DesignofheatexchangersSummary PDF

‫�سم ا� ا�ر�ن ا�رحيم‬
King Abdulaziz University

Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Department
Basics of Rating and Thermal

Design of Heat Exchangers
General notes prepared for the course
MEP 460: Design of Heat Exchangers
by
Abdul-Rahim A. Khaled, Professor
2014-2015
‫�سم ا� ا�ر�ن ا�رحيم‬
Basics of Rating and Thermal Design of HXs. Prof. A.-R.A. Khaled
Table of Contents
No. Topic Page
1 Revision 1
2 General Correlations for Internal Flow 8
3 Classifications of Heat Exchangers 16
4 Basic Equations for Heat Exchangers 27
5 Fouling of Heat Exchangers 45
6 Double Pipe Heat Exchangers (DPHXs) 54
7 Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers (STHEs) 65
8 Compact Heat Exchangers (Compact HXs) 86
9 Boiling 100
10 Condensation 109
11 The Gasketed-Plate Heat Exchangers 117
12 Condensers and Evaporators 133
13 References 146
(i)
Internal Flow
General Information
 :
Mass flow rate, m
m  um AC ,
AC : Flow area; um : Mean flow velocity normal to cross-section
 Mean bulk Temperature, Tm:
Tm 
AC
uc pTdAC
m c p
 Newton’s law of cooling for the Local Heat Flux, q
q  hTs  Tm 
 Reynolds number, ReD:
um Dh 4m
ReD  
 Pw 
 Hydraulic diameter, Dh:
4 AC
Dh  , Pw : Wetted perimeter
Pw
(1)
 For circular pipe,
AC   di2 ; Pw  P  di ; Dh  di
4
 Onset of turbulence occurs at a critical Reynolds number of
ReD ,cr  2300

 Fully turbulent conditions occurs when
ReD  10,000
Fully developed flow

A) Hydrodynamically fully developed flow
 Hydrodynamic Entry Length

Laminar: x fd ,h D  0.05 ReD
Turbulent: 10  x fd ,h D  60
 Requirement for fully developed hydrodynamically flow condition:
u d w
 0
x fd ,h x fd ,h
(2)
B) Thermally fully developed flow
 Thermal Entry Length

Laminar: x fd ,t D  0.05 ReD Pr
Turbulent: 10  x fd ,t D  60
 For laminar flow, how do hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths compare for a gas?
And oil? A liquid metal?
 Can a flow be developing hydrodynamically and be thermally fully-developed?
 Requirement for thermally fully developed flow condition:
  Ts x   T r , x  
  0
x  Ts x   Tm x   fd ,t
  Ts  T  T r r r q k
  f x 
h
    i
 s
r  Ts  Tm  r r Ts  Tm Ts  Tm k
i
h  f x 
(3)
Calculation of mean bulk temperature
 c p Tm  dTm   Tm   m
dqconv  m  c p dTm
Integrating from the tube inlet to outlet x  0  x  L :  c p Tm ,o  Tm ,i 

qconv  m
Uniform Heat Flux qs  cons tan t 
 c p dTm  qsPdx
dqconv  m
dTm qsP

dx m c p
(4)
Integrating from the tube inlet to outlet x  0  x  L
qsPL
Tm ,o  Tm ,i  ; qs  hTs  Tm 
m c p
Uniform Surface Temperature Ts  cons tan t 
 c p dTm  hPTs  Tm dx

dqconv  m
dTm hP
 dx
Ts  Tm m c p
Integrating from the tube inlet to outlet x  0  x  L
Ts  Tm ,o  h PL  1
L
 exp   ; h 
 hdx
Ts  Tm ,i  m c  L
 p  0
(5)
Uniform External Fluid Temperature T  cons tan t 
T  Tm ,o  1 
 exp  
T  Tm ,i  m c R 
 p tot 
1 1
Rtot   RW 
hi Ai ho Ao
ln d o d i 
Ai  di L ; Ao  d o L ; RW 
2ktubeL
1 T  Tm ,o   T  Tm ,i 
qconv  m c p Tm ,o  Tm ,i  
Rtot  T  Tm ,o 
ln  

 T  Tm ,i 
Overall heat transfer coefficients U i , U o , U 
1 1 1
Rtot   
UA U i Ai U o Ao
1 1 d ln d o d i   d o  1 1  d i  1 d i ln d o di  1
  o    ;     
U o ho 2ktube  i i
d h U i  o o
d h 2 k tube hi
(6)
Problems
P1. Exhaust gases from a wire processing oven are discharged into a tall stack,
and the gas and stack surface temperatures at the outlet of the stack must be
estimated. Knowledge of the outlet gas temperature Tm,o is useful for
predicting the dispersion of effluents in the thermal plume, while knowledge
of the outlet stack surface temperature Ts,o indicates whether condensation
of the gas products will occur. The thin-walled, cylindrical stack is 0.5 m in
diameter and 6.0 m high. The exhaust gas flow rate is 0.5 kg/s, and the inlet
temperature is 600 C. Estimate the outlet gas and stack surface
temperatures if the convection heat transfer coefficients are
hi  10.2 W m 2 K and ho  13.9 W m 2 K . Take T  4C and
c p ,air  1104 J kgK .
P2: A hot fluid passes through a thin-walled tube of 10-mm diameter and 1-m
length, and a coolant at free stream temperature of 25 C is in cross flow
over the tube. When the flow rate is 18 kg/h and the inlet temperature is 85
C, the outlet temperature is 78 C. Assuming fully developed flow,
determine the outlet temperature if the flow rate is increased by a factor of
2. That is, the flow rate is 36 kg/h, with all other conditions the same.
(7)
General Correlations for Internal Flow

Friction factor for hydrodynamically fully developed flow
 The pressure drop may be determined from knowledge of the friction

factor f, where,
f 
dp dx D
um2 2
 Fanning friction factor fa:
fa  f 4
 Laminar flow in a circular tube:
64 16
f  ; fa 
Re D Re D
 Turbulent flow in a smooth circular tube:
f  0.79 ln ReD   1.64 , 3000  ReD  5  106

2
f a  1.58 ln ReD   3.28 , 3000  ReD  5  106

2
(8)
 Turbulent flow in a roughened circular tube (e: surface roughness):
1  e D  2.51 
 2.0 log10    , Colebrook equation
f  3.7 Re D f 
1  e D  1.255 
 4.0 log10   
fa  3.7 Re D f a 
1  6.9  e D 1.11 
 1.8 log10     , Haaland equation
f  Re D  3.7  
1  6.9  e D 1.11 
 3.6 log10    
fa  D
Re  3 .7  
(9)
Pressure drop for fully developed flow from x=0 to x=L

p  px  0  px  L  p1  p2
L um2
p  f 
D 2
L um2
p  4 f a 
D 2
Pumping power requirement P 
m p
P 
 p
 p : Pump total efficiency
Nusselt number for fully developed flow condition

 Laminar flow in a circular tube
hD
- Uniform surface heat flux q s  : Nu D   4.36
k
hD
- Uniform surface temperature Ts  : Nu D   3.66
k
 Turbulent flow in a circular tube
Nu D 
 f 8ReD  1000 Pr , Gnielinski
1  12.7 f 8 Pr 2 3  1
12
correlatio n
Nu D 
 f a 2ReD  1000 Pr
1  12.7 f a 2 Pr 2 3  1
12
3  103  ReD  5  106 , 0.5  Pr  2000
(10)
 Laminar flow in a noncircular tube
4 AC
Dh 
Pw
(11)
 Laminar flow in annulus region with insulated outer surface qo  0
qi  ho Ts ,i  Tm ;
ho Dh ,o
Nuo  ; Dh ,o  Do  Di
k
- Uniform surface heat flux qi
72.2081  382.499Di Do 
Nuo 
1  82.5237Di Do   1.08936Di Do 
2
- Uniform surface temperature Ts ,i 
71.5905  355.517Di Do 
Nuo 
1  81.133Di Do   4.85985Di D o 
2
 Turbulent flow in a noncircular tube and in an annulus region
4 AC 4 AC um Dh hDe
Dh  De  Re Dh  Nu De 
Pw ,
Ph ,
 ,
k
Pw : Wetted perimeter; Ph : Heat transfer perimeter
 f 8ReD  1000Pr
Nu D e 
1  12.7 f 8 Pr 2 3  1
12
h
, Gnielinski correlatio n
 f a 2ReD  1000Pr
Nu D e 
1  12.7 f a 2 Pr 2 3  1
h
12
3  103  ReD h  5  106 , 0.5  Pr  2000
(12)
Nusselt number for developing flows (Entry region effects)

 Laminar flow in a circular tube
- Thermal Entry region
0.0668 D L  ReD Pr
NuD  3.66 
1.0  0.04 D L  ReD Pr 
23
- Combined Entry region
0.14
 b 
13
 Re Pr D   
Nu D  1.86 D 
 L   s 
(13)
Problems
(14)
Classifications of Heat Exchangers
(15)
Classifications according to transfer processes
(16)
Classifications according to construction features
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
Classifications according to surface compactness
(23)
Classifications according to number of fluids

 Heat exchangers with as many as 12 fluids streams have been used in
some chemical processes applications.
 The design theory of three- and multi fluid heat exchangers is
algebraically very complex.
 The present notes covers only design theory of two-fluid heat exchangers.
Classifications according to heat transfer mechanism
Classifications according to flow arrangements
(24)
(25)
(26)
Basic Equations for Heat Exchangers

Heat Exchangers: Devices used to exchange thermal energy between at least two fluids.
They encompass a wide range of flow configurations.
Classifications of Heat exchangers based on flow arrangement
(27)
(28)
The overall heat transfer coefficient

 Bare circular clean tubes of Nt number of tubes
1 1 1 1 1
    RW 
UA U o Ao U i Ai ho Ao hi Ai
Ao  do Nt L; Ai  di Nt L
ln do di 
RW 
2ktubeNt L
1 1 d ln do di   do  1
  o   
U o ho 2ktube  di  hi
1  di  1 di ln d o di  1
    
U i  do  ho 2ktube hi
(29)
 Bare circular fouled tubes of Nt number of tubes

1 1 1 1 R R 1
    fo  RW  fi 
UA U o Ao U i Ai ho Ao Ao Ai hi Ai
R fo : outside fouling unit resis tan ce

R fi : inside fouling unit resis tan ce
1 1 d ln do di   do  d  1
  R fo  o    R fi   o 
U o ho 2ktube  di   di  hi
1  di  1  di  d ln do di  1
      R fo  i  R fi 
U i  do  ho  do  2ktube hi
 Finned circular fouled tubes of Nt number of tubes (rectangular fins)

1 1 1 1 R R 1
    fo  RW  fi 
UA U o Ao U i Ai o ho Ao o Ao i Ai i hi Ai
o  1  1   fo  ; i  1  1   fi  fi
Afo A
Ao Ai
(30)
Ao  do  2H fo N fo Nt L; Ai  di  2H fi N fi Nt L
Afo  2H fo   o N fo Nt L; Afi  2H fi   i N fi Nt L
Auo  do  N fo o Nt L; Aui  di  N fi i Nt L
Ao  Auo  Afo ; Ai  Aui  Afi
o ,i  : outer ,inner  surface efficiency

N fo , N fi  : no. of fins on outer ,inner  surface
H fo , H fi  : outer ,inner  fin length
 fo ,  fi  : outer ,inner  fin thickness
k fin ,o , k fin ,i  : outer ,inner  fin thermal conductivi ty
 fo , fi  : outer ,inner  fin thermal efficiency
   


tanh H fo   o 2
2ho
k fin ,o o
 


tanh H fi   i 2


2hi
k fin ,i i


 fo   ;    
   
fi
2ho 2hi
H fo   o 2 H fi   i 2
k fin ,o o k fin ,i i
(31)
1 1 R A ln do di   Ao  R fi  Ao  1
  fo  o    
U o o ho o 2ktubeNt L  Ai  i  Ai  i hi
1  Ai  1  A R A ln do di  R fi 1
     i  fo  i  
U i  Ao  o ho  Ao  o 2ktubeNt L i i hi
Log Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) method of analysis

Assumptions: a) Fully developed conditions, b) Constant cross-sectional areas, c) Constant
properties
(32)
1) Counter Flow Heat Exchangers
Q  m c c pc Tc 2  Tc1   m h c ph Th1  Th 2   U o Ao

Th 2  Tc1   Th1  Tc 2 
T T 
ln h 2 c1 
 Th1  Tc 2 
Th 2  Tc1   1 1  
 exp U o Ao   
Th1  Tc 2   
m c 
m c  
  c pc h ph
2) Parallel Flow Heat Exchangers

Th 2  Tc 2   Th1  Tc1 
T T 
ln h 2 c 2 
 Th1  Tc1 
Th 2  Tc 2   1 1  

 exp  U o Ao   
Th1  Tc1   
  c pc
m c m c 
h ph 
3) Other Types Heat Exchangers
 cc pc Tc 2  Tc1   m
Qm  hc ph Th1  Th 2   U o Ao Tlm
 
 T  T   T  T 
Tlm  F  Tlm ,cf  F   h 2 c1 h1 c2

  T  T  
ln  h 2 c1 
 
 h1 c 2 
T T 
F : correction factor F  1
 m c T T T T 
F  f  R  c p ,c  h1 h 2 , P  c 2 c1 , flow arrangement 
 m h c p ,h Tc 2  Tc1 Th1  Tc1 
P : Temperature efficiency
R : Heat capacity ratio
(33)
(34)
(35)
(36)
The-NTU method of heat exchanger analysis

Assumptions: a) Fully developed conditions, b) Constant cross-sectional areas, c)
Constant properties
Definitions and relationships
Uo Ao C Q
NTU  ; Cr  min ;  
Cmin Cmax Qmax
NTU : Number of Transfer Units
Cmin  Minimum of Cc , Ch 
Cmax  Maximum of Cc , Ch 
Cc  m
 cc pc ; Ch  m
 hc ph
Cc , Ch : thermal capacity of cold , hot  fluid flow
 : heat exchanger effectiven ess
Qmax  Cmin Th1  Tc1 
(37)
Q  Cc Tc 2  Tc1   Ch Th1  Th 2 
Q C T  T  C T  T 
  c c 2 c1  h h1 h 2
Cmin Th1  Tc1  Cmin Th1  Tc1  Cmin Th1  Tc1 
  f NTU , Cr , flow arragement 
NTU  g  , Cr , flow arragement 
 1   n  1;
NTU1  NTU n  1
NTU  n  NTU1
1 C r
2  NTU
3 NTU1
4   1
5 
6 Q
(38)
 1   n  1;
NTU1  NTU n  1
NTU  n  NTU1
1 C r
2  
3 F
4   1
5 E
6 NTU1
7  NTU
Heat exchanger with condensing fluid 8 U o Ao
Q  m c c pc Tc 2  Tc1   m h h fg  U o Ao
Th  Tc1   Th  Tc 2 
 T T 
ln h c1 
 Th  Tc 2 
F  1.0; Ch  ; Cr  0
Heat exchanger with evaporating fluid
Q  m c h fg  m h c ph Th1  Th 2   U o Ao
Th 2  Tc   Th1  Tc 
T T 
ln h 2 c 
 Th1  Tc 
(39)
F  1.0; Cc  ; Cr  0
Basic heat exchanger equation under variable Uo-coefficient

Th 2  Tc1   Th1  Tc 2 
Q  U o ,m Ao F
T T 
ln h 2 c1 
 Th1  Tc 2 
1
U o ,m  
Ao Ao
U o dA
 Linear variation of Uo-coefficient with A
U o ,1  U o ,2
U o ,m 
2
 Small variation of Uo-coefficient with A
U o ,m  U o  A  Ao 2
(40)
Heat exchanger rating calculations

 Known quantities: Inlet temperatures, mass flow rates, outer surface area
1) Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient Uo.
2) Calculate thermal capacities Cc and Ch.
3) Calculate Cmin, Cmax and Cr.
4) Calculate NTU.
5) Calculate the heat exchanger effectiveness  using -NTU relationships.
6) Determine the heat transfer rate Q.
Heat exchanger design calculations using LMTD method

 Known quantities: Inlet temperatures, mass flow rates, one outlet temperature
1) Calculate the heat transfer rate Q.
2) Calculate the unknown outlet temperature using the conservation of energy
principle.
3) Calculate Tlm ,cf .
4) Calculate the correction factor F.
6) Determine Ao.
Heat exchanger design calculations using -NTU method

 Known quantities: Inlet temperatures, mass flow rates, one outlet temperature
1) Calculate the heat transfer rate Q.
2) Calculate the unknown outlet temperature using the conservation of energy principle.
4) Calculate thermal capacities Cc and Ch.
5) Calculate Cmin, Cmax and Cr.
6) Calculate the heat exchanger effectiveness .
7) Calculate the NTU using NTU- relationships.
8) Determine Ao.
(41)
Heat Exchanger Design Methodology
(42)
Problems
(43)
(44)
Fouling of Heat Exchangers

Fouling: It is accumulation of undesirable substances on a surface.
Examples on fouling
 Deposit of cholesterol on the inner surface of the artery wall. This deposit results in
narrowing the blood flow cross-sectional area. Thus more pumping power is required
by the heart to circulate the blood.
 Deposit of ashes on the tube surface which forms of a less thermally conducting layer
on the surface. Thus, heat transfer rate is reduced.
Disadvantages of fouling on heat exchanger operation

 Reducing heat transfer rate due to the increased thermal resistance of the deposit
layer.
 Increasing pumping power requirement due to narrowing of the flow passages.
Definitions
U of : Overall heat transfer coefficien t based on fouled condition
U oc : Overall heat transfer coefficien t based on clean condition
1 1
  R ft
U of U oc
(45)
R ft : Total fouling factor
d 
R ft  R fo  R fi  o  , bare circular tube
 di 
R fo R fi  Ao 
R ft    , finned tube
o i  Ai 
Design of heat exchangers based clean condition
Q  U oc AocTlm
Design of heat exchangers based fouled condition
Q  U of Aof Tlm
Relationship between clean and fouled conditions based designs

U of Aof Tlm  U oc AocTlm
U of Aof  U oc Aoc
Aof U oc
  1  U oc R ft  1.0
Aoc U of
Heat exchanger operation under fouled condition

A. Effect of fouling on pressure drop and pumping power
2 2
L um ,c L um , f
pc  f c  ; p f  f f 
dic 2 dif 2
fc  f f
 
 f  um ,c
c  m
m dic2  um , f dif2
4 4
(46)
2
um , f d 
  ic  d ic
 1.25
um ,c d 
 if  d if
P f
 1.25  3.05
5
Pf p f  dic 
5
     1.0 P
Pc pc  dif 
 c
B. Effect of fouling on flow rate
  p   4  p f 
c  
m f 
dic4  c ; m dif  
128  L  128  L 
pc  p f
d ic
 1.25
4 d if
m f  d if 
 
m c  d ic  m f
 0.8  0.4096
4
m c
C. Effect of fouling on heat transfer
Q f  U of Ao Tlm , f
Qc  U oc Ao Tlm ,c
Q f  U of  Tlm , f   1  Tlm , f 
      T 
Qc  U oc  Tlm ,c   1  U oc R ft  lm ,c 
Cost of fouling on industrial sector

 Increased capital cost (large pumps are required, large heat transfer area is required,
stand by heat exchangers are required).
 Increased maintenance cost (to clean the deposits).
 Loss of production cost (shutting down the plant for cleaning the heat exchangers).
 Energy losses (Large electrical energy is required to operate the large pumps).
(47)
Categories of fouling
A. Particulate fouling: e.g. dust, ash.
B. Crystallization fouling: This arises due to presence of salts in the fluid.
C. Corrosion fouling: corrosive fluids may react with tube material producing corrosion
products.
D. Biofouling: e.g. bacteria, algae and molds.
E. Chemical reaction fouling: The tube surface can act as catalyst expediting
chemical reaction on the surface. e.g. polymerization.
Fundamental process of fouling

1. Initiation of the surface: e.g. removing of any protective layers.
2. Transport of undesirable substances: Mechanisms of this process are: a) mass
diffusion, b) Inertial impaction, c) Sedimentation, d) Thermophoresis (motion of
particles due to temperature gradients), d) Electrophoresis (motion of particles due to
electrical potential gradients).
3. Attachment: depends on adhering forces between the deposits and the surface.
4. Removal: removal mechanisms are: a) Dissolution (removal by ions), b) Erosion
(removal by small fouling masses), c) Spalling (removal by large fouling masses).
5. Aging: growing effect.
(Fouling is an extremely complex phenomenon)
Cleanliness Factor (CF) of the heat exchanger:

U of 1
CF  
U oc 1  U oc R ft
CF  0.85, Typical designs
Percent Over Surface (OS) of the heat exchanger:
A 
OS  100 of  1%  100U oc R ft %
 Aoc 
OS  17.6%, Typical designs
(48)
TEMA values of fouling factors to be used in heat exchangers design
 TEMA: Tubular Exchangers Manufacturers Association

 Cleaning of heat exchanger can be started once the fouling factors reach TEMA
values shown in the next tables.
(49)
(50)
Prediction of fouling
Techniques to control fouling
(51)
Problems
(52)
(53)
Double Pipe Heat Exchangers (DPHXs)

DPHX consists of one set of pipes of smaller diameter (tubes) placed concentrically inside a
pipe of larger diameter (pipe or shell) with appropriate fittings to direct the flow
from one section to the next.
Annulus is the volume between the outer surface of the tubes and the inner surface of the
pipe.
DPHXs are used majorly for sensible cooling/heating processes.
DPHXs exist in industry in form of hairpin heat exchangers as shown in the figures below.
DPHXs can be arranged in series and parallel arrangements or combined arrangements.
(54)
Advantages of DPHXs: a) easy to be cleaned, b) easy to be maintained, c) fluids can be

gases or liquids, d) tubes may have fins on their inner surface,
outer surface or on both inner and outer surfaces (fins are
usually placed on the surface that has minimum convection heat
transfer coefficients).
(55)
Disadvantages of DPHXs: a) bulky, b) have small heat transfer area per unit volume, c)
expensive per heat transfer area.
DPHX cross sections; See next figures for various cross-sections
Pressure drop in single hairpin heat exchanger

m i m o
um ,i  ; um ,o 
i AC ,i o AC ,o
 2L  um2 ,i
pi   4 f a ,i  Kbend ,S  Kinlet  K outlet  i
 d i  2
 2L  um2 ,o
po   4 f a ,o  Kbend ,S  Kinlet  K outlet  o
 Dh ,o  2
Kinlet  1.0; Koutlet  0.5; Kbend,S  2.0
(56)
Pressure drop in NHP hairpin heat exchangers arranged in series

m i m o
um ,i  ; um ,o 
i AC ,i o AC ,o
 2L Kbendi ,L   um2 ,i


pi   4 f a ,i  Kbendi ,S   N HP  Kinleti   K outleti   i
 di 2   2
 2 L Kbendo ,L   um2 ,o

po   4 f a ,o  Kbendo ,S   N HP  Kinleto   K outleto   o
 D 2 2
 h ,o  
Kinleti ,o   1.0; Koutleti ,o   0.5; Kbendi ,o ,S  2.0; Kbendi ,o ,L  1.5
Thermal/hydraulic analysis of tubes with NHP=1

4 AC ,i 4A
Dh ,i  ; De ,i  C ,i
Pw ,i Ph ,i
 i um ,i Dh ,i hD
Re Dh ,i  ; NuD  i e ,i
i ki e ,i
 Bare circular tubes of number Nt

AC ,i  di2 N t
4
Pw,i  Ph ,i  di Nt
Ai  di Nt 2L
 Finned circular tubes of number Nt (rectangular fins)

AC ,i  di2 Nt  H f ,i i N f ,i Nt  Ai 1  Ai N HP  1
4
Pw,i  Ph ,i  di Nt  2H f ,iN f ,i Nt
(57)
Au ,i 1  2Nt Ldi  N f ,ii ; Af ,i 1  2Nt N f ,i L2H f ,i  i 

 Ai 1  2Nt Ldi  2N f ,i H f ,i 
Convection heat transfer coefficient inside tubes (hi)
 Developing Laminar flow in a circular tube
ium ,i di
Red i 
i
hi d i 0.0668d i L  Red i Pri

Nu d i   3.66 
ki 
1  0.04 d i L  Red i Pri
23

0.14
 b ,i 
13
hd  Red i Pri d i 
Nu d i  i i  1.86   
 
ki  L   s ,i 
 Turbulent fully developed flow
 f a ,i 2ReD  1000Pri
Nu De ,i 
1  12.7 f a ,i 2 Pri 2 3  1
h ,i
12
3 103  ReDh ,i  5 106 , 0.5  Pri  2000
   2
f a ,i  1.58 ln ReDh ,i  3.28 , 3000  ReDh ,i  5  106 ; smooth tube
1  3.6 log  6.9   e D  ; roughened tube

1.11
10   3.7  
 Dh ,i   
f a ,i Re
Thermal/hydraulic analysis of annulus with NHP=1

4 AC ,o 4A
Dh ,o  ; De ,o  C ,o
Pw ,o Ph ,o
(58)
 o um ,o Dh ,o hD
Re Dh ,o  ; NuD  o e ,o
o ko e ,o
 Bare circular tubes of number Nt

AC ,o 
4
D i
2
 do2 Nt 
Pw,o   Di  do Nt ; Ph ,o  do Nt
 Ao 1  do Nt 2L
 Finned circular tubes of number Nt (rectangular fins)

AC ,o 
4
D i
2

 do2 Nt  H f ,o o N f ,o Nt  Ao 1  Ao N HP  1
Pw,o   Di  do Nt   2H f ,oN f ,o Nt ; Ph ,o  do Nt  2H f ,oN f ,o Nt
Au ,o 1  2Nt Ldo  N f ,oo ; Af ,o 1  2Nt N f ,o L2H f ,o  o 

 Ao 1  2 Nt Ldo  2 N f ,o H f ,o 
Convection heat transfer coefficient outside tubes (ho)
 Developing Laminar flow
ho De ,o 0.0668Dh ,o L ReDh ,o Pro

Nu De ,o   3.66 
ko 
1  0.04 Dh ,o L ReDh ,o Pro
23

13 0.14
hD  ReDh ,o Pro Dh ,o   b ,o 
Nu De ,o  o e ,o  1.86   
 
ko  L   s ,o 
(59)
 f a ,o 2ReD  1000Pro
Nu De ,o 
1  12.7 f a ,o 2 Pro2 3  1
h ,o
12
3 103  ReDh ,o  5 106 , 0.5  Pro  2000
   2
f a ,o  1.58 ln ReDh ,o  3.28 , 3000  ReDh ,o  5 106 ; smooth tube
1  6.9  e D 1.11
 3.6 log10    
f a ,o  Dh ,o
Re  3.7  
Thermal analysis of NHP hairpin series heat exchangers

Th 2  Tc1   Th1  Tc 2 
T T 
ln h 2 c1 
 Th1  Tc 2 
Ao   Ao 1 N HP ;  Ao 1  Ao N HP  1
 Bare circular tubes
1 1 d ln do di   do  d  1
  R fo  o    R fi   o 
U of ho 2ktube  di   di  hi
 Circular tubes with fins on their outer surfaces
1 1 R  A  ln do di    Ao 1    Ao 1  1
  fo  o 1  R 
 fi  
U of o ho o 2ktubeN t 2 L    Ai 1    Ai 1  hi
 Circular tubes with fins on their inner surfaces
1 1  A  ln do di    Ao 1  R fi   Ao 1  1
  R fo  o 1    
U of ho 2ktubeN t 2 L    Ai 1  i   Ai 1  i hi
(60)
 Finned circular tubes with fins on inner and outer surfaces
1 1 R  A  ln do di    Ao 1  R fi   Ao 1  1
  fo  o 1    
U of o ho o 2ktubeN t 2 L    Ai 1  i   Ai 1  i hi
A  A 
o  1  1   fo  fo 1
; i  1  1   fi 
fi 1
 Ao 1  Ai 1
   


tanh H fo   o 2 2ho
k fin ,o o




2hi

k fin ,i i


 fo   ;    
   
fi
2ho 2hi
H fo   o 2 H fi   i 2
Design and operational features

DPHXs have four key design components:
1. Shell nozzles
2. Tube nozzles
3. Shell-to-tube closure
4. Return-bend housing
(61)
Problems
(62)
(63)
(64)
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers (STHEs)

STHE basic components:
 Tube bundle  Shell
 Front end head  Rear end head
 Baffles  Tube sheets
(65)
STHEs have larger heat transfer area per unit volume than double pipe heat exchangers.
STHEs can be used for large pressure applications.
STHEs are easier to be cleaned than many types of heat exchangers such as compact heat
exchangers.
TEMA Shell and end heads types
(66)
pF  Shell  8pE  Shell
pG  Shell  pE  Shell
1
pJ  Shell  pE  Shell
8
E-Shell: least expensive shell
E-Shell and 1P tubes: counter flow heat exchanger
F-Shell and 2P tubes: counter flow heat exchanger
J-Shell: can be used as shell side horizontal condenser
G-Shell, J-Shell and X-Shell: cross flow heat exchanger
Tubes covers 60% of the shell diameter of K-Shell
Tube bundle
 They should accommodate thermal expansion.
 They should furnish ease of cleaning.
 They should provide least expensive construction.
(67)
(68)
Tubes and tube passes

 Tube material: low carbon steel, low alloy steel, stainless steel, copper, admiralty,
cupronickel, inconel, alumnium (in form of alloys) or titanum.
 Tube standards
(69)
(70)
Tube layouts
PT: tube pitch; C: clearence; C  PT  do
C  7 mm : cleaning requirment for square pitch
(71)
Traingular pitch results in largest tube density inside the shell
PT
1.25   1.5 : to avoid weak structurally tube sheets while enhancing heat
do
transfer
Nt max  f Di ,do , N P ,PT ,tube layout 

Nt max : Maximum tubes to be fit inside the shell – (Tube count)
(72)
(73)
(74)
(75)
Allocations of streams
 The more seriously fouling fluid flows through the tubes.
 The high pressure fluid flows through the tubes.
 The corrosive fluid must flow through the tubes.
 Fluids producing lower heat transfer coefficients flows on the shell side.
Baffle types and geometry

Baffles function
 Supporting the tubes to prevent vibrations.
 Diverting shell side fluid flow across the bundle to obtain higher convection heat
transfer coefficients.
Baffle types
 Transverse baffles (Plate baffles, Rod baffles)
 Longitudinal baffles.
(76)
(77)
Baffle window (single/others segmental):
(78)
B : Baffle spacing AW : area of baffle window

HW
Single segmental baffle 25%  Baffle cut   100%  30%
Db
AW 1  AW 2
Other segmental baffle Baffle cut   100%
Db2 4
For strong structurally tube
B
sheets, less vibration, and 0.4   0.6
Di
augmented heat transfer
Basic design procedure of a heat exchanger
(79)
(80)
Shell side pressure drop
f oGo2 N b  1Di
po 
2  o De ,o o o ,w 
0.14
4PT2  d o2 4 
Square pitch: De ,o 
d o
Triangular pitch: De ,o 

4 PT2 3 4  d o2 8 
do 2
 d  m o
AC ,o  BDi 1   o   Go 
  PT   AC ,o
f o  exp 0.576  0.19 lnReo 
L
N b   1 ; N b : no. of baffles D G
B Reo  e ,o o
o
400  Reo  1  106
Tube side pressure drop (bare circular tubes)

m i  N
um ,i  ; AC ,i  d i2 t ; N P : no. of tube passes
i AC ,i 4 NP
 L  um2 ,i
pi   4 f a ,i  4   i NP
 d i  2
Convection heat transfer coefficient inside tubes (hi)

 Developing Laminar flow in a circular tube
ium ,i di
Red i 
i
hi d i 0.0668d i L  Red i Pri

Nud i   3.66 
ki 
1  0.04 d i L  Red i Pri
23

(81)
13 0.14
hd  Red i Pri di   i ,b 
Nud i  i i  1.86   
 
ki  L   i ,w 
 f a ,i 2ReD  1000Pri
Nu De ,i 
1  12.7 f a ,i 2 Pri 2 3  1
h ,i
12
3 103  ReDh ,i  5 106 , 0.5  Pri  2000
   2
f a ,i  1.58 ln ReDh ,i  3.28 , 3000  ReDh ,i  5 106 ; smooth tube
1  3.6 log  6.9   e D   , roughened tube

1.11
10 
ReDh ,i  3.7  
f a ,i  
Shell side heat transfer coefficient using Kern method

0.55 0.14
ho De ,o D G    
 0.36 e ,o o  Pro1 3  o 
ko  o   o ,w 
De ,oGo
2  103  Reo   1  106
o
4PT2  d o2 4 
Square pitch: De ,o 
d o
Triangular pitch: De ,o 

4 PT2 3 4  d o2 8 
do 2
 d  m o
AC ,o  BDi 1   o   Go 
  PT   AC ,o
Baffle cut  25%
(82)
Thermal analysis of shell-and-tube heat exchangers
Q  m c c pc Tc 2  Tc1   m h c ph Th1  Th 2   U o Ao F

Th 2  Tc1   Th1  Tc 2 
T T 
ln  h 2 c1 
 Th1  Tc 2 
 Bare circular tubes
1 1 d ln do di   do  d  1
  R fo  o    R fi   o 
U o ho 2ktube  di   di  hi
Ao  do N t L
 Finned circular tubes with fins on inner and outer surfaces

(rectangular fins)
1 1 R  Ao L1 m ln do di    Ao L1 m  R fi   Ao L1 m  1

  fo     
U o o ho o 2ktubeN t    
 i L1 m  i  i L 1 m  i hi
A  A
A  A 
o  1  1   fo  ; i  1  1   fi 
fo L 1 m fi L 1 m
 Ao L1 m  Ai L1 m
   


tanh H fo   o 2 
2ho
k fin ,o o




2hi

k fin ,i i


 fo   ;    
   
fi
2ho 2hi
H fo   o 2 H fi   i 2
Au ,i  N t Ldi  N f ,i i ; Af ,i  N t N f ,i L2H f ,i   i 
Ai  N t Ldi  2 N f ,i H f ,i 
Au ,o  N t Ldo  N f ,o o ; Af ,o  N t N f ,o L2H f ,o   o 
Ao  N t Ldo  2 N f ,o H f ,o 
(83)
Problems
(84)
(85)
Compact Heat Exchangers (Compact HXs)

Compact HXs is used for gas flow applications.
Compact HX types are: a) Plate-fin type, and b) Tube-fin type.
Compact HX has heat transfer surface area per unit volume larger than 700 m2/m3.
At V  700 m2 m3
Microheat exchanger has heat transfer surface area per unit volume larger than
10000 m2/m3.
At V  10,000 m2 m3
Compact HXs are used for gas to gas or liquid to gas heat exchangers.
(86)
Compact HXs applications: a) air conditioning condensers and evaporators, b)

automotive radiators, c) intercoolers of compressors.
Heat transfer enhancement techniques

 Active techniques (requiring external power to enhance heat transfer), e.g. surface
vibration, acoustic techniques, using electrohydrodynamic or hydromagetic effects.
 Passive techniques (do not require external power to enhance heat transfer), e.g.
using fins, twist tapes to gererate turbulence, surface roughness.
Heat transfer in compact heat exchangers
S tan ton number St  : Sto 

ho
Goc p ,o
 o c p ,o Go Dh ,o
Pro  ; Reo 
ko o
m o
Go  oU max,o 
Amin,o
(87)
Amin,o : min imum external flow area
At  Ao : external heat transfer area
Afr ,o : external flow frontal area
Afr ,o  HW
Amin
Dho  4 L
At
ho
jH ,o  Sto Pro2 3  Pro2 3
Goc p ,o
Important relationships
At A
 ;   min,o ; V  HWL
V Afr ,o
At  4
 L; Dh ,o 
Amin,o  
m o m o  U
Go    o ,1  ,o
Amin,o Afr ,o 
Go Dh ,o 4m o 4 U
Reh ,o    o ,1  ,o
o o Afr ,o o 
Overall heat transfer coefficient
 o : fin thickness cm
bo : fin pitch cm 1  
Af ,o
o 
At
(88)
o  1  1   fo  o
 tube : tube thickness
Pi : tube inner perimeter
Po : tube outer perimeter
 Circular tube with fins on outer surface and no-fins on inner surface
1  do  1   obo  1  1   obo  ln do di  1
     do   
U o  di  1   o  hi  1   o  2ktube o ho
 Rectangular tube with fins only on outer surface
1  Po  1   obo  1  Po  1   obo   tube 1

        
U o  Pi  1   o  hi  Pi  1   o  ktube o ho
(89)
Thermal analysis of compact heat exchangers
Q  m c c pc Tc 2  Tc1   m hc ph Th1  Th 2   U o At F

Th 2  Tc1   Th1  Tc 2 
T T 
ln h 2 c1 
 Th1  Tc 2 
Gas-side pressure drop for compact heat exchangers
1 1 1 1 
   
o 2  o ,1 o ,2 
 Tube-fin compact heat exchangers
Go2  
po 
A o ,1
 fo t
2 o ,1  Amin,o o
 1  2   o ,1
 1
 o ,2 
 Plate-fin compact heat exchangers
po 
Go2 
 kc  1   2   2 o1  1 fo At o ,1  1  ke   2  o ,1 
2 o ,1   o 2  Amin,o o  o ,2 
kc : inlet contractio n loss coefficien t
ke : oulet exp ansion loss coefficien t

Gas-side convection coefficient, ho, using different charts
 The h-coefficient shown in the subsequent figures is the ho-coefficient.
 The f-factor shown in the subsequent figures is the fo-factor.
(90)
N L : no. of rows
NT : max imum no. of tubes per row
PL  0.866 inch
PT  1.00 inch
L  N L  1PL  PL
H  NT  1PT  PT
(91)
N L : no. of rows
D f  0.861 inch
PL  0.900 inch
PT  0.975 inch
L  N L  1PL  D f
H  NT  1PT  D f
(92)
N L : no. of rows
D f  1.121 inch
PL  1.35 inch
PT , A  1.232 inch ; PT ,B  1.848 inch
L  N L  1PL  D f
H  NT  1PT  D f
(93)
(94)
(95)
(96)
(97)
Problems
(98)
(99)
Boiling
 Boiling is associated with transformation of liquid to vapor at a

solid/liquid interface due to convection heat transfer from the solid.
 Agitation of the liquid by vapor bubbles is one mechanism that provides

for large convection coefficients and hence large heat fluxes at low-to-
moderate surface-to-fluid temperature differences.
 Special form of Newton’s law of cooling:
qs  hTs  Tsat   hTe
Tsat : saturation temperature of liquid
Te  Ts  Tsat  : excess temperatur e
Special cases
 Pool boiling
Liquid motion is due to natural convection and bubble-induced mixing.
 Forced convection boiling

Fluid motion is induced by external means, as well as by bubble-induced
mixing.
 Saturated boiling
Liquid temperature is slightly higher than saturation temperature.
 Subcooled boiling
Liquid temperature is less than saturation temperature.
(100)
The boiling curve
Reveals range of conditions associated with saturated pool boiling on qs  Te
plot.
 Free convection boiling Te  5 C , water @1atm 

-
Little vapor formation
-
Liquid motion is due principally to single-phase natural convection.
 Onset of Nucleate Boiling - ONB Te  5 C , water @1atm 
 Nucleate boiling 5 C  Te  30 C , water @1atm 
Isolated vapor bubbles 5 C  Te  10 C , water @1atm 
- Liquid motion is strongly influenced by nucleation of bubbles at the surface.
- h and qs increase sharply with increasing Te .
- Heat transfer is principally due to contact of liquid with the surface (single-phase
convection) and not to vaporization.
(101)
Jets and columns 10 C  Te  30 C , water @1atm 

- Increasing number of nucleation sites causes bubble interactions and coalescence
into jets and slugs.
- Liquid/surface contact is impaired.
- qs continues to increase with Te but h begins to decrease.
(102)
 Te  30 C , water @ 1atm 

 Critical Heat Flux - CHF, qmax
- Maximum attainable heat flux in nucleate boiling.
-   1 MW m2 for water at atmospheric pressure.
qmax
 Potential burnout for power - Controlled heating
-  causes the surface to be blanketed by vapor, and the
An increase in beyond qmax
surface temperature can spontaneously achieve a value that potentially exceeds its

melting point for water at atmospheric pressure Te  1000 C .
- If the surface survives the temperature shock, conditions are characterized by film
boiling.
 Film boiling Te  120 C , water @1atm 
- Heat transfer is by conduction and radiation across the vapor blanket.
- A reduction in qs follows the cooling curve continuously to the Leidenfrost point
 for film boiling.
corresponding to the minimum heat flux qmin
- A reduction in qs below qmin
 causes an abrupt reduction in surface temperature
to the nucleate boiling regime.
 Transition boiling for temperature - Controlled heating

- Characterized by a continuous decay of qs (from qmax
 to qmin
 ) with increasing
Te .
- Surface conditions oscillate between nucleate and film boiling, but portion of
surface experiencing film boiling increases with Te .
- Also termed unstable or partial film boiling.
(103)
Pool boiling correlations

 Nucleate boiling
- Rohsenow Correlation
 g  L   v  
12 3
 c p ,L Te 
qs   L h fg      m v As h fg
 f   C h Pr n 
 s , f fg l 
L Dynamic visocity of liquid phase
h fg Enyhalpy of vaporization
g Gravitional acceleration
L Density of liquid phase
v Density of vapor phase
f Surface tension
c p ,L Specific heat of liquid phase
PrL Prandtl number of liquid phase
Cs , f , n Surface/fluid combination
- Critical heat flux of Zuber
  g  L   v  
14
qsmax  Ch fg v  f   m v max As h fg

 v2 
(104)
C  0.131 Horizontal cylinder or sphere

C  0.149 Large horizontal plate
 Film boiling
qs  h As Ts  Tsat   m v hfg
h 4 3  hconv
43
 hrad h 1 3
3
h  hconv  hrad if hconv  hrad
4
 g  L   v hfg D 3 
14
hconvD
Nu   C 
kv  k
 v v s T  T sat  
C  0.62 Horizontal cylinder As  DL
C  0.67 Sphere
As  D 2
hfg  h fg  0.8c p ,v Ts  Tsat 
 Ts4  Tsat
4

h rad 
Ts  Tsat
  5.67 108 W m2 K 4 : Stefan  Boltzmann cons tan t
Correlation for boiling inside tubes
X
 AC
uXdAC

qsDx
m m h fg
X : Mean vapor mass fraction at a given section

0.7
 
0.1
  qs
 0.6683 l  X 0.16 1  X  f Fr   1058 1  X 
h1 0.64
 0.8
Gs , f
 m AC h fg 
 
hsp  v 
(105)
0.7
 
0.45
  qs
X 0.72 1  X  f Fr   667.2 1  X 
h2 
 1.136 l 
0.08 0.8
Gs , f
 m A h 
hsp  v   C fg 
Fr  m AC  l  gD
2
f Fr   1.0 Vertical tubes
f Fr   1.0 Horizontal tubes with Fr  0.04

f Fr   2.63Fr 0.3 Horizontal tubes with Fr  0.04
0.8
hsp D u D
 0.023 l m ,l  Pri0.4
ki  l 
h  MAX h1 , h2 
0  X  0.8
(106)
(107)
Problems
P1 A long, 1-mm-diameter wire passes an electrical current dissipating 3150
W/m and reaches a surface temperature of 126 C when submerged in water
at 1 atm. What is the boiling heat transfer coefficient? Estimate the value of
the correlation coefficient Cs,f.
P2 A nickel-coated heater element with a thickness of 15 mm and a thermal

conductivity of 50 W/mK is exposed to saturated water at atmospheric
pressure. A thermocouple is attached to the back surface, which is well
insulated. Measurements at a particular operating condition yield an
electrical power dissipation in the heater element of 6.950x107 W/m3 and a
temperature of To= 266.4 C.
(a) From the foregoing data, calculate the surface temperature, Ts, and the
heat flux at the exposed surface.
(b) Using the surface heat flux determined in part (a), estimate the surface
temperature by applying an appropriate boiling correlation.
P3 A 1-mm-diameter horizontal platinum wire of emissivity 0.25 is operated in

saturated water at 1-atm pressure. What is the surface heat flux if the surface
temperature is 800 K?
P4 Copper tubes 25 mm in diameter and 0.75 m long are used to boil saturated
water at 1 atm. (a) If the tubes are operated at 75% of the critical heat flux,
how many tubes are needed to provide a vapor production rate of 750 kg/h?
What is the corresponding tube surface temperature?
P5 A vertical steel tube carries water at a pressure of 10 bars. Saturated liquid

water is pumped into the =0.1-m diameter tube at its bottom end (x =0) with
a mean velocity of um=0.05 m/s. The tube is exposed to combusting
pulverized coal, providing a uniform heat flux of qs=100,000 W/m2.
(a) Determine the tube wall temperature and the quality of the flowing water
at x =15 m. Assume Gs, f=1.
(b) Determine the tube wall temperature at a location beyond x=15 m where
single-phase flow of the vapor exists at a mean temperature of Tsat.
Assume the vapor at this location is also at a pressure of 10 bars.
(108)
Condensation
Heat transfer to a surface occurs by condensation when the surface temperature
is less than the saturation temperature of an adjoining vapor.
Film condensation
 Entire surface is covered by the condensate, which flows continuously
from the surface and provides a resistance to heat transfer between the
vapor and the surface.
 Thermal resistance is reduced through use of short vertical surfaces and
horizontal cylinders.
 Characteristic of clean, uncontaminated surfaces.
Dropwise condensation
 Surface is covered by drops ranging from a few micrometers to
agglomerations visible to the ordinary eyes.
 Thermal resistance is greatly reduced due to absence of a continuous film.
 Surface coatings may be applied to inhibit wetting and stimulate dropwise
condensation.
(109)
(110)
General correlations for film condensation on vertical surface
q  hL As Tsat  Ts   m L hfg
hfg  h fg  0.68c p ,l Tsat  Ts 
kl LTsat  Ts 
P
l hfg  l2 g 
13
 Wavy free laminar region P  15.8
Nu L 

hL  l2 g 13
 0.943P 1 4
kl
(111)
 Wavy laminar region 15.8  P  2530
Nu L 
hL  l2 g   13

1
0.68P  0.890.82
kl P
 Turbulent region P  2530; Prl  1.0
Nu L 
hL  l2 g 
13

1

0.024P  53 Prl1 2  89 4 3 
kl P
l Dynamic visocity of liquid phase

l kinematic visocity of liquid phase
h fg Enyhalpy of vaporization
c p ,l Specific heat of liquid phase
g Gravitional acceleration
L Surface length along g-direction
kl Thermal conductivity of liquid phase
m L Condensate mass flow rate at bottom section
A Surface area
hL Average convection heat transfer coefficent
Correlations for film condensation on radial systems
q  hD ,N As Tsat  Ts   m l hfg
 Single smooth sphere and single horizontal tube (N=1)
  l g  l   v hfg D 3 
14
hD D
Nu D   C 
kl  l kl Tsat  Ts  
C  0.729 Horizontal tube  As  DL
C  0.826 sphere As  D 2 
(112)
 Vertical tier of N horizontal tubes
hD ,N  hD N n
n  1 4 Analytical value, assuming continuous film between smooth tubes

n  1 6 Experimental value, due to dripping between smooth tubes
1 6  n  0 Experimental value, finned or ribbed tubes
(113)
Correlation for film condensation in horizontal tube
(a) Small vapor mass flow rate
 u D
Rev ,i   v m ,v   35,000
 v 
(114)
  l g  l   v hfg D 3 
14
hD D
Nu D   0.55 
kl   k
l l Tsat  T s  
(b) Large vapor mass flow rate
hD D  2.22 
NuD   0.023 ReD0.8,l Pri0.4 1  0.89 
kl  X tt 
4m 1  X  m
ReD ,l  ; X v
Dl m
0.5 0.1
1  X   v   l 
0.9
Martinelli parameter : X tt       
 X   l   v 
Correlation for dropwise steam condensation on copper surfaces
q  hdc As Tsat  Ts 
hdc  51,104  2044  Tsat , 22 C  Tsat  100 C
hdc  255,510 W m2 K , Tsat  100 C
(115)
Problems
P1 Saturated steam at 1 atm condenses on the outer surface of a vertical, 100-
mm-diameter pipe 1 m long, having a uniform surface temperature of 94 C.
Estimate the total condensation rate and the heat transfer rate to the pipe.
P2 The condenser of a steam power plant consists of a square (in-line) array of

625 tubes, each of 25-mm diameter. Consider conditions for which saturated
steam at 0.105 bars condenses on the outer surface of each tube, while a
tube wall temperature of 17 C is maintained by the flow of cooling water
through the tubes. What is the rate of heat transfer to the water per unit
length of the tube array? What is the corresponding condensation rate?
P3 The condenser of a steam power plant consists of AISI 302 stainless steel
tubes (ks=15 W/m.K), each of outer and inner diameters do=30 mm and
di=26 mm, respectively. Saturated steam at 0.135 bar condenses on the
outer surface of a tube, while water at a mean temperature of Tm=290 K is in
fully developed flow through the tube. For a water flow rate iside the tube of
0.25 kg/s, what is the outer surface temperature Ts,o of the tube and the rates
of heat transfer and steam condensation per unit tube length? As a first
estimate, you may evaluate the properties of the liquid film at the saturation
temperature. If one wishes to increase the transfer rates, what is the limiting
factor that should be addressed?
P4 Refrigerant R-22 with a mass flow rate of 8.75x10-3 kg/s is condensed inside
a 7-mm-diameter tube. Annular flow is observed. The saturation
temperature of the pressurized refrigerant is Tsat=45 C, and the wall
temperature is Ts=40 C. Vapor properties are v=77 kg/m3 and v=15x10-6
N.s/m2. Determine the heat transfer coefficient and the heat transfer and
condensation rates per unit length at a quality of X=0.5.
(116)
The Gasketed-Plate Heat Exchangers

 Gasketed Plate Heat Exchangers (G-P HXs) were introduced mainly for the
food industry because of their ease of cleaning.
 G-P HXs design becomes well identified in 1960s with the development of
more effective plate geometries, assemblies, and improved gasket materials.
 G-P HXs can be used as an alternative to tube-and-shell type heat
exchangers for low-and medium-pressure liquid-to-liquid heat trasfer
applications.
 Unlike to common design of heat exchangers, manufactrures of G-P HXs
have developed their own computerized design procedures applicable to the
exchangers they market.
Main Components
 G-P HX components are the plate (the heat transfer solid surface) and the
frame.
 Elements of the frame: fixed plate, compression plate, pressing equipment,
and connecting ports.
 Elements of the heat transfer soild surface: series of plates, parts for fluid
entry and exit in the four corners.
(117)
The Plate Pack

 Packing the plates make the holes at the corners to form continuous tunnels
or mainfolds.
 The plate pack is tightnend by means of either a mechanical or hydraulic
tightening device.
 The passages formed between the plates and corner ports are arranged so
that the two heat transfer media can flow through alternate channels, always
in counter-current flow.
 The warmer medium will give some of its thermal energy through the thin
plate wall to the colder medium on the other side.
(118)
 The medium are led into similar hole-tunels as in the inlets at the other end
of the plate package and are then discharged from the heat exchanger.
 Several hundereds of plates can be stacked in a single frame which are held
together by the bolts that hold the stack in compression.
 The two sides of the plate heat exchanger are normaly of identical
hydrodynamic characteristics.
 The plate is a sheet of metal precison-pressed into a corrugated pattern.
 The largest single plate is the order of 4.3 m heigh x 1.1 m wide.
 The heat transfer area for a single plate lies in the range 0.01-3.6 m2.
 The plate thickness ranges between 0.5 and 1.2 mm.
 The plates are spaced with nominal gaps of 2.5-5.0 mm.
 The hydraulic diameters for the flow channels ranges between 4-10 mm.
 The fluid should be equally distributed over the full width of the plate. This
requires the minmum length/width ratio of the order of 1.8.
 Leakage from the channels between the plates to the surrounding
atmosphere is prevented by the gasketing around the exterior of the plate.
 The number and size of the plates are determined by the flow rate, physical
properties of the fluids, pressure drop, and the temperature requirements.
(119)
The Plate Types

 Wide types of corrugated plates are available including chevron and
washboard types.
 The most used type is the chevron type.
 In washboard type, turbulence is promoted by continuously altering flow
direction and fluid's velocity.
(120)
 In chevron type, adjacent plates are assembled such that the flow in the
channels provides swirling motion to the fluids.
 The Chevron angle () varies between the extremes of about 65 and 25.
 The Chevron angle () determines the pressure drop and heat transfer
characteristics of the plate.
 The chevron angle () is reversed on adjacent plates so that when plates are
clamped together, the corrugations provide numerous contact points.
 Because of the many supporting contact points, the plates can be made from
very thin material, usually 0.6 mm.
(121)
Main Advantages
 Flexibility of design through a variety of plate sizes and passes
arrangements.
 Easily accessible heat transfer area, allowing changes in configuration to
suit changes in processes requirements through changes in the number of
plates.
 Efficient heat transfer; high heat transfer coefficients for both fluids because
of turbulence and a small hydraulic diameter.
 Very compact (large heat transfer area/volume ratio yet 2500 m2 of surface
area is available in a single unit), and low in weight.
 Only the plate edges are exposed to the atmosphere, no insulation is
required as heat losses are negligible.
 Inter-mixing of the two fluids cannot occur under gasket failure.
(122)
 Plate units exhibit low fouling characteristics due to high turbulence and
low residence time. The transition to turbulence occurs at low Reynolds
number of 10 to 400.
 More than two fluids may be processed in a single unit.
 Less expensive than tubular heat exchangers if the tubes are made from
stainless steel.
Performance limits
 The gaskets impose restriction on operating temperatures (160C-250C).
 The gaskets impose restriction on operating pressures (25-30 bar).
 The gaskets impose restriction on nature of fluids that can be handled.
 The upper size of the G-P HX is limited by the presses available to stamp
out the plates from the sheet metal.
 G-P HXs with sizes larger than 1500 m2 are not normally available.
 It is possible to have a maximum design pressure of up to 2.5 MPa;
normally, the design pressure is around 1.0 MPa.
 Operating temperatures are limited by the availability of suitable gasket
materials.
 G-P HXs are not suitable for air coolers or gas-to-gas applications.
 Velocities lower than 0.1 m/s are not used in plate heat exchangers.
 High viscous fluids are not preferred to be used in G-P HXs.
 Specially designed G-P HXs are now available for duties involving
evaporation and condensation systems.
Passes and Flow Arrangements

 The term "pass" refers to a group of channels in which the flow is in the
same direction.
 Single pass arrangement can be of U- and Z-arrangement types.
 The U-arrangement: all four ports in this arrangement will be on the fixed-
head plate. This permits disassembly of the heat exchanger for cleaning or
repair without disturbing any external piping. The flow distribution for this
arrangement is less uniform than the Z-arrangement.
 The Multipass arrangement: consists of passes connected in series.
 Arrangements abbreviation is written as:
N p of 1st fluid  no. of channels for 1st fluid/ N p of 2nd fluid  no. of channels for 2nd fluid
(123)
(124)
Applications
 G-P HXs are used in chemical, pharmaceutical, hygiene products,
biochemical processing, food, and dairy industries as they can meet health
and sanitation requirements.
 G-P HXs are mainly used as liquid-to-liquid turbulent flow HXs.
(125)
(126)
Fouling of G-P HXs

G-P HXs have less fouling than tubular heat exchangers because of the
following reasons:
 High turbulence maintains solids in suspension.

 Velocity profiles across a plate are uniform with almost absent zones of
low velocities.
 The plate surfaces are generally smooth and can be further electro-
polished.
 Deposit of corrosion products are absent because of low corrosion rates.
 The high film coefficients maintain a moderately low metal wall
temperature. This helps preventing crystallization growth.
 The plates can be easily cleaned.
Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Calculations

 Developed length 
 Surface enlargement factor   ,    , 1.15    1.25 .
 Pr ojected length 
A1
 ;
A1 p
(127)
A1 : Actual effective area provided by manufacturer;
A1 p : The projected plate area;
A1 p  L p  Lw ; L p  Lv  D p ; Lw  Lh  D p ;
Lv : The vertical ports distance;
Lw : The horizontal ports distance.
 The mean channel spacing b  :
b p t;
p : The plate pitch; t : the plate thickness
Lc
 The compressed plate pact length  Lc  , p  , N t : total number of
Nt
plates.
 The hydraulic diameter of the channel  Dh  :
4bLw 2b
Dh   ;
2b  Lw  
Gc Dh
Re  ;

m
Gc  ;
N cp bLw
N cp : Number of channels per pass;
Nt  1
N cp  , N p : number of passes
2N p
 Convection HT Coefficients Correlation:

0.17
hDh  
 Ch Ren Pr1 3  b 
k  w 
 The frictional pressure drop pc  :

(128)
0.17
Lv N p Gc2  b  Kp
pc  4 f   , f 
Dh 2    w  Rem
 The port pressure drop p p  :
G p2 m
p p  1.4 N p , Gp  .
2 D p2 4
 The total pressure drop pt  :
pt  pc  p p .
 The overall heat transfer coefficient:

1 1 1 t
   ;
U c hc hh k w
1 1 1 t
    R fh  R fc
U f hc hh k w
 Required Heat Duty, Ae is the total developed area for all thermally
effective plates  N t  2 :
Qr  m c p c Tc2  Tc1   m
 c p h Th1  Th 2 ;
Q f  U f Ae FTlm ,cf ;
T1  T2
Tlm ,cf  ;
T1
ln
T2
T1  Th2  Tc1 ; T2  Th1  Tc 2
 The safety factor of the design Cs  ,
Qf
Cs 
Qr
(129)
(130)
Problems
(131)
(132)
Condensers and Evaporators

Horizontal shell side condensers
(133)
(134)
Horizontal tube side condensers
Vertical shell side condensers
(135)
Vertical tube side condensers

1. Vertical in-tube down flow condenser
(136)
2. Reflux condenser
(137)
Air cooled condensers
Direct contact condensers
(138)
Failure of condenser operation

1. The tubes may be more fouled than expected – a problem not unique
to condensers.
2. The condensate may not be drained properly, causing tubes to be
flooded. This could mean that the condensate outlet is too small or too
high.
3. Venting of non-condensable gases may be inadequate.
4. The condenser was designed on the basis of end temperatures without
noticing that design duty would involve a temperature cross in the
middle of the range.
5. Flooding limits have been exceeded for condensers with backflow of
liquid against upward vapor flow.
6. Excessive fogging may be occurring. This can be problem when
condensing high molecular weight vapors in the presence of non-
condensable gases.
7. Severe maldistribution in parallel condensing paths is possible,
particularly with vacuum operation. This occurs because there can be
two flow rates which satisfy the imposed pressure drop.
Condensers for refrigeration and air conditioning

1. Water-cooled condensers
 Horizontal shell-and-tube
 Vertical shell-and-tube
 Shell-and-coil
 Double pipe
2. Air-cooled condensers
3. Evaporative condensers
(139)
Evaporative condensers
(140)
Evaporators for refrigeration and air conditioning

 Water cooling evaporators (Chillers)
(141)
 Air cooling evaporators (Air coolers)
(142)
Standards for evaporators and condensers

 Air-conditioning and Refrigerating Institute (ARI) Standards
 American Society for Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) Standards
(143)
Problems
(144)
(145)
References
[1] F. P. Incorpera, D. P. DeWitt, T. L. Bergman, A. S. Lavine, “Fundamentals
of Heat and Mass Transfer-6th Edition”, John Wiley, 2006, New York.
[2] F. P. Incorpera, D. P. DeWitt, T. L. Bergman, A. S. Lavine, “Fundamentals

of Heat and Mass Transfer-7th Edition”, John Wiley, New, 2011, New York.
[3] R. K. Shah, D. P. Sekulic, Fundamental of Heat Exchanger Design, John

Wiley, 2003, New York.
[4] S. Kaka, H. Liu, Heat Exchangers: Selection, Rating, and Thermal Design,
CRC Press, 2002, Florida.
(146)

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‫�سم ا� ا�ر�ن ا�رحيم‬

King Abdulaziz University

Basics of Rating and Thermal

General notes prepared for the course

MEP 460: Design of Heat Exchangers

Abdul-Rahim A. Khaled, Professor

 Mean bulk Temperature, Tm:

 For circular pipe,

ReD ,cr  2300

Fully developed flow

 Hydrodynamic Entry Length

 Requirement for fully developed hydrodynamically flow condition:

B) Thermally fully developed flow

 Thermal Entry Length

 Can a flow be developing hydrodynamically and be thermally fully-developed?

 Requirement for thermally fully developed flow condition:

Calculation of mean bulk temperature

Integrating from the tube inlet to outlet x  0  x  L :  c p Tm ,o  Tm ,i 

Uniform Heat Flux qs  cons tan t 

Integrating from the tube inlet to outlet x  0  x  L

Uniform Surface Temperature Ts  cons tan t 

 c p dTm  hPTs  Tm dx

Integrating from the tube inlet to outlet x  0  x  L

Uniform External Fluid Temperature T  cons tan t 

General Correlations for Internal Flow

 The pressure drop may be determined from knowledge of the friction

 Fanning friction factor fa:

 Laminar flow in a circular tube:

 Turbulent flow in a smooth circular tube:

f  0.79 ln ReD   1.64 , 3000  ReD  5  106

f a  1.58 ln ReD   3.28 , 3000  ReD  5  106

 Turbulent flow in a roughened circular tube (e: surface roughness):

Pressure drop for fully developed flow from x=0 to x=L

Pumping power requirement P 

 p : Pump total efficiency

Nusselt number for fully developed flow condition

 Turbulent flow in a circular tube

3  103  ReD  5  106 , 0.5  Pr  2000

 Laminar flow in a noncircular tube

 Laminar flow in annulus region with insulated outer surface qo  0

- Uniform surface heat flux qi

- Uniform surface temperature Ts ,i 

 Turbulent flow in a noncircular tube and in an annulus region

3  103  ReD h  5  106 , 0.5  Pr  2000

Nusselt number for developing flows (Entry region effects)

- Combined Entry region

Classifications of Heat Exchangers

Classifications according to transfer processes

Classifications according to construction features

Classifications according to surface compactness

Classifications according to number of fluids

Classifications according to heat transfer mechanism

Classifications according to flow arrangements

Basic Equations for Heat Exchangers

Classifications of Heat exchangers based on flow arrangement

The overall heat transfer coefficient

 Bare circular fouled tubes of Nt number of tubes

R fo : outside fouling unit resis tan ce

 Finned circular fouled tubes of Nt number of tubes (rectangular fins)

Ao  do  2H fo N fo Nt L; Ai  di  2H fi N fi Nt L

Afo  2H fo   o N fo Nt L; Afi  2H fi   i N fi Nt L

Auo  do  N fo o Nt L; Aui  di  N fi i Nt L