are
𝑛
continuous everywhere. √𝑥 is continuous for all 𝑥, when n is odd and for 𝑥 ≥ 0 when n
is even. We also have that ln 𝑥 is continuous for 𝑥 > 0 and sin−1 𝑥 and cos −1 𝑥 are
continuous for −1 < 𝑥 < 1
Theorem
Suppose that 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎. Then all of the following are true:
i) (𝑓 ± 𝑔) is continuous at x=a
ii) (𝑓. 𝑔) is continuous at x=a and
𝑓
iii) (𝑔) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if 𝑔(𝑎) ≠ 0

Theorem
Suppose that lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 and 𝑓 is continuous at 𝐿 then,
𝑥→𝑎

lim 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝐿)

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

Corollary 3.1
Suppose that 𝑔 is continuous at a and 𝑓 is continuous at 𝑔(𝑎).
Then, the composition 𝑓𝑜𝑔 is continuous at a.
Example
Continuity for a composite function
Determine where ℎ(𝑥) = cos(𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2) is continuous.
Solution
Note that ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
Where 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 and 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Since both 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 are continuous for all x, h is also continuous for all x by corollary 3.1
Definition 3.2
If f is continuous at every point on an open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), we say that f is continuous on
the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], if f is continuous on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) and
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) and lim−𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏).
𝑥→𝑎+ 𝑥→𝑏
Finally, if 𝑓 is continuous on all of 𝑔(−∞, ∞), we simply say that 𝑓 is continuous.
Example
Determine the interval where 𝑓 is continuous for,

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(𝑥 − 3)
solution

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2

√4 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0
2
(√4 − 𝑥 2 ) ≥ (0)2

4 − 𝑥2 ≥ 0
(−1) − 𝑥 2 ≥ −4(−1)
𝑥2 ≤ 4

√𝑥 2 ≤ ±√4

|𝑥| ≤ ±2 recall that |𝑥| = √𝑥 2

−2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

b) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(𝑥 − 3)
solution
𝑥−3>0 ⟹𝑥 >3
∴ 𝑓 is continuous on the interval (3, ∞).

Theorem
The intermediate value theorem
Suppose that 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] and w is any number between
𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏). Then there is a number 𝑐 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] for which 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑤.
CORRALARY
Suppose that 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏) have opposite signs
[𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓(𝑎). 𝑓(𝑏) < 0]. Then there is at least one number 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) for which 𝑓(𝑐) = 0
(recall that c is then a zero of f)
Note:
Lemma
1−cos 𝜃
lim =0
𝜃→0 𝜃

DIFFERENTIATION
THE GENERAL CASE
To find the slope of the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎, first pick two points on the
curve, one point is the point of tangency (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑐)). Call the x-coordinate of the secant
point 𝑥 = 𝑎 + ℎ, for some small number corresponding y-coordinates is 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ).It is
natural to think of h as being positive , as shown in figure (a), h can also be negative as
shown in figure (b)

𝑎 𝑎+ℎ 𝑎+ℎ 𝑎
a) b)

secant line ℎ > 0 secant line ℎ < 0

the slope of the secant line through the point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) and (𝑎 + ℎ, 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) is given
by

𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑀𝑠𝑒𝑐 = (𝑎+ℎ)−𝑎
= 1.1
ℎ

Notice that the expression in 1.1 is called a difference quotient gives the slope of the
secant line for any secant point we might choose (that is for any ℎ ≠ 0)
In order to obtain an improved approximation to the tangent line, we zoom in closer and
closer towards the point of tangency. This makes the two points closer together to 0 as
shown below.
y

𝑄
●
●
𝑃 ●
● ●

Notice that as the point Q approaches the point P(𝑖. 𝑒 , 𝑎𝑠 ℎ → 0), the secant line
approaches the tangent line at P.
Definition
The slope 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 of the tangent line to
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is given by
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Provided the limit exists. If the limit exists, we say that 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
Or the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) is the function 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) given by 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim provided
ℎ→0 ℎ
the limit exists.
The process of computing a derivative is called differentiation. Further, f is differentiable
at a point on an interval 𝐼 if it is differentiable at every point in 𝐼.
This is also called the 1𝑠𝑡 principle of derivative.
Example
Use the definition to find the derivative function of the following.

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 > 0

b) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥

solution
 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
√𝑥+ℎ−√𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

(√𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥)(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥)

= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥)
(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑥
= lim ℎ(√𝑥+ℎ+
ℎ→0 √𝑥)

1
= lim
ℎ→0 √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥
1
=
√𝑥 + 0 + √𝑥
1
=
2 √𝑥
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 lim + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(0) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥(1)
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥

ALTERNATIVE DERIVATIVE NOTATIONS

We have denoted the derivative function by 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). There are other
Commonly used notations, each with advantages and disadvantages. One of the
𝑑𝑓
converts of calculus, Leibniz, used the notation 𝑑𝑥 (Leibniz notation) for the derivative. If
we write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the following are all alternatives for denoting the derivative
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑓 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑦 ′ = = = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 𝑑
The expression 𝑑𝑥 is called a differential operator and tells you to take the derivative of
whatever expression follows.
THEOREM
If 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎 ,then 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
Example
4, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
Show that 𝑓(𝑥) = { is not differentiable at 𝑥 = 2
2𝑥 𝑖𝑓, 𝑥 ≥ 2
Solution

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim−
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(2+ℎ)−𝑓(2) 4−4

lim− = lim− = lim− =0
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥) 2(𝑥+ℎ)−2(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim+ = lim+
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

2𝑥+2ℎ−2𝑥
lim+ =2
ℎ→0 2

∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ≠ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
lim lim
ℎ→0− ℎ→0+

The function is not continuous at 𝑥 = 2

COMPUTATION OF DERIVATIVES
For any constant c,
𝑑
(𝑐) = 0
𝑑𝑥

Similarly,
𝑑
𝑥=1
𝑑𝑥

Theorem (power rule)

For any integer 𝑛 > 0,
𝑑
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

Theorem (General power rule)

𝑑
For any real number 𝑟 , 𝑥 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑥 𝑟−1
𝑑𝑥
Example
Find the derivatives of the following
1
a)
𝑥 19
3
b) √𝑥 2
c) 𝑥𝜋
solution
1
a)
𝑥 19
19
𝑑 1 𝑑
( 19 ) = 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 −19 = −19𝑥 −19−1 = −19𝑥 −20 = 𝑥 −20
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
2
3
b) √𝑥 2 = 𝑥 3

2 2 1
𝑑 3 𝑑 2 2 2 2
√𝑥 2 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3 = 3 𝑥 3−1 = 3 𝑥 −3 = 1 = 3
𝑑𝑥 3 √𝑥
3𝑥 3
𝑑
c) 𝑥 𝜋 = 𝜋𝑥 𝜋−1
𝑑𝑥

GENERAL DERIVATIVE RULES

THEOREM
If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are differentiable at 𝑥 and 𝑐 is any constant, then
𝑑
(i) [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(ii) [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑔′ (𝑥) and
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(iii) [𝑐𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑐𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Example
Find the derivative of

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 6 + 3√𝑥
4𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2√𝑥
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

Solution
𝑑 𝑑
a) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (2𝑥 6 ) + 𝑑𝑥 (3√𝑥)
1
𝑑 𝑑 1 3
= 2 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 6 ) + 3 𝑑𝑥 (√𝑥) = 2(6𝑥 5 ) + 3 (2) 𝑥 −2 = 12𝑥 5 + 2
√𝑥
b)