Section 5

Basic Introduction to Welding Processes

5 Basic Introduction to Welding Processes
5.1 General
Common characteristics of the four main arc-welding processes, MMA, TIG,
MIG/MAG and SAW are:

 An arc is created when an electrical discharge occurs across the gap

between an electrode and parent metal.
 The discharge causes a spark to form and the spark causes the surrounding
gas to ionise.
 The ionised gas enables a current to flow across the gap between electrode
and base metal thereby creating an arc.
 The arc generates heat for fusion of the base metal.
 With the exception of TIG welding, the heat generated by the arc also
causes the electrode surface to melt and molten droplets can transfer to the
weld pool to form a weld bead or weld run.
 Heat input to the fusion zone depends on the arc voltage, arc current and
welding/travel speed.

Productivity
If the items to be welded can be manipulated, so that welding can be done in
the flat position, higher rates of metal deposition can be used which will
increase productivity.

For consumable electrode welding processes, the rate of transfer of molten

metal to the weld pool is directly related to the welding current density (the
ratio of the current to the diameter of the electrode).

For TIG welding, the higher the current, the more energy there is for fusion and
thus the higher the rate at which the filler wire can be added to the weld pool.

5.2 Welding parameters

Arc voltage
Arc voltage is related to the arc length. For processes where the arc voltage is
controlled by the power source (SAW, MIG/MAG and FCAW) and can be varied
independently from the current, the voltage setting will affect the profile of the
weld.

As welding current is raised, the voltage also needs to be raised to spread the
weld metal and produce a wider and flatter deposit.

For MIG/MAG, arc voltage has a major influence on droplet transfer across the
arc.

Welding current
Welding current has a major influence on the depth of fusion/penetration of into
the base metal and adjacent weld runs. As a general rule the higher the current
the greater the depth of penetration.

Penetration depth affects dilution of the weld deposit by the parent metal and it
is particularly important to control this when dissimilar metals are joined.

Polarity
Polarity determines whether most of the arc energy (the heat) is concentrated
at the electrode surface or at the surface of the parent material.

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 The location of the heat with respect to polarity is not the same for all
processes and the affects/options/benefits for each of the main arc welding
processes are summarised in the table below:

Table 5.1 Effects, options and benefits for each of the main arc welding
processes.

Polarity
Process
DC+ve DC-ve AC
MMA Best penetration Less penetration but higher Only suitable for
deposition rate (used for some electrodes
root passes and weld and when arc
overlaying) blow is a problem

TIG Rarely used due Used for all metals Required for Al/Al
to tungsten - except Al/Al alloys alloys to break-up
overheating (and Mg/Mg alloys) the refractory
oxide film

GMAW Used for all Not used Not used

Solid wires metals and
(MIG/MAG) virtually all
situations

FCAW/MCAW Most common Some positional basic Not used

Gas- and fluxed wires are designed
self-shielded to run on -ve; some metal
cored wires cored wires may also be
used on -VE, particularly
for positional welding

SAW Best penetration Less penetration but higher Used to avoid arc
deposition rate (used for blow – particularly
root passes and overlaying) for multi-electrode
systems

5.2.1 The process

Manual metal arc (MMA) welding was invented in Russia in 1888. It involved a
bare metal rod with no flux coating to give a protective gas shield. The
development of coated electrodes did not occur until the early 1900s when the
Kjellberg process was invented in Sweden and the Quasi-arc method was
introduced in the UK.

In MMA welding, an arc is initiated and maintained between the end of a

consumable electrode (the filler metal) and the workpiece. Intense heat from
the arc causes the surface of the workpiece to melt and form a weld pool. At
the same time, the tip of the electrode melts and small globules of filler metal
travel across the arc into the molten weld pool to form a weld.

To initiate the arc, the welder momentarily touches the electrode tip on the
workpiece, causing current to flow: The electrode is immediately retracted to
give a gap of around 3mm between the electrode tip and workpiece: current
continues to flow across the gap, initially in the form of a small spark. This
spark rapidly ionises the air in the gap, forming an intense welding arc.

The electrode has a pre-coated, dense layer of dry flux over most of its surface:
a short length is left uncoated where it fits into the electrode holder and at the
opposite end, the tip where it makes contact with the workpiece to initiate the
arc is also bare.

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 As soon as the arc starts, the rapidly heated flux forms both a slag and gaseous
shield to protect the weld from atmospheric contamination. Liquid slag, which
appears brighter than the molten metal and is more free-running, forms on top
of the solidifying weld metal and the gaseous shield protects the weld pool, hot
electrode tip and globules of filler metal from atmospheric contamination.

Direction of travel
Electrode angle 75-80˚ to
the horizontal

Consumable electrode

Evolved gas shield Flux covering

Weld Metal Core Wire

Arc
Slag
Weld Pool

Parent metal

Figure 5.1 Manual metal arc welding.

As globules of filler metal transfer to the weld pool, the electrode becomes
shorter. The welder continuously compensates for this and keeps the arc length
constant by feeding the electrode towards the weld using a carefully controlled
hand movement.

Most MMA electrodes are fairly short (around 350-450mm in length) which
means that relatively short lengths of weld are made before having to install a
new electrode, which is a quick and simple job.

Although the flux coating around the electrode clearly has significant benefits,
including helping to stabilise the arc, it has some disadvantages too. As the
weld cools, the slag cools and solidifies and must be chipped off the weld bead
once the weld run is complete (or before the next weld pass is deposited),
suitable eye protection, eg safety glasses, is essential.

This cleaning process is especially important in multi-pass welding where slag

may become entrapped, resulting in inclusions, which can weaken the weld.

5.2.2 Types of flux/electrodes

Arc stability, depth of penetration, metal deposition rate and positional
capability are greatly influenced by the chemical composition of the flux coating
on the electrode. Electrodes can be divided into three main groups:

 Cellulosic.
 Rutile.
 Basic.

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 Cellulosic electrodes
Contain a high proportion of cellulose in the coating and are characterised by a
deeply penetrating arc and a rapid burn-off rate giving high welding speeds.
Weld deposit can be coarse and with fluid slag, deslagging can be difficult.
These electrodes are easy to use in any position and are noted for their use in
the stovepipe welding technique.

Features
 Deep penetration in all positions.
 Suitability for vertical down welding.
 Reasonably good mechanical properties.
 High level of hydrogen generated - risk of cracking in the heat affected zone
(HAZ).

Rutile electrodes
Contain a high proportion of titanium oxide (rutile) in the coating, which
promotes easy arc ignition, smooth arc operation and low spatter. General
purpose electrodes with good welding properties and can be used with AC and
DC power sources, in all positions, especially suitable for welding fillet joints in
the horizontal/vertical (H/V) position.

Features
 Moderate weld metal mechanical properties.
 Good bead profile produced through the viscous slag.
 Positional welding possible with a fluid slag (containing fluoride).
 Easily removable slag.

Basic electrodes
Contain a high proportion of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium fluoride
(fluorspar) in the coating. This makes their slag coating more fluid than rutile
coatings - this is also fast-freezing which assists welding in the vertical and
overhead position. Are used for welding medium and heavy section fabrications
where higher weld quality, good mechanical properties and resistance to
cracking (due to high restraint) are required.

Features
 Low hydrogen weld metal.
 Require high welding currents/speeds.
 Poor bead profile (convex and coarse surface profile).
 Slag removal difficult.

5.2.3 Power source

Electrodes can be operated with AC and DC power supplies. Not all DC
electrodes can be operated on AC power sources; however AC electrodes are
normally used on DC.

Welding current
Welding current level is determined by the size of electrode, the normal
operating range and current are recommended by manufacturers. As a rule of
thumb when selecting a suitable current level, an electrode will require about
40A per millimetre (diameter). Therefore, the preferred current level for a 4mm
diameter electrode would be 160A, but the acceptable operating range is 140-
180A.

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5.3 Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding
5.3.1 The process
Known in the USA as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), TIG welding is a
process where melting is produced by heating with an arc struck between a
non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece. Inert shielding of the
electrode and weld zone is necessary to prevent oxidation of the tungsten
electrode and atmospheric contamination of the weld/hot filler metal (see
below).

Filler metal may or may not be needed – autogenous welds are possible.
Tungsten is used because its melting point is 3370°C, well above any other
common metal.

Current
conductor

Welding torch Shielding gas in

Gas nozzle Contact tube

Non consumable
tungsten electrode

Welding wire Gaseous shield

Optional copper backing bar

Arc
Weld metal

Figure 5.2 Manual TIG welding.

5.3.2 Advantages of the TIG process

 Produces superior quality welds, with very low levels of diffusible hydrogen
– less danger of cold cracking.
 Generally it is free of spatter. Also, there is no slag formation during this
process which makes TIG particularly suited for applications that require a
high degree of cleanliness (eg brewing industry, semiconductors
manufacturing, etc).
 Can be used with or without filler metal (autogenuos welds). In case of
autogenuos welds, TIG can produce inexpensive welds at high speeds.
 Allows precise control of the welding variables, consequently provides
excellent control of root pass weld penetration – the danger of burn-through
is reduced. Also, it allows for out-of-position welds.
 Can be used to weld almost all metals, including dissimilar joints, but is not
generally used for those with low melting points such as lead and tin. The
method is especially useful in welding the reactive metals with very stable
oxides such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium and zirconium.
 Allows the heat source and filler metal additions to be controlled
independently and thus it is very good for joining thin base metals.

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5.3.3 Disadvantages of the TIG process
 Low deposition rates compared with other arc welding processes.
 Need for high dexterity and welder co-ordination than with MIG/MAG or
MMA welding.
 Less economical than MMA or MIG/MAG for sections thicker than 10mm.
 Difficult to shield properly the weld zone in draughty conditions – usually it
is not used for site works.
 Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrode is allowed to contact the weld
pool. To prevent this, a high frequency current is used to initiate the arc
which gives problems with RF interference, increases equipment cost and
requires special cable insulation.
 Low tolerance for contaminants on filler or base metals.
 Possible contamination or porosity by coolant leakage from water cooled
torches.

Common applications for the TIG process include welding longitudinal seams in
thin walled pressure pipes and tubes on continuous forming mills usually in
alloy and stainless steel without filler metals. Using filler metals produce heavier
gauge pipe and tubing for the chemical, petroleum and power generating
industries and in the aircraft industry for airframes, jet engines and rocket
motor cases.

5.3.4 Process variables

Primary variables in TIG welding are:

 Welding current.
 Current type and polarity.
 Travel speed.
 Shape of tungsten electrode tip and vertex angle.
 Shielding gas flow rate.
 Electrode extension.
 Torch tilt angle.

5.4 Metal inert gas/metal active gas (MIG/MAG) welding

5.4.1 The process
Known in the USA as gas metal arc welding (GMAW), MIG/MAG welding is a
versatile technique suitable for both thin sheet and thick section components in
most metallic materials. An arc is struck between the end of a wire electrode
and the workpiece, melting both to form a weld pool. The wire serves as the
source of heat (via the arc at the wire tip) and filler metal for the joint.

Wire is fed through a copper contact tube (also called a contact tip) which
conducts welding current into the wire. The weld pool is protected from the
surrounding atmosphere by a shielding gas fed through a nozzle surrounding
the wire.

Shielding gas selection depends on the material being welded and the
application. The wire is fed from a reel by a motor drive, and the welder or
machine moves the welding gun or torch along the joint line. The process offers
high productivity and is economical because the consumable wire is
continuously fed. The process is shown in Figure 5.3.

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 Contact tube

Consumable electrode

Gas nozzle
Gas shield

Arc

Workpiece Weld pool Weld metal

Figure 5.3 MIG/MAG welding.

The MIG/MAG process uses semi-automatic, mechanised, or automatic

equipment. In semi-automatic welding, the wire feed rate and arc length are
controlled automatically, but the travel speed and wire position are under
manual control.

In mechanised welding, all parameters are under automatic control, but they
can be varied manually during welding, eg steering of the welding head and
adjustment of wire feed speed and arc voltage. With automatic equipment,
there is no manual intervention during welding. Figure 5.4 shows the equipment
required for the MIG/MAG process.

Figure 5.4 MIG/MAG welding equipment.

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5.4.2 Advantages of the MIG/MAG process
 Continuous wire feed.
 Automatic self-regulation of the arc length.
 High deposition rate and minimal number of stop/start locations.
 High consumable efficiency.
 Heat inputs in the range 0.1-2kJ/mm.
 Low hydrogen potential process.
 Welder has good visibility of weld pool and joint line.
 Little or no post-weld cleaning.
 Can be used in all positions (dip transfer).
 Good process control possibilities.
 Wide range of application.

5.4.3 Disadvantages
 No independent control of filler addition.
 Difficult to set up optimum parameters to minimise spatter levels.
 Risk of lack of fusion when using dip transfer on thicker weldments.
 High level of equipment maintenance.
 Lower heat input can lead to high hardness values.
 Higher equipment cost than manual metal arc welding.
 Site welding requires special precautions to exclude draughts which may
disturb the gas shield.
 Joint and part access is not as good as MMA or tungsten inert gas welding.
 Cleanliness of base metal - slag processes can tolerate greater
contamination.

5.4.4 Process variables

The primary variables in MIG/MAG welding are:

 Welding current/wire feed speed.

 Voltage.
 Gases.
 Travel speed and electrode orientation.
 Inductance.
 Contact tip to work distance.
 Nozzle to work distance.
 Shielding gas nozzle.
 Type of metal transfer.

5.5 Submerged arc welding (SAW)

5.5.1 The process
Welding process where an arc is struck between a continuous bare wire and the
parent plate. The arc, electrode end and molten pool are submerged in an
agglomerated or fused powdered flux, which turns into a slag in its lower layers
when subjected to the heat of the arc, thus protecting the weld from
contamination.

The wire electrode is fed continuously by a feed unit of motor-driven rollers,

which usually are voltage-controlled to ensure an arc of constant length. The
flux is fed from a hopper fixed to the welding head, and a tube from the hopper
spreads the flux in a continuous elongated mound in front of the arc along the
line of the intended weld and of sufficient depth to submerge the arc completely
so that there is no spatter, the weld is shielded from the atmosphere, and there
are no ultraviolet or infrared radiation effects (see below).

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 Unmelted flux is reclaimed for use. Use of powdered flux restricts the process to
the flat and HV welding positions.

To automatic
wire feed
To power To flux
source hopper

Flux
Solid slag Run-off
plate
Weld metal

Work
Base connection
Welding metal
wire
Run-on plate
Travel

Figure 5.5 SAW equipment.

Submerged arc welding is noted for its ability to employ high weld currents
owing to the properties and functions of the flux. Such currents give deep
penetration and high dilution where twice as much parent metal as wire
electrode is melted.

Generally a DC electrode positive polarity is used up to about 1000 amps

because it produces a deep penetration. On some applications (ie cladding
operations) DC electrode negative is used due to the shallower penetration and
reduced dilution.

At higher currents or in case of multiple electrode systems, AC is often

preferred to avoid the problem of arc blow (when used with multiple electrode
systems, DC electrode positive is used for the lead arc and AC is used for the
trail arc).

(A.C.)

Figure 5.6 Effect of polarity on penetration and bead shape.

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 Difficulties sometimes arise in ensuring conformity of the weld with a
predetermined line owing to the obscuring effect of the flux. Where possible, a
guide wheel to run in the joint preparation is positioned in front of the welding
head and flux hoppers.

Submerged arc welding is widely used in the fabrication of ships, pressure

vessels, line pipe, railway carriages and anywhere where long welds are
required and it can weld thicknesses from 1,5mm upwards.

5.5.2 Materials joined

 Welding of carbon steels.
 Welding low alloy steels (eg fine grained and creep resisting).
 Welding stainless steels.
 Welding nickel alloys.
 Cladding to base metals to improve wear and corrosion resistance.

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