Volume 1, Issue #3, September 2001

Editorial Note In This Issue

In this third edition of "EnergyAfriKa" newsletter, we have added Profile
sections on Job and Consultancy Announcements; and Research Grants • African Energy
and Fellowships. We hope these added features should further enrich the Expert 1
content and scope of our newsletter, as an effective medium for sharing Feature Articles
knowledge, information and experiences on energy among African • Widening access to 7
energy specialists. rural energy …..
• Energy Security in 14
As we enter the fourth month of the life of our newsletter, the level of Africa:……..
contributions towards the newsletter from African energy specialists, by Energy News 24
way of technical papers, information on energy events etc. has not been Attractions
encouraging. As the key partners of "EnergyAfriKa", we entreat you to • Job Opportunities 31
ensure its survival through your contributions towards its contents. • Consultancy Anno- 32
uncements
Essel Ben Hagan, Editor-in-Chief • Research Grants 34
E-Mail: ebenhagan@yahoo.com
cc: kite@africaonline.com.gh / kite@ghana.com / solomon@kiteonline.net and Fellows-hips

PROFILE OF AN AFRICAN ENERGY EXPERT

FREDERICK OHENE AKUFFO, 61,is a
Professor in the Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana.

He was educated at Harvard University and

obtained the AB degree with a major in applied
physics and engineering science in 1966.Prof.
Akuffo was awarded MEng in mechanical
engineering by University of Toronto and PhD in
1973 for research in dynamics of magnetised
plasmas.He has over 20years experience as
lecturer in Thermofluids and Energy
Systems.Prof. Akuffo is a Corporate member
Ghana Institution of Engineers(MGhIE) and
Prof. FREDERICK OHENE AKUFFO American Society of Mechanical
Engineers(ASME).He has considerable skill in research and scholarship in renewable energy technology,
energy planning and policy.

Prof. Akuffo also has remarkable consultancy skills to: design and implement manpower education and
training programmes; design, implement, monitor and evaluate programmes and projects; analyse and
formulate national energy policies and strategies; direct, design and implement renewable energy systems
and evaluate performance by computer methods.

____________________________________________________

STATEMENT OF WORK EXPERIENCE

TEACHING AND RESEARCH

1992-Present : University of Science and Technology, Kumasi

Professor and Head of Department. Responsible for development and administration of

teaching and research programmes, coordination and management of 15 academic, and over
40 technical and administrative staff.

Director, CIDA-UR/UST Renewable Energy Project. Lectures in thermodynamics, thermal

power and renewable energy systems, energy policy and planning. Supervision of post-
graduate research in energy systems.

1973-1991 : University of Science and Technology, Kumasi

Lecturer/Senior Lecturer and subject head for thermodynamics including responsibility for
the solar energy laboratory. Lectures in engineering thermodynamics, heat transfer, air-
conditioning and refrigeration, internal combustion engines, fluid mechanics, enegy systems,
and supervised student projects. Promoted senior lecturer effective April 1983. Research in
solar energy.

1984-1985 : Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria.

Visiting lecturer on sabbatical leave from UST, Kumasi. Taught undergraduate and graduate
courses in internal combustion engines, heat transfer and energy conversion and developed
curricula in thermal power systems.

1967-1973 : University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Teaching assistant in fluid mechanics, heat engines, thermodynamics and engineering

mathematics. Research in kinetic theory of gases and plasmas.

1966-1967 :Orion Research Inc., Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Research assistant and quality control officer responsible for testing and evaluation of
specific ion electrodes, ion-exchange membranes and standard solutions.
SELECTED RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS

1. Mar.1992 - Present: Project Director, Ghana . CIDA-University of Regina/UST Renewable Energy

Project Post-graduate teaching and research; socio-economic surveys and analysis of rural energy
demand patterns; development and dissemination of affordable renewable energy technologies to
meet rural demand.
2. Jun. 1997- Feb. 1998: Contractor, Unesco Pilot Solar Village Project. Design, installation,
monitoring and evaluation of solar water pumping system for a rural community.
3. Sep. 1996- Jun. 1997: Contractor, Unesco Project on Environmental Benefits of Renewable Energy.
Comparative study of renewable and conventional energy systems in Ghana and the benefits to be
derived from substituting renewable for conventional sources.
4. 1992- Present: Author and subject coordinator. UNESCO SLEMES( Series on Learning Materials in
Engneering Science) Project. Responsible for texts on thermodynamics and thermal engineering
5. 1987-Dec.1990: Co-investigator Comparative Study of Solar Crop Dryers, Project sponsored by the
Collingwoode Williams Foundation for Research into Food Processing, Preservation and
Storage.(Administered by UST Research and Conference Committee).Design of cost-effective
natural convection solar crop dryers suitable for small scale applications. Duties included literature
surveys,test and evaluation of prototypes and techno-economic modelling.
6. Jan.1987-Oct.1988: Project Coordinator Feasibility Studies on Steven Solar Technologies, sponsored
by ANSTI/ UNESCO, Nairobi. The units considered in this technology transfer study were parabolic
solar collectors, fractional horse power steam engines, steam injection water pumps, small wood
fired boilers and solid absorption solar refrigerators. My duties included planning, reporting,
organisation of training for technicians, analysis and evaluation of field and laboratory results.
7. Jun.1986-May 1989: Co-investigator. Development of a Solar Liquid Piston Pump, project
sponsored by IDRC, Canada. The aim of the project was to develop a simple and cost effective water
pumping system. I was involved in the development and evaluation of flat plate thermosyphon solar
water heaters as heat sources for the SLPP. This activity included analysis of climatic data,
mathematical modelling and evaluation of experimental results
8. Jan.1986-Dec.1988: Principal investigator. Utilisation of Vegetable Oils in Diesel Engines,
sponsored by the Department of Mechanical Engineering, UST, Kumasi. I initiated the project to
determine the economic implications for the local economy. The activities included planning and
analysis of experimental results, and preparation of manuscript.

SELECTED CONSULTANCY SERVICES DELIVERED

1. 1995-Present: Contractor Ministry of Mines and Energy Wechiau Solar Power Project. Design,
construction and operation of 2kw solar power station and service centre for Wechiau community.
Fabrication and supply of 100 12DC fluorescent and 5w halogen lamps.
2. July-Sep 1994: Consultant African Energy Programme, African Development Bank. Study on
Diagnosis of Energy Education in the Educational System and Skilled Manpower Requirements in
the field of Energy.
3. Oct.1991-Dec.1993 : National Energy Policy Consultant. UNDP Project GHA/89/003-
Strengthening National Energy Policy and Operations Management Capabilities, Ministry of Energy
and Mines, Government of Ghana. Identification and evaluation of energy policy decisions and
implementation, 1960-1992. Formulation of framework for national energy strategy. Training of
staff in energy policy analysis and planning.
4. Jan.1992 - August 1993: Principal Consultant. Promotion of Improved Cook Stoves Project,
Ministry of Energy and Mines, Government of Ghana. Laboratory testing and evaluation of stoves.
Design and implementation of training programmes for artisans.
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 5. November 12-16, 1990 : Ministry of Energy/Government of Ghana representative. ACP-EEC
Experts Meeting on Evaluation of Energy Projects, Bujumbura, Burundi. Chairperson for drafting
Committee
6. Jul.1989-Jul.1990 : Principal Consultant. Solar and Wind Energy Resources Assessment Project,
National Energy Board, Government of Ghana. Comprehensive evaluation of Ghana Meteorological
Services facilities; analysis and compilation of climatic data for design and evaluation of solar
energy systems.
7. Apr.-Jun.1989 : Local Expert, Energy Sector. Strengthening the National Capacity for the Transfer,
Utilisation and Development of Technology, UNDP Project GHA/88/008/A/01/99. Technology
Transfer Center, CSIR, Government of Ghana. Undertake diagnostic study of energy and
development perspectives including review of R & D, indigenous technology, and development of
technology profiles.
8. Mar.27-Apr.5, 1989 :Project evaluator, representing Government of Ghana. Evaluation Mission
UNDP Project GHA/82/020: Technical Assistance to the National Energy Board. Ministry of Fuel
and Power, Government of Ghana. Terminal evaluation including assessment of institutional
framework, manpower development, facilities, work programme and contributions to national
development
9. 6-7 December 1989 : Observer/Evaluator representing Ministry of Energy, Government of Ghana.
4th Ministerial Council Meeting of the African Regional Centre for Solar Energy, Bujumbura,
Evaluation of the African Regional Centre for Solar Energy including work-programme and
reporting on proceedings.

PUBLIC SERVICE / MEMBERSHIP OF BODIES

1994-present : Member OAU/STR Inter African Committee of Experts on Renewable Energy

Jan.1989-Mar.1991: Member of the Board of Directors, National Energy Board, Ghana.

Jan.1987-Mar.1991: Member of the Technical Committee, National Energy Board,Ghana.

1986 - present : Technical Editor, Bulletin of the Energy Research Group, Ghana.

1986 - present : Technical Editor, Newsletter of the Energy Research Group, Ghana.

1988 and 1991 : Director, Kumasi International College on Energy, University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi.

1988 - 1989 : Member, Energy Resources and Forest Ecology Working Committee of the Natural Sciences
Technical Committee, of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Ghana.

1986, 87, and 89 : Chairman of the Organising Committee, National Energy Symposium

2-4 Dec., 1986 : Chairman of the Organising Committee of the ANSTI (African Network of Scientific and
Technological Institutions) International Seminar on Renewable Energy for Development, UST, Kumasi.

1987 Member, International Solar Energy Society.

1991 Member Ghana Institution of Engineers (MGhIE)

3
1992 Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers(ASME)

1993 Chairman, Ghana Solar Energy Society (GHASES)

1991 International Association of Solar Energy Educators(IASEE) National Representative

_______________________________________________________________________

SELECTED REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS ON ENERGY

Consultancy

1. Diagnoses of Energy Education in African Educational Systems and Study of Skilled Manpower
Requirements in the Field of Energy, Report on Ghana Study. Submitted to African Development
Bank, September 1994.
2. UNDP Project GHA 89/003: Strengthening National Energy Policy and Operations Management
Capabilities, Energy Policy Consultancy, Phase I Report - Energy Policy in Ghana, December 1992;
Phase 2 Report - Implementing Energy Policy in Ghana, December 1993. Reports submitted to
Ministry of Energy and Mines, Accra, Ghana.
3. Solar and Wind Energy Resources Assessment Project- Preliminary Data Analysis and Evaluation,
Vol,1. Main Report and Vol.2, Climatic Data for Solar and Wind Energy Resources Assessment.
Consultancy Reports submitted to the Ministry of Energy, Accra, Ghana, May 1991.
4. Report on the ACP-EEC Experts Meeting on Evaluation of Energy Projects, held at Bujumbura,
Burundi. Submitted to Ministry of Energy, Accra, Ghana, November, 1991.
5. Report on the 4th Ministerial Council Meeting of the African Regional Centre for Solar Energy,
Bujumbura, Burundi, 6 -7 December, 1989, Submitted to the Ministry of Fuel and Power, Accra, 20
January 1990.
6. UNDP Project GHA/82/020: Technical Assistance to the National Energy Board, Report of the
Evaluation Mission by Dr.Peter Meir on behalf of UNDP and Dr.F.O.Akuffo on behalf of the
Government of Ghana. April 5, 1989.
7. STEVEN Solar Energy Systems Project: Final Report, UNESCO Contract No.866.525. Submitted to
ANSTI/UNESCO, Nairobi, October 1988.

Academic

1. F O Akuffo, UST/University of Regina Renewable Energy Project, Presented at 6th National Energy
Symposium held at Labadi Beach Hotel, Accra, 29 Nov.-2 Dec., 1994
2. Renewable Energy Education at UST Kumasi, Presented at 6th National Energy Symposium,
29November-2 Dec. 1994 1
3. F O Akuffo, Integrated National Energy Planning and Policy Analysis: Background and Basic
Concepts, Resource paper presented at the Ministry of Energy/UNDP Seminar on Project Planning,
Management and Evaluation in the Energy Sector, Ministry of Energy, Accra, 30-31 July 1992.
4. F.O. Akuffo and A. Brew-Hammond, The frequency distribution of daily global irradiation at
Kumasi, Solar Energy, Vol.50, No.2, pp.145-154, 1993.
5. E.A. Jackson and F.O. Akuffo, Correlations between monthly average daily global irradiation and
relative duration of sunshine at Kumasi, Energy Convers. Mgmt. Vol. 33, No.1, pp.13-22, 1992.
6. F.O.Akuffo and E.A.Jackson, Simulation studies on a compact solar water heater in the tropics,
Solar and Wind Technology, Vol.5, No.3, pp. 229 - 237, 1988.

4
7. F.O.Akuffo, A.Brew-Hammond and M.A.Obeng, Long term performance estimation for
thermosyphon solar water heaters in Ghana, Journal of the University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Vol.8, No.2,p.76-82,1988.
8. A.Brew-Hammond and F.O.Akuffo, A review of experimental studies on traditional thermosyphon
solar water heaters, RERIC International Energy Journal, Vol.11, No.1, pp. 61 - 71, June, 1989.
9. M.A.Obeng, F.O.Akuffo, A.Brew-Hammond and E.A.Jackson, Simulation studies on the long term
performance of a solar thermal pumping system in Ghana, Proceedings of the National Symposium
on Renewable Energy 1987, ERG-BULLETIN, Vol.3, pp. 154- 166, 1988.
10. E.A.Jackson and F.O.Akuffo, Prospects for compact solar water heaters in Ghana, ERG-
BULLETIN, Vol.3, pp. 198 to 202, 1988.
11. F.O.Akuffo, T.Opoku-Agyemang and A.Abrobah-Cudjoe, Preliminary results on laboratory
performance of a single cylinder diesel engine operating on diesel/coconut oil mixture, Proc. of the
7th ANSTI (African Network of Scientific and Technological Institutions) Mechanical/Production
Engineering Subnetwork Seminar on Engineering Research for Development, University of
Zimbabwe, Harare 3-7 February 1987.
12. F.O.Akuffo, Priorities in the energy sector, Presented to Mechanical Engineering Seminar, U.S.T.,
Kumasi, 12 July, 1989.
13. F.O.Akuffo, Energy and Technology, Invited paper presented at the Symposium on PHYSICAL
RESOURCES organised by the Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences on the 29th Anniversary
Celebration, Accra, Ghana, 23 November, 1988.
14. Charles Wereko-Brobby and F.O.Akuffo, Solar power generation: Status and prospects for
developing countries, Presented by F.O.Akuffo at ATAS (Advance Technology Alert Systems)
Meeting on NEW ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES AND DEVELOPMENT, Moscow, USSR, 17 - 21
October, 1988.
15. F.O.Akuffo, A.Brew-Hammond and A.Abrobah-Cudjoe, Solar Thermal pumping project at U.S.T.
Kumasi, Presented by F.O.Akuffo at 8th ANSTI Mechanical/Production Engineering Subnetwork
Seminar on Engineering Research for Development, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, 28 - 31 March, 1988.
16. F.O.Akuffo, M.A.Obeng and A.Brew-Hammond, Comparative studies on some models for
estimating hourly diffuse irradiance, Presented by F.O.Akuffo at 13th Biennial Conference of the
West African Science Association, University of Ghana, Legon, 24 - 29 August, 1987.
17. F.O.Akuffo, Energy options for development, Presented at the Symposium on Some Policy Options
for Infrastructural Development, Faculty of Engineering Flag Week, Silver Jubilee Celebrations
(1961 - 1985), University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, 26 May, 1986.
18. F.O.Akuffo, Solar Energy in Agriculture, in Proceedings of the National Energy Sysmposium '93
Eds. K Singh and F.O.Akuffo, ISSN 0855-0735

^^Back to the Top

5
 FEATURE ARTICLES
Widening access to rural energy services in Africa: Looking to the
future
Youba Sokona and Jean-Philippe Thomas

Programme Energie

ENDA-TM, Dakar, Sénégal

email: ysokona@enda.sn

1.0 Introduction

Energy is basic to all human activity. It is indispensable to meeting daily needs (water, food, health, etc.)
and to achieving even minimal economic and social development. To a certain extent, the level of energy
consumption reflects the level of development. Per capita energy consumption in Africa is the lowest in the
world: 0.3 to 0.6 toe/person in sub-Saharan Africa compared with 7.5 to 9 in North America (a ratio of
1:30). Moreover, Africa's energy balance continues to be dominated by biomass which, in its various forms,
accounts for two-thirds of total household energy consumption.

Economic and social development in Africa depends largely on meeting the rapidly growing energy needs
of present and future populations. Africans must increase their energy consumption if they are to achieve
social and economic development goals. Given this, one of the most important questions of our epoch is:
how—with which modalities, at what rate, and using which alternatives—should this essential increase take
place?

But this may be jumping the gun, for at the moment, some African countries are finding it hard to maintain
their present energy systems. If African countries are unable to mobilise adequate financial resources to
maintain existing systems, the prospects for future development of energy systems in rural Africa seem
doomed. It seems inevitable then that the present conditions of poverty in rural Africa will continue—if not
worsen—in the foreseeable future.

Our challenge is, then, to outline ‘sustainable’ energy strategies for rural Africa. Will it be possible to break
with current energy strategies based on supply and directed primarily by large energy companies? What are
the basic, foundational elements of ‘sustainable’ energy strategies, that is, of energy strategies that are
economically efficient, environmentally sound, and socially equitable?

2.0 Common characteristics of rural energy systems in Africa

Despite local and regional specificities, rural Africa has much in common that shapes the approach to
energy development. Rural Africa is characterised by a heavy dependency on biomass, limited use of
'modern' forms of energy, and low energy consumption that is decentralised and dispersed. Low income

6
levels, a shortage of skilled labour, and socio-political and economical instabilities are key constraints to
improvement in the short and medium terms.

As in other developing regions throughout the world, most Africans live in rural areas. They are farmers or
pastoralists, depending on where they live. Production systems are generally extensive and productivity
levels are typically low for most of these subsistence local economies. Under the difficult circumstances of a
shrinking natural resource base, a decline in soil productivity and a commensurate reduction in agricultural
output, villagers across Sub-Saharan Africa have consistently migrated to urban areas. Demographic growth
and climate-related factors will surely cause this trend to intensify.

To meet their domestic energy requirements, rural people use various forms of biomass (fuelwood,
agricultural and animal wastes) almost exclusively. Because of this heavy dependency on biomass, rural
people are forced to over exploit their natural resources together with their agricultural wastes. This has
significant implications for the observed decline in soil fertility levels. Poor rural energy practices, coupled
with non-intensive production systems and inefficient energy habits in large parts of urban and suburban
areas, aggravate environmental degradation through deforestation, soil erosion, etc.

Modern energy forms, generally kerosene and occasionally electricity, are used mainly for lighting, other
uses being quite marginal. Production activities, notably in agriculture, consume relatively little energy
since they rely primarily on human and/or animal power. Grid extension to rural populations is often
compromised, since the required high investments are unprofitable due to low income levels and population
dispersion. Also, it has been observed that the percentage of connections to the grid often does not exceed
25% of village households. This set of characteristics of rural Africa requires original and innovative
solutions. Asia also has a low income per capita. These countries do not suffer the same problems, however,
since their population densities are higher and so the marginal cost of installing electricity network is lower.
In fact, close scrutiny suggests that in the developing countries of Asia, per capita incomes grew at an
average rate of 4.4 percent between 1970 and 1990 compared with close to zero in Africa (ADB, 1994).
Between 1991 and 1995, GDP growth rates in the dynamic Asian economies averaged over 7 percents
(OECD, 1996) and it is clear that the strong economic growth in Asia accounted to a significant extent for
the considerable upward pressure on energy demand.

3.0 Environmental impacts of current rural energy practices

Because everyone has to supply their own energy, rural energy production and consumption is highly
inefficient. Biomass is gathered directly from sources close to where it is consumed. In most of sub-Saharan
Africa, energy use is linked to deforestation, desertification and to poverty in general, which is perpetuated
by environmental degradation and low energy consumption. This situation is both cause and the
consequence of developmental difficulties. The low purchasing power of rapidly increasing populations
makes it impossible for them to purchase factors of production (such as agricultural inputs, water supply,
irrigation system, etc.) that would enable them to intensify their production to meet their basic needs.
Current farming practices including keeping livestock and biomass collection are the primary causes of
major environmental problems of the region.

In recent decades, African eco-systems have suffered accelerated climatic perturbations. Arid, semi-arid and
dry sub-humid zones have been hit with particular force, provoking or accelerating desertification.
Desertification has increased poverty and created instability in ecological, economic, political and social

7
systems. Rural populations compelled to move to high density zones are especially affected by these
instabilities. This situation has further reduced the availability of scarce natural resources (biomass, water,
soil fertility, etc. ...) and contributed to the disappearance of certain plant species, in particular those without
strong regenerative capacity.

Biomass for cooking is often used inefficiently and is therefore a significant source of pollution. Smoke
from cookfires, often built indoors, contains dangerous amounts of toxic substances (monoxide of carbon,
sulfur and nitrogen oxides, etc.). Recent research conducted on this worrying phenomenon confirms that
there is a cause-effect link between exposure to smoke and diseases such as chronic bronchitis and
emphysema. The poorest populations are most exposed to these risks.

4.0 Social impacts of current rural energy practices and policies

Satisfaction of basic needs (food, health, housing, etc.) requires diverse energy sources. Scarcity and high
cost of energy resources perpetuates and increases poverty in rural Africa. Indeed:

- either the energy source is accessible to everyone (eg, biomass), but then it is gathered close to where it is
consumed, contributing to environmental degradation, resource scarcity, and increased poverty;

-or the energy source (electricity, coal, petroleum product, gas, etc.) is governed by market mechanisms,
making energy services unaffordable to most of the population.

In either case, limited access to energy results in the failure to meet basic needs. Thus poverty is
characterised by low energy consumption, but more importantly, by exclusion of people living in poverty
from the current energy transition and from ineffective energy policies. In effect, the principle aims of
energy policies have been subsidisation of the energy sector as a whole, or subsidisation targeted to specific
energy sources, or taxation of high income consumers.

All global subsidies (eg, for LPG) benefit the wealthy population, which sees an opportunity to increase its
consumption (sometimes leading to shortages), while the poorer population goes back traditional sources of
energy which subsequently become cheaper. All targeted energy subsidies (eg, kerosene) result in suppliers
rationing their stock to sell to a more profitable market (transport in the case of kerosene). Finally, a rise in
taxes on products consumed by the wealthier class (particularly in countries with short supply of wood),
often brings about a rise in overall energy prices. In other words, this type of taxation has a negative effect
on the poor.

Faced with the above dilemmas, human power has often appeared to be a way out. In certain rural areas,
wood is more and more difficult to obtain, so much so that people have to travel longer distance to collect
the woodfuel they need. To the extent physically do-able, a spontaneous effort is even made to compensate
for the lack of energy resources by using physical human energy. There are many cases in the Sahel in
recent years where people had to travel distances over 15 to 20 kms in order to gather the primary resources
they need. If one also considers that the average distance to a health centre (which may be lacking in such
basics as refrigeration ) is 15 km and that there is no organised public transport, it is easy to see that the
level of poverty is maintained by the lack of technology and the frequent absence of any energy sources
whatsoever.

8
Overall, limited access to energy by the poor marginalises them from society and worsens their living
conditions., while deforestation (over 2.5 million hectares/year in Africa) continually degrades their
environment.

5.0. How should we respond to the energy requirements of the poor?

The failure of energy policies is due mainly to the gap that exists:

- between the needs of populations and the proposed solutions that focus on supply and ignore demand (grid
electricity, new and renewable energies parachuted in from outside, etc.); and

- between energy solutions and the other components of local development (disseminating luxury
technologies, or extending the grid for political reasons instead of responding to basic water needs or
conserving agricultural production, etc.).

Faced with this situation, it is imperative to seek , stimulate and accelerate the transition to viable energy
systems. In the African context, particularly in the agricultural sector, this is essential to ensure food
security. This transition requires political vision and long-term mobilisation; it favours horizontal
approaches to strictly vertical ones, and it includes a strong component of community development.

5.1 Integrated, sustainable, community-based management programmes

Only community-based management programmes that are integrated and sustainable, whether in urban or
rural areas, are capable of satisfying the needs of everyone and, in particular, of the poorest populations.
This is because these programmes take into account the natural and technical resources of the region, human
capabilities, needed financial resources, and the environmental constraints. In the savannah zone, a
reflection on integrated and sustainable management of urban agricultural systems would provide a rich
learning field for this effort. In effect, proposals to produce biomass energy from currently under-valued
products (from agriculture, the savannah and the transformation of certain resources) and reduce reliance on
fossil fuels hold potentially rich prospects for Sahalian countries.

The integrated and sustainable management of new rural agro-forestry systems also offers interesting
prospects in this regard. However, we must base our studies, now even more than in the past, on the
maximum possible use of local natural resources. The energy problems of rural areas that are outside the
national commercial energy networks (electricity, gas, transport, etc.), and full valorisation of food and non-
food oils produced from trees and annual farm crops, should be approached systematically.

5.2 A mitigated answer offered by renewable energy

A return to renewable energy is often considered the solution to the energy needs of the poor who are
excluded from modern energy systems. Arguments in favour of this position from a macro-economic
perspective hold that renewable energy will reduce long-term dependency on oil and lower national debts,
thereby improving economic conditions and benefiting the poor.

This argument does not take into account the high cost of renewable energy that makes it accessible only to
the rich and excludes the poor in towns and rural areas. To illustrate, the 500 to 1,000 $US cost of solar hot

9
water heaters and photovoltaic systems makes these technologies inaccessible to poor people. In Senegalese
villages where solar PV systems are available, less than 15 per cent of the population can afford them.
Those who defend energy models "for a sustainable world" that are predominantly based on high-tech
solutions and low energy consumption—and such proposals have almost become commonplace—not only
exclude countries that are at a level of development in which they access only mass produced goods, but
also exclude, within those countries, people without monetary resources. We are faced with global solutions
that absolutely do not respond, at least in the short term, to the needs of poor people. In other words, the
logic of renewable energy solutions that incorporate high-tech equipment for individual users leads to a
market logic, of which the exclusion mechanisms are already known.

5.3 The community approach, taking into account energy needs

The old debate between collective good and individual well-being always reemerges in discussions on
distribution of energy technology. Ultimately, improving the situation of the poor, all studies show, means
increasing their access to water and health care. This implies placing ownership of energy technology in the
hands of collectives, run not by the State, but by decentralised villages, communes, rural communities, etc.
An example is the successful community-based project, "Mali Aqua Viva", which doubled the amount of
water available to people during the 1970s drought, and later enabled them to restart or initiate cultivation,
provide water for their cattle in dry season and undertake afforestation activities. The recent experiences in
Sahel of "Integrated Infrastructure Platforms" for off-grid communities offer interesting prospects for
widening access to rural energy services.

Presented in the context of the collective good, the introduction of energy technologies, including renewable
energy technologies (wind, biogas digesters, solar PV, etc.) constitutes a response to the endemic problem
of poverty. It enables communities to install refrigeration in a health centre here, develop agricultural
activities there, etc.

But this approach requires people’s collaboration and participation. In an example of village photovoltaic
stations (leaving aside discussion on the benefits or disadvantages of such technology), it was observed that
when the population is associated with the management of the station and adequate rates are negotiated with
people’s participation, connections reach 95 per cent where conventional grid connections would have been
only 10 per cent. Enabling access to energy sources and technologies so that poor people are able to meet
their basic needs will require, in the African context, a decentralised but community-based approach in
which local people participate directly in the management of energy resources, that is to say, a new and
different approach to managing energy resources. Such a system would operate outside unaffordable
commercial energy supply and finance systems, allowing the poor to provide themselves with energy.

6.0. What should be done and how should we proceed?

Energy services have three components:

- energy use which requires knowledge about the quality, function and maintenance of utilisation systems,
user behaviour, etc.;

-energy technologies or appliances required to convert energy into a useful service; and

10
-energy itself, the type and amount consumed.

Everything to do with the cost and nature of energy services can involve each of these components. A two-
fold on-going procedure is required:

6.1 Start with the needs of the most deprived

This means working with grass roots groups (villages, communes, associations etc.) and supporting them as
they find ‘ad hoc’ solutions from among the range of possible solutions that present themselves, eg in the
framework of the Rio conventions (eg, desertification), in the context of projects to disseminate energy
equipment, or through integrated resource management programmes (rural or urban).

In this process, one is quickly confronted with the question of compatibility among local resources (human
and natural), technology, product, and market. In seeking this compatibility, what is important is not so
much the analysis of each factor separately, but the way in which they relate to each other. They have to be
thought off as a group, not individually.

There are, in effect, many research centres that work on technology, often in isolation; there are many small
businesses (craft and non-craft based) that make products; there is potential demand, monetary or non-
monetary (as in the case of poor people). The answers thus have to do with the adequacy of the linkages
between these factors:

Local resources<->tecknology<->product<->market

In all regions there is always a stock of local 'savoir faire' and of natural resources (whatever these may be).
However, there is a vacuum, or at least lack of circulation, of information on how to use local resources
(except for wood), eg on how to use the shea tree, biomass residues, etc.

There are solutions, experimental practices, but these rarely reach a level of popularisation because
individual components are not related to each other. For example, production of products requires training
of skilled craftspeople (which is not happening), the product is too expensive to compete on the market, or it
does not meet people’s needs.

Priority should thus be given to research and action that experiments with new materials, adapts
technologies, develops useful products, and demonstrates technical viability and socio-economic feasibility.

6.2. Support capacity building

Some people assume that the basic needs of the poorest people will be satisfied when development policies
(economical, technological etc..) are effectively implemented. They look then to public authorities and
policy-makers to take action. But most of the policies that are carried out mimic policies based on
consumption models particularly in the energy sector (gas, electricity, fuel, etc.) that are so costly they make
energy inaccessible to the poor and marginalise them even further. Moreover, such policies tend to ignore
the potential for developing local resources.

11
How can we let decision-makers know that diverse local solutions exist that are based on local resources
and local development needs? Advocacy at the level of decision-makers has less visible effects, in the short
term, than action at the grassroots level, which is by definition carried out with the participation of local
populations.

Capacity building is a long process. It is the inverse of missions of experts, or commandos, who in no time
at all produce results that, usually, ignore local potentials because they are elaborated without local savoir-
faire. (Such missions usually prefer ready-made solutions to the analysis of problems.)

7.0. Conclusion

The complex problem of energy in rural Africa calls for a combination of solutions. In effect, resolving the
woodfuel problem will not meet the growing demand for fuel for motorised agriculture, nor will it provide
energy for small food-based industries; it will not transform and/or conserve local production in agriculture,
livestock or fishing. Singular solutions to diverse problems risk missing their targets, and they multiply
costs by requiring adaptation to each specific problem, as was demonstrated by rural electrification.
Moreover, the present equation of energy and environment issues with global sustainable development
brings to reflections on rural energy a new perception that is above all based on the notion of diversification.

This needed diversification is first of all ‘thematic’, refusing models that, mimicking the North, see
solutions as "keys", as "panacea for Africa": the limited reach of African electricity grids is a blatant
manifestation of this failure, particularly in rural areas. Supply-side thinking has long been dominant, but it
is towards analysis of demand, by nature diversified, that the search for appropriate solutions must be
oriented. This leads to diversity of energy supplies (renewable and non-renewable) and of technologies
(traditional, new, hybrid). Improving traditional technologies is included in the range of measures adapted to
the African context. There is no "exclusivity" among traditional and modern technologies. It is an
appropriate combination of the two, one labour intensive, the other capital intensive, that leads to effective
social solutions.

‘Geographic’ diversification then imposes itself. Diversity manifests itself regionally, even locally, in
differences of resources, climate conditions, peoples’ behaviour, and degree of participation in the global
economy. Various solutions will have priority depending on the context: hydroelectricity, biomass, wind
energy, etc. The continent needs economic and social innovation more than it needs technological
innovation: the "technology graveyards" in Africa are there to prove it. Failures have resulted from giving
priority to technology (more generally to supply), and overlooking the socio-economic conditions for
technology dissemination. Successes result from taking into account the socio-economic conditions in
conjunction with the diffused technology. Successful development of energy technology requires on-going
analysis of the technology-product-market relationship taking into account place-specific social and
environmental constraints.

‘Financial’ diversification is finally becoming more effective. The international community seems disposed
to open new lines of finance for projects and investments that promote the mitigation of greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions, the enhancement of GHG sinks, and the successful adaptation of local communities to the
impacts of climate change. African countries should position themselves in the front lines to benefit from
these new opportunities, especially for rural areas.

12
Thus the energy/environment problem helps us to rethink, for rural areas, the problems of development and
the fight against poverty by reaffirming that we do not have to repeat the mistakes of the past, and that
diversified solutions exist if we draw on our imagination and our realism.

^^Back to the Top

Energy Security in Africa: Opportunities from the Global Climate

Debate
Ogunlade Davidson, Director

Energy & Development Research Centre (EDRC)

University of Cape Town

email: ogunlade@energetic.uct.ac.za

1.0 Introduction

Ensuring the provision of adequate, affordable, efficient, and reliable high quality energy services with
minimum adverse impacts on the environment for a sustained period is not only pivotal for development,
but crucial for African countries in which most are struggling to meet present energy demands. Further, this
continent needs such energy services to be in the position to improve its overall net productivity and become
a major player in global technological and economic progress. Unfortunately, despite the abundant un-
exploited renewable and non-renewable energy resources in the continent, this task remains unfulfilled for
the countries of the continent. Currently, the continent is the least consumer of high quality energy globally
on a per capita basis. Reversing this situation which should dominate the minds of energy decision-makers
and professionals requires major changes in energy sector of African countries. Such changes may include
increased local and foreign energy investments, more access to energy supply and use technologies,
improved technological and economic connectivity between African countries, and adequate energy human
and institutional capacities. See table 1 for the general characteristics of Africa with respect to other world
regions.

Achieving these changes require overcoming some major economic, demographic and political challenges.
However, there are signs that Africa is presently going through an economic transition with economic
growth rates surpassing population growth rate. Since1996, the growth rate has shown an upward trend,
4.8% in 1996, 5% in 1997 and 4.9 % in 1998. There also signs of slowing population growth rates, 2.7% in
the last few years with expected lower rates in the future. Growing urbanisation with rates doubling national
growth rates is a cause for concern due to limited social services provision in urban areas. Despite current
political conflicts, the number of countries with democratic and participatory governments are on the
increase. The positive features of the continent can provide the right environment for attracting both
domestic and foreign investments in the energy sector.

Current debate arising out of the possible threat of climatic instability provides Africa with an opportunity
for fostering the development of its energy sector despite Africa is estimated to be the most vulnerable to the

13
likely impacts from climate change. This vulnerability which is due to the state of development in the
continent which can be greatly reduced by making available improved energy services to the vast population
because it will improve the quality of their lives substantially.

Hence, this short paper will concentrate on commenting on the energy situation of the continent, and then
identifying the opportunities of the climate change debate to improve the overall situation in the energy
sector.

2.0 Energy Situation In Africa

The energy situation in Africa can best be described as a continent with abundant, diverse and un-exploited
renewable and non-renewable energy resources that are yet to be extracted and processed for improving the
livelihood of the vast majority of the population. Though lack of adequate capital, infrastructure, human and
institutional resources are blamed for this deficiency, but major policy shifts are urgently needed in the
energy sector to exploit the opportunities such as the climate change debate.

In this section, the energy resources of the continent are presented before a discussion on how energy is
produced and used in the continent.

2.1 Energy Sources of Africa

As mentioned previously, Africa is endowed with vast quantities of both fossil and renewable energy
resources. Africa’s share at the end of 1999 of coal, oil and gas of global reserves were 6.2%, 7.7% and
7.2% respectively, and if they are exploited at current rates, these resources will last for 268, 98.3 and 28.2
years. Further, it is the only continent in the world with new finds of substantial oil and gas. Hence,
exploiting these resources for the benefit of many is crucial to its future development.

However, these resources are not evenly distributed in the continent. Oil and gas are concentrated in
Northern and Western Africa and even that they are mainly in relatively few countries, Algeria, Libya and
Nigeria. Other countries with significant oil and gas reserves out of these regions are Angola, Egypt, Gabon
and Congo. However, in recent times more countries with smaller but significant oil and gas reserves have
emerged. These include Cameroon, Sudan, and Tunisia. Countries such as Mozambique, Namibia and
Tanzania have significant gas but no oil reserves. As shown in table 2, Coal reserves are dominant in the
Southern Africa region with over 95% of the total of which over 90% of this total is in South Africa alone.
This poor distribution of fossil resources makes over 70% of countries in the continent have to import these
energy resources. This feature coupled with poor fossil fuel infrastructure and weak integrated energy
networks has contributed to the relatively low exploitation of these vast fossil reserves in the continent.

It is important to note that new oil and gas deposits are found in the continent at significant scale, a feature
that accounts for the growing reserves in the continent as shown in table 3. In the past 20 years oil reserves
has grown by over 25%, while gas reserves has even grown faster by over 100% for the same period. There
are geothermal deposits in Eastern Africa along the Rift valley and is concentrated in two countries Kenya
and Ethiopia. Hence, Africa is in a unique position of exploiting energy fossil reserves that has well
developed technologies and associated services.

14
Currently, Africa has over 10% of the world hydro resources and significant renewable energy resources.
Africa being mainly within the tropics, most countries in the continent enjoy long hours of sunshine with
significant radiation that can be exploited. Agriculture accounts on the average a third of the continent’s
GDP, which means the generation of significant quantity of agricultural wastes for the production of both
high quality solid and liquid energy is possible. Wind resources are available in selected sites, mostly along
the coastlines in the Northern, Western and Southern Africa.

Africa therefore is not short of energy resources, which can give the continent the energy security it
requires. The challenge is to develop strategy of accessing the well-known technologies through overcoming
the major barriers that exist.

2.2 Energy Production and Use

The production and use of both high and low energy in the continent has`been growing in recent times but
because of the equally growing population, this growth has not had the full impact on the economy because
of increasing population and other difficulties. The production of commercial energy in Africa doubled
between 1970 to l997, though its share of world production remained at about 7%. One of the most
prominent feature has been the faster growth in the production of natural gas, faster than that that of oil.
Also, there has been shift in relative shares of the energy production of fossil fuels. In 1970, oil accounts for
86%, while coal accounts for only 11%. By 1997, oil has dropped to 63%, while the share of coal increased
to 19% and the production of natural gas, which was insignificant in 1970, has increased its share to 15%.

However, the unevenness in the occurrence of fossil reserves is reflective of the pattern of pattern of energy
production in the continent. Southern Africa accounts for 99% of coal production and South Africa being
responsible for almost all of it, while natural gas production is concentrated in Northern Africa by mostly
few countries, Egypt and Algeria. Crude oil production involves a slightly wider spread in North, West,
Central and Southern Africa. Among the countries involved are Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Nigeria, Cameroon,
Gabon and Angola.

Due to infrastuctural and economic problems of most countries in the continent, Africa has remain a net
exporter of its fossil fuels for some time now, with over 50% of all commercial energy produced exported
out of the continent. Further, the poor integration networks in the continent has made many countries import
these fuels using their meagre foreign exchange while the others export them out of the continent. Table 4
shows energy exports from the different regions of the continent. Every region is a net exporter of
commercial energy except the eastern region, while the northern region is by far the largest exporter. Most
of the exports go to Europe and USA. Northern Africa export oil and gas, while West Africa is mostly oil
and Southern Africa is coal.

Consumption of commercial fuels by African countries has been growing averagely by 2.7% annually
between 1980 to 1997, though it has grown faster between 1900 to 1997 of 3.1%. However, higher growth
rates are required for the continent to compete with other world’s regions, though the remarkable aspect has
been that consumption rate now exceeds population growth which has been around 2.7% per annum and is
predicted to be around 2% in the next few years. Also, there has been a slight increase of Africa’s share of
commercial energy consumption globally, from 2% in 1970 to 3% in 1997. This accounts for 3.8% of global
coal consumption, 3.4% of oil and 2.4% of natural gas. These shares are very low in comparison to other

15
continents because we have 14% of the world’s population, though they have increased from 1970, 2.7%,
1.7% and o.1% for coal oil and gas respectively.

The production and consumption of commercial energy is far from even. Northern Africa produces almost
half of the oil and gas, while around 80% of these resources are consumed in the North and Southern Africa
(see table 5). In 1997, South Africa, Egypt, Algeria, Nigeria and Libya accounted for 78% of all commercial
energy consumed in the continent and these same countries accounted for most of the commercial energy
produced as well. With the exception of these countries mentioned above, most countries are net importers
of commercial energy. Despite the total of these countries is relatively small, but it is difficult for them
because it involves using their meagre foreign exchange receipts for oil payments.

Electricity generating capacity in Africa with respect to the population is very low, as of 1997; the capacity
was only 94 GW accounting of only 3% of the global total far below the global population share of 14%.
Out of this total, 76% is from thermal. As shown in Table 6, the generating capacity vary among the
different regions, 88% from thermal resources in Northern Africa and 81% in Southern Africa, while hydro
is significant in East and West Africa. Also, coal dominates southern Africa while oil and gas is
predominant in North Africa. Due to the proliferation of hydro capacity within the continent, 22% of total
electricity production is from hydro with East and Central Africa being dominant. It accounts for over 80%
in certain countries such as Cameroon, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Ghana. Nuclear
accounts for only 2% and is located in only one country, South Africa. Geothermal accounts for 0.1% and is
in only Ethiopia and Kenya. Due to the low electricity generation in comparison to the total population,
access to electricity still remains very low.

As a result of the low use of commercial energy, the use of traditional energy sources in the form of
biomass, mainly firewood and charcoal is very high in comparison with other regions of the world. It is
estimated that this constitutes over 60% of total primary energy use. The use of this low quality energy is far
from uniform in the continent, very small fraction are used in the North as opposed to large quantities in
West, Central and East Africa. High biomass use raises serious problems because of its very low conversion
rate of 15% or less, high wastage, and poor quality method of production. Also, the health and other
environmental problems associated with its use are significant.

The use of new renewable energy is still limited to a very small fraction, less that 2% of the total
consumption. However, there are signs of growth in certain technologies. Wind pumps have been successful
in Southern Africa and Solar systems in East and Southern Africa. The most successful have been the solar
home systems as shown in Fig.1. However, with recent developments in this area, renewable energy can
play significant roles in niche markets especially as more of these technologies become more matured and
their market potential are realised.

3.0 Energy Growth Options For Energy Security

Transforming Africa from its present situation in which most countries are struggling to satisfy their
survival needs to a state in which majority of the countries are achieving their sustainable development
goals should be the main interest of decision-makers and academics in the continent. It should be noted in
satisfying sustainable development needs, social welfare and environmental protection are just as important
as economic growth. The energy requirements to satisfy this task are huge and could be achieved by
developing its vast renewable and non-renewable energy resources. However, there are options available to

16
the continent because of the large pool of technologies in the public domain that could be exploited.
However, access still remains a thorny problem. These options include the following:

• Energy Efficiency (supply and use technologies)

• Development of Renewable energy technologies
• Energy Institution development
• Energy Pricing strategies
• Regional Energy Trade
• Energy Trade development
• Energy Research, Development and Demonstration

3.1 Energy Efficiency Technologies

Utilisation of efficient production and use technologies can be an important strategy in the increase of the
supply and use of high quality energy in the continent. Due to the current trend of technological progress in
world markets, a significant number of improved energy efficient technologies are available. As mentioned
previously, an energy strategy for development of the huge fossil fuel resources in the continent is required.
The current projects such as the West African gas pipeline that aims at supplying four countries with high
quality energy is an example of developing the fossil sources of the continent. There are now improved
technologies with energy and technical gains that the continent can access. This also present opportunities
for African countries to access to use exciting power generating options such bas combined power systems
such as combined gas turbines and combined heat and power systems.

Improving the efficiency of existing plants offer significant opportunities for African countries. Most power
plants are operating at efficiency far lower that either prescribed standards or in comparison to other
regions. This deficiency varies between 5-10%. Using well-known technological practices, 5-10% more
power can be available to satisfy the huge amount of suppressed energy demand in the continent.

Promoting demand-side management (DSM) in the energy sector provides new opportunities for African
countries. This is useful because it also promotes economic efficiency as well because energy costs are
reduced for the same output, hence for the same energy cost; productivity and competitiveness will improve.
Some studies have shown that use of technically proven cost-effective energy efficiency measures can result
in 10-30% of energy consumption. As an example, it is estimated that at least 15% can be achieved through
housekeeping measures in Ghana, and 40% of electricity consumption for air conditioning could be saved
with more efficient equipment and practices.

3.2 Development of Renewable Technologies

As discussed above, Africa has significant renewable energy sources that can be harnessed for satisfying
certain niches in the energy sector. The most pervasive are min-hydro sources, which have associated
matured technologies, and solar energy that also have Associated matured technologies. Wind energy is
only available in few countries. However, due to the economic situation for most African countries only
matured technologies will be useful at this point. Biomass energy is yet to be exploited significantly as a
high quality energy source in the continent with the exception of agro-based industry that uses agricultural
residue for steam and electricity production and ethanol production for transport fuel in a few countries.

17
However, Due to recent technological progress and market success of limited renewable technologies,
certain off-grid systems are becoming cost-effective and their use in African countries is increasing. Solar
PV systems are among these technologies that are been used for households and a small number of
commercial purposes. It is estimated that about 100,000 small-scale systems have been installed in Kenya,
South Africa and Zimbabwe. Also, the market for such systems are estimated to be up to 1500 MWp, over
10 ten times current level.

The potential for other systems such as small-scale gasifiers using biomass residues, increased exploitation
of wind energy is great. The use of ethanol as the price of petrol keep increasing is also important because
of the widespread availability of sugar industries in continent. In addition the technologies associated with
sugar is improving. There are opportunities of using other renewable systems such as biogas for specific
situations.

3.3 Reduction of Energy Subsidies

The use of more rational energy pricing in African countries can assist to stimulate use and ensure equity
growth in the continent. Wider use of cross subsidy that aim reducing subsidy to the rich and assist the poor
will lead to improvement in economic efficiency and environmental quality in the energy sector. This will
also help to improve the quality of government expenditure. Rational energy pricing will encourage energy
services be adequately paid for by those who can afford pay for them and the poor being assisted to achieve
a decent livelihood. Studies have shown that removal of subsidies can result in reduction of primary energy
consumption by certain groups that can increase supply to dis-advantaged groups.

However, subsidies are provided for different reasons depending on the macro-economic environment of the
country. Reasons may include, encouraging consumption on an equitable basis, protection of local
employment and protection of local industry. They should support energy security as well as social reasons.
There is need to search for initiatives in energy policy that will satisfy both social policy and energy
security. .

3.4 Regional Energy Trade

As a result of the present energy production and use patterns in the continent, there are major deficiencies,
which can be either substantially reduced or eliminated by strengthening regional cooperation in the energy
sector. Such strengthening can include promotion of energy trade, harmonising energy standards, and
establishing common energy framework, improved information exchange through sharing and better use of
human capital.

Though energy trade exist in a number of countries especially in electricity from hydro resources but there
are potential for more of such practices. If suitable inter-connection facilities are established more of such
trade will be made. Proposals have been made to have such systems in Southern and East Africa, but are yet
to be undertaken. The current work on the South African Power Pool is a possible project that can minimise
not only power losses but also environmental impacts and maximise economic benefits. However, for such
level of cooperation, coordinating centres will be required that is efficient and suitably manned. Also,
aspects such as legal and fiscal frameworks need to harmonised.

18
The energy standards in many countries, which are due to their colonial past, need to be upgraded and
improved to ensure harmonisation and compatibility. This will assist to improve the design quality of
equipment and operating conditions. Also, there will be need to ensure that suitable mechanisms are put in
place to ensure compliance. Strengthening of information among countries is very important for future
developmeny6t in the energy sector. Present development in information technology should be fully
exploited for this purpose.

3.4 Energy Research, Development and Demonstration

Energy research has been given a low priority in the continent mainly due to the economic situation in most
countries. In addition, the agenda of energy research needs a shift towards fossil fuel technologies. Due to
the fact that most of energy research is externally funded; the agenda is not always in line with national
priorities. Substantial investments are required for energy research that will be geared towards scientific
tracking, testing and technology adaptation. Apart from research, which can be maximised also by
establishing of cooperative networks, the need for extensive testing through field demonstration is
important. Most of the equipment used in the continent especially for renewable energy technologies were
not adequately tested. This is because of the lack of suitable testing facilities and adequate policies.

4.0 OPPORTUNITIES FROM THE CLIMATE CHANGE DEBATE

4.1 The Climate Change Problem

The threat of "Climate change" is a result of the accumulation of certain greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the
atmosphere, mainly carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide that trap heat in the lower atmosphere and
lead to "global warming". This will change the current climate system, which will result in profound
impacts on the ecosystem, and agricultural systems.

As a result of this threat, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was
signed in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 and later ratified in 1994 when it came into force. The ultimate
objective of UNFCCC is to stabilise global concentrations of GHGs in the atmosphere at a level that
prevents dangerous anthrpogenic interference with the climate system. This should be done on the principles
of intra and inter-generational equity, differentiated responsibilities, precautionary, cost-effectiveness, and
special needs of developing countries. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was
established in 1988 to provide an assessment of the state of knowledge on climate change science and its
implications on other aspects of society. The Second Assessment Report (SAR) of IPCC in 1966 concluded
in its findings that there is a discernable human influence on the climate, though detailed predictions still
remain uncertain. It should be noted that the objective of the UNFCCC was to reduce the emission of GHGs
while promoting sustainable development in developing countries. However, reduction of GHG involves
many economic activities especially those relating with energy production and use since this sector accounts
for over 75% of carbon dioxide emissions which is by far the most important GHG. Hence, satisfying the
obligations of the UNFCCC raises both economic and political issues, since actions from governments and
other agents of countries are required. Another aspect was that this Convention calls for a new type of
cooperation between states especially between developed and developing countries.

19
In December 1997, at the third Conference of Parties (COP3) adopted the Kyoto Protocol (KP) to the
Convention in Kyoto, Japan. KP is an attempt to have legally binding obligations on Annex 1 parties
(mostly developed countries) to reduce their GHG emissions by an average of 5.2% below 1990 levels by
2008-2012, known as the first commencement period. Each party has individual targets. The Protocol also
included three gases to form a basket of six GHGs and it calls for demonstrable progress by 2005.

The Protocol establishes three mechanisms referred to as Emission Trading (ET), Joint Implementation (JI)
and Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). While the first two are transactions between Annex 1 Parties,
CDM is a transaction between Annex 1 Party and non-Annex 1 Party (mostly developing countries). In the
case of JI, it is expected to be a continuation of Activities to be Implemented Jointly (AIJ) that was agreed
to be a pilot phase of JI and should last up to the year 2000. Therefore the only instruments that concern
African countries are AIJ and CDM.

African countries hardly involve in the AIJ projects since it started in 1995, though in the last few years,
some AIJ projects have being developed while some others are in operation. Based on present aspect in the
debate the CDM when started will be of more relevance to African countries. Hence, a few comments are
made on the CDM.

The main purpose of the CDM is to assist Annex 1 Parties to satisfy their obligations of the KP while
promoting sustainable development in non-Annex 1Parties. Also, projects under this mechanism should
contribute to stabilising GHG concentration. However, several aspects of the CDM are yet to be decided
upon such as the governance through a Executive Board. Among the components that will shape the CDM
is that the following: GHG reductions should be real, measurable, verifiable and additional, the CDM
projects should be compatible with national development objectives and assigned a baseline of the host
country. These projects would raise other key issues such as relationship to other financial mechanisms,
evaluation of projects and development of baselines.

5.0 OPPORTUNITIES FROM THE CC DEBATE

As the CC debate has progressed, certain opportunities exist for African countries to use in achieving energy
security. The main opportunities can be grouped as follows:

Technology Transfer Capacity Building CDM

5.1 Transfer of Technology

The UNFCCC provided for the transfer of financial and technological resources to non-Annex 1 Parties by
Annex 1 Parties in its Article 4.5. The IPCC in its technology transfer report of mitigation and adaptation
technologies outlined several measures that could be employed by developing countries such as those of
Africa to access climate-friendly Environmentally –Sound Technologies. Among these are the following:

• Settings up clear well-enforced regulations for taxes, codes, and standards and reflect true costing as
best as possinble.
• Setting up simplified transparent procedures for project approval.
• Create awareness about climate friendly technologies
• Technology needs and needs assessment

20
 • Encourage demonstration programmes
• Develop communication and information infrastructure
• Develop National Systems of Innovation (NSI) This system integrate the elements of capacity
building, access to information and creation of an enabling environment for successful technology
transfer.

5.2 Capacity Building

Capacity building through the UNFCCC provisions includes the building of human and organisational
capacities. To access the climate friendly technologies, a wide range of technical, business, management and
regulatory skills are required at local level. These skills can be acquired by looking at all these skills, both
hardware and software skills. Also, improving competence in associated services such as organisational
know-how and regulatory management is essential.

Building organisational and institutional capacities are also important. Activities for building such capacities
include the following:

• Development and expansion of business firms

• Encourage industry and professional associations
• Develop stakeholder forums
• Develop national information systems and improve network to international systems

6.0 CDM

The CDM when it becomes operational will provide opportunities for Africa to access energy technologies,
but it will need the African countries to develop certain activities before the CDM becomes operational.
These include: National Institutions for CDM with the activities of project development and selection

7.0 Conclusions

This paper has attempted to demonstrate that Africa has vast renewable and non-renewable energy resources
that if exploited will contribute significantly to the continent achieving energy security. The possible growth
options were discussed and the current global threat of climate instability provides the continent with
opportunities to access these growth options.

However, accessing these opportunities will require overcoming certain technical, financial, information,
and institutional barriers, but with suitable policies some of them can be overcome.

Table 1. Selected Energy and Climate Change Parameters of Africa and other Regions

Energy Carbon
1999 GDP Energy/GDP
Production/ Emissions/capita
Region/Country per capita Ratio
Consumption (Metric Tons)
($) (1000Btu/1997$)
Ratio (1997) (1997)
Africa 738 2.33 738 2.33 0.27 19.2

21
 0.27 19.2
China 820 0.99
820 0.99 0.65 41.3
0.65 41.3
FSU/E. Europe 1,976 1.15 2.05 65.2
Japan 33,904 0.2 2.35 5.1
Middle East 3,532 3.42 1.42 26.3
Other Asia 964 0.72 0.36 19.2
N. America 25,039 0.88 4.28 12.2
S. America 2,889 1.28 0.58 13.2
W. Europe 20,123 0.64 2.19 7.4
World Total 4,919 1.0 1.03 13.6

Other Asia excludes Australia and New Zealand

Carbon emissions excludes gas flaring

Source: Adapted from EIA, 1999

REGIONAL FOSSIL FUEL RESERVES (1/1/99) AND CONSUMPTION (1997)

Natural Gas Coal

REGION Petroleum (1000 bbl/d)
(Bcf) (Million ST)
Northern Africa 1151 1534 6.11
West Africa 471 221 0.263
Central Africa 83 4 0.261
East Africa 149 0 0.12
Southern Africa 588 85 176.97
AFRICA 2442 1844 183.7

REGIONAL DIFFERENCES OF MODERN FUELS PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

STATICTICS

NET
PRODUCTION CONSUMPTION
REGION EXPORTS
(Quads Btu) (Quads Btu)
(Quads Btu)
North Africa 12.01 4.393 7.627
West Africa 5.445 1.349 4.08
Central
1.89 0.29 1.6
Africa

22
 East Africa 0.113 0.4 -0.307
Southern
7.03 4.95 2.09
Africa
AFRICA 26.47 11.39 15.08

CRUDE OIL AND NATURTAL GAS RESERVES IN AFRICA, 1979-1999

Year 1979 1998 1998 1999

Crude Oil 57.1 58.8 75.4 74.9
Natural Gas 5.96 7.55 10.22 11.16
^^Back to the Top

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• You will deal with an internationally backed company having a string international network
• Products purchased will adhere to international standards
• You will have the advantage of customized products if needed

For products and services enquiries, please contact Erich Feierabend using the following contact details:

Power4Africa

P O Box 1316

Tsumeb

Namibia

Telephone:+264 67 222219

Fax:+ 264 67 222219

E-mail:p4a@mweb.com.na

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2.Quality Program for Photovoltaics: World Bank Projects

The World Bank Group has been one of the leaders in financing photovoltaic (PV) projects in our client
countries. Ensuring PV product quality has been important in our efforts at establishing sustainable PV
projects and programs. Bank staff involved in PV projects are being encouraged to take advantage of the
facilities available through the international organization, "Global Approval Program for Photovoltaics."
The Bank Group is supporting PV projects in India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, China, Vietnam, Philippines, Lao
PDR, Morocco, Argentina, Mexico, Honduras, Togo, Benin, Cape Verde, Uganda, Kenya, among others.
Since the broad application of the technology is at a relatively early stage, the projects have led efforts to
develop and apply quality standards for PV components and systems where international or national
standards were unavailable. As such, these standards were project- and country-specific. These standards
have led to improvements in quality and importantly, a greater awareness and acceptance of PV product
quality requirements. Nevertheless, it would be more efficient and cost-effective if internationally-
recognized quality measures were adopted where appropriate.

There is now an international organization established to further the aims of quality improvements in PV.
The Global Approval Program for Photovoltaics (PV GAP) (http://www.pvgap.org) established in 1997, is a
not-for-profit international organization, registered in Geneva, Switzerland. It promotes the utilization of

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quality PV products and distinguishes them from products of unknown quality. PV GAP is achieving this by
having a close working relationship with the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC),
(http://www.iec.ch), (the IEC is the organization that issues PV module standards which, are accepted
internationally, including in Bank-funded projects).

The PV GAP approval system relies on the IEC standards, but can also accept national standards as PV
GAP Recommended Specifications (PVRS), This was already demonstrated by PV GAP accepting the
specifications for PV controllers and inverters established under the Bank/GEF-assisted China Renewable
Energy Development Project. PV GAP has formal liaison with IEC's Quality Assessment System for
Electronic Components (IECQ) (http://www.iecq.org), which is currently providing product approval
services for PV GAP. This includes the review and approval of accreditation certificates of PV testing
laboratories and thereby provides reciprocity, i.e. testing results of a laboratory in one country are accepted
in other countries. IECQ product approval requires also, that the manufacturer holds a valid ISO 9000
certification.

After IECQ approves a manufacturer's PV products, the function of PV GAP is to issue a license for the
manufacturer to apply the PV Quality Seal on PV systems and the PV Quality Mark on PV components.
This visual recognition simplifies for customers the selection of quality products. It also eliminates the need
of country-by-country re-certification, as the credentials of the PV manufacturer and the product were
established by PV GAP (IECQ). It also satisfies the World Trade Organization's "Agreement on Technical
Barriers to Trade," which makes standardization and the assessment of conformity to standards an important
part of the global trade agenda and cites IEC as one of the major partners in establishing standardization.

It is evident from the above, that a PV product displaying PV GAP's PV Quality Mark and/or Seal can
reasonably be expected to comply with the quality standards the Bank Group is encouraging or requiring for
the procurement of PV components and systems. This eliminates, for products so marked, the review of the
credentials of each product a PV manufacturer wants to sell for a project supported by the World Bank. This
simplifies administrative procedures, is less costly to suppliers, gives the buyers a greater confidence in the
quality of the products, and can encourage inter-country trade. Therefore, as a means of assuring quality in
PV projects, World Bank staff are encouraged to inform clients undertaking PV projects that "PV
components or systems eligible for use in Bank-assisted projects should either comply with:

(a) relevant standards issued by IEC, ISO or similar standards/certification organizations of international
standing,

(b) appropriate national standards, or

(c) bear the Global Approval Program for Photovoltaics (PV GAP) Mark or Seal.

3. Cameroon: Electricity Sector Reform

In July 2001, IFC successfully concluded an advisory mandate with the government of Cameroon on the
institutional reform of the electricity sector and the privatization of the electricity utility, SONEL. The
winning bidder, the U.S.-based company; AES Corporation paid $72 million to acquire 56 percent of

25
SONEL through a combination of capital increase and secondary share purchase, valuing the company at
$213 million after capital increase. As part of its mandate, IFC advised the government of Cameroon on
creating a new legal and regulatory framework, establishing a regulatory agency and rural electrification
agency, defining a privatization strategy, marketing the transaction to investors, drafting concession
agreements that set out investors' obligations for the next 20 years, assisting the government in negotiations
with investors, organizing the bidding process, and closing the transaction.

The mandate was completed in just under three years. SONEL's privatization concludes a wide-ranging
reform program established by the government in 1998 to promote private sector investment; improve the
quality of service; increase electrification in urban and rural areas; boost efficiency in production,
transmission, and distribution; and provide electricity at competitive prices. As part of its contractual
obligations in taking over SONEL's new concessions, AES has committed to a four-fol d increase in the
number of electric connections over the next two decades and to substantially enhancing the quality of
service.

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4. Nigeria:Improved Power Supply in Lagos

Residents of Lagoswonder if under-performing public company NEPA will sustain its improved services in
Lagos and its environs Is the current relative stable power supply in Lagos and its environs for real? In the
last two months, residents of Lagos and its environs have enjoyed relatively uninterrupted power. What is
the magic? A curious consumer in Egbeda asked a National Electric Power Authority, NEPA, official that
had come to drop the July bill in his house. Godwin Osakwe, general manager, Lagos zonal office, said the
improvement is for real. NEPA has repaired a number of its broken down facilities for effective distribution
of power in Lagos. Some of them that have been completed are located at Abule Egba, Abule Iroko,
Alagbin, Festac, Lekki, Ajangbadi, Maroko and Okota while work is still going on at the Ikorodu industrial
layout, New Idumagbo, Amukoko, Satellite Town, Agege, Abesan and Olorumpelu distribution sub-
stations. Osakwe is optimistic that as soon as these projects are completed, Residents of Lagos will once
again enjoy full power supply. "Consumers in Lagos and its environs have no cause for worry. The good
times are back again," he said.

Another reason accounting for the improved power supply is the working arrangement between the
authority and ENRON, an independent power producer. Going by the initial schedule, ENRON ought to
have begun the supplies by April and complete the final phase by August. The supply was staggered in three
months of 100 megawatts each. The initial supplies of 100 megawatts was slated for April, and another 100
megawatts for June while the last supplies of 100 megawatts was scheduled for August. The schedule could
not be kept because of the problem between the Lagos State government and NEPA over the ENRON
project. The matter was later resolved and ENRON was allowed to sell power directly to NEPA.

At present, ENRON is selling to NEPA about 70 megawatts to complement its power supply to Lagos. As a
result of the improved power supply, many artisans who had been off business due to erratic power supply
are back. Some of them who spoke to Newswatch expressed satisfaction with the services of NEPA. Akin
Idowu, a welder, said his business has picked up. Idowu was off business for several months. He lost most
of his customers because he could not afford a generating set to facilitate his work. He has won back some

26
of his customers since NEPA improved. "There is no day we don't have order to do a job," he said. Mabel
Nwakpa, a housewife, said she can now preserve her perishable food items in the fridge without fear of
losing them. Nwakpa said even when NEPA had cause to take light now, it returns after a few hours.
According to her, this was unthinkable in the last two months. She hopes that NEPA will sustain the tempo.

President Olusegun Obasanjo has promised Nigerians uninterrupted power supply by December 31.
Obasanjo said in order to achieve the set target, the government had so far spent N200 billion to procure
plants and equipment to replace NEPA's obsolete and broken down facilities. Joseph Makoju, managing
director, NEPA, said 26 broken down generating units out of 79 owned by the authority have been repaired.
NEPA is looking at other options to sustain the present tempo of power generation. One of the options is its
policy of rehabilitation, operate and transfer programme. Afam and Sapele thermal stations had been put
under this arrangement. Another option is to privatise the operations of the existing power stations. Egbin
and Delta IV, Ughelli thermal station and the hydro-power stations located in Kainji, Shiroro and Jebba in
Niger State have been earmarked for privatisation.

Late last June, NEPA called for bid for the operations and management of the three hydro-power stations.
The stations are operating below their installed capacity. Kainji Dam which was constructed in 1968 with an
installed capacity of 760 megawatts has never worked at full capacity. Only one out of its eight generating
units are working. The situation is the same in Shiroro and Jebba. Shiroro has a capacity to generate 600
megawatts from its four units while Jebba has an installed capacity of 578.4 megawatts. A fortnight ago,
NEPA also called for bids for the management of Delta IV, Ughelli thermal stations in Delta State and
Egbin gas turbine station in Lagos State. The final bid for the take over of these plants is slated for
November 19. IPA energy of London has been appointed by NEPA as the consultants for the privatisation.
An official of the ministry of power and steel, who spoke to Newswatch last week, said the injection of
private investors into the power sector "would increase NEPA's operational efficiency and reverse the trend
in deterioration of its plants and equipment as well as improve its financial performance."

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5. The Village Power Partnership

E-Village Dialogue discussion is being held between September 25 to October 12, 2001 hosted by several of
the Village Power sponsors - the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, the Energy Sector Management
Assistance Program (ESMAP), the U.S. Agency for International Development and Winrock International.
The purpose of this discussion is threefold:

1. to obtain an update on planned and on-going Village Power activities worldwide.

2. to identify next steps, and organizations interested in helping to implement the Village Power Partnership
Communique agreed to at the closing session of the Village Power 2000 Conference.

3. to determine a mechanism for conducting, coordinating and tracking global Village Power initiatives.

The Village Power 2000 Conference concluded with a Communique calling for a global partnership to
enhance rural development through the accelerated delivery of modern energy services. The vision of the

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Village Power Partnership is that more effective provision of clean energy services in the water, agriculture,
health, education, and telecommunication sectors will lead to improved incomes, increased productivity and
enhanced quality of life for both end users and service providers.

The Village Power Partnership Communique calls upon governments, the private sector, NGOs, financial
and development organizations to collaborate on a 10-year initiative with the following outcomes: 30
countries with national scale renewable energy based rural development programs. 300 million people
previously unserved have access to modern energy services. Over 50,000 new community systems installed
(schools, hospitals, clinics). Cadre of trained entrepreneurs and institutions capable of developing and
implementing village power projects and programs. Documented improvements in productivity, income,
environment and quality of life from rural energy services.

Since the Village Power Conference, discussions have been held with several organizations including the
World Bank, bilateral donors, private companies and NGOs, and there continues to be a strong interest in
and commitment to moving forward on achieving these objectives. The challenge now is to move from
words to action, to solidify the partnership and to put in place the projects, programs and financing packages
that will yield results.

For further information, please visit us at http://www.VillagePowerPartnership.org

Judy Siegel

E-Village Discussion Moderator

6. News from CADDET Renewable Energy

There are no new publications for CADDET Renewable Energy to report this month, however do have a
look at our Web site at http://www.caddet-re.org where the latest news and events are continually updated.
The Renewable Energy Register database now contains 544 entries. You can explore the Register, searching
for project information in a range of technologies at http://www.caddet-re.org/html/register2.htm

7. News from GREENTIE

The new GREENTIE website is still under active development and will be tested by our GREENTIE
Liaison Offices around the world in early November. No live date has been fixed yet for its launch but it
will certainly happen in December. The latest GreenTimes issue is now available on the web and this
focuses on renewable energy technologies in Developing Countries. The next issue will look at waste
minimisation.

8. News and events

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Universities could cut their energy usage by 40 per cent, a study funded by the European Union's Fifth
Framework's International cooperation programme has concluded. The project, which involved 28
universities from nine European countries as well as Israel was launched in 2000. The study comes to the
conclusion that universities in Europe are important key players in the promotion of energy efficiency. They
could save energy costs of around one hundred million euro per year if they carried out energy saving
measures, the project found. The study also estimates a saving potential of around 40 per cent, based on
more than 40 case studies that have shown annual savings up to 1.4 million euro per institution. In addition,
universities with about 17 million students in Europe must be perceived as eminent social multipliers in
efforts to promote energy use compatible with sustainable development, claim the project participants. This
applies in particular to two fields in which universities in Europe could contribute most: the promotion of
energy efficiency and environmentally friendly electric and electronic equipment (EEE) as well as the
utilisation of renewable energies. For further information, please consult the following web address:
http://www.cre-copernicus.de/seiten/good_practice.html

DIO LIGHTS WIN ICLEI "INITIATIVE OF THE MONTH" AWARD The revolutionary energy-saving
DIO lights, installed on the St Kilda foreshore in Australia in July, have won the International Council for
Local Environment Initiatives (ICLEI) July "Initiative of the Month" award in the Cities for Climate
Protection Australia campaign. Port Phillip mayor, Councillor Julian Hill, said that the "Initiative of the
Month"award recognises outstanding projects or work undertaken in either the community or corporate
sector that support the campaign to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The council's award is profiled on
ICLEI home page: http://www.iclei.org/ccp-au

Cr Hill said that the DIO lights were a world first in public lighting. "The DIO public lighting along the
foreshore reduces electricity consumption by up to 80%, significantly reduces greenhouse gas emissions,
and reduces visual pollution by providing directed light." The Council is also installing solar panels on
various foreshore buildings to feed directly to the lights. It is retrofitting 290 lights along the foreshore and
will eventually replace all public lights under its control with DIO lights. Installing these is expected to save
110 tonnes of CO2 gases and AUD 36,368 per year.

As ever a comprehensive list of events in the energy efficiency and renewable energy spheres can be found
on the relevant CADDET websites. Click below for more details.

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9. Heavy Hitters Move into Fuel Cells

Well known company names are appearing with increasing frequency in fuel cell news and in new areas of
fuel cell market. Automotive heavy weights like GM, Toyota, Ford, BMW and DaimlerChrysler are
exploring stationary as well as automotive fuel cell applications. Energy companies such as Exxon Mobil,
Sanyo Electric Co. and Osaka Gas Co. have begun to move into and expand their presence in the fuel cell
sector. Collectively, these heavy hitters have signaled their belief in the future of the fuel cell market.

The potentially lucrative nature of the stationary markets likely sparked the interest of Sanyo Electric Co.
and Osaka Gas Co., a natural gas utility serving more than 6 million customers in Japan. These two entered
relatively new territory when they announced in late August that they will jointly research and develop a

29
fuel-cell -based co-generation system for household use. Caterpillar Inc, in conjunction with Nuvera Fuel
Cells and Williams Bio-Energy, is also developing a 13 kW PEM stationary fuel cell system, and was
awarded $2.5 million in June by The US Department of Energy (DOE) to fund their work.

Even so, much of the new interest in stationary applications has come from automotive companies. For
years, these companies have funded research into fuel cell transportation applications. Moving in a new
direction, Toyota announced it intends to develo fuel cells for residential energy generation. In early August,
General Motors (GM) unveiled a stationary fuel cell generator to be used either as a backup generator or as
a primary source for electricity in individual homes. The GM generator is based on the technology
developed for the company's experimental fuel cell vehicles. These stationary applications have a side
benefit for automotive companies; the work the automakers do in developing stationary generators can lead
to breakthroughs in their area of primary focus, transportation applications.

Automakers have also tackled a major hurdle to fuel cell commercialization: finding safe and effective
hydrogen production and storage methods. Many of these companies have entered into research
collaborations that can save money and accelerate the development process. Amongst other projects, BMW
is working with United Arab Emirate member state Dubai on hydrogen production feasibility study. GM
acquired equity in QUANTUM Technologies, a company which works on autmotive hydrogen storage.
Other companies with processor technology experience have also entered the market. Exxon Mobil recently
joined the California Fuel Cell Partnership, looking to adapt its gasoline processor technology for use in fuel
cell vehicles. The company also announced that it has decided to merge its fuel cell fuels related research
with that of GM and Toyota. The three companies will share resources and results in an effort focused
particularly on developing and testing fuel processing technologies.

Other new market entrants have annunced plans to support the emerging fuel cell market. Early this year,
DuPont, stating that it expects the fuel cell market to be as much as $10 billion by the year 2010, revealed it
has formed a fuel cell business unit and intends to become the leading supplier of materials and components
to the PEM fuel cell market. The company has also forged agreements with other fuel cell industry
companies. In August, DuPont announced that it has entered into a partnership with Mechanical Technology
Inc. to develop fuel cell components, based on DuPont technology, for use in Mechanical Technology's
micro fuel cells. H Power Corp., a fuel cell development comopany, announced in the first week of
September that it has also partnered with DuPont to develop direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC) for portable
and mobile applications.

Whether these heavy hitters will end up obtaining a large share of the fuel cell market remains to be seen.
Much of the research and development work is still carried out by smaller fuel cell companies that are
themselves growing in size and influence. However, as large companies seek to capitalize onlthe potentially
large fuel celll market, they can help push fuel cells over the final technical and practical hurdles to
commercialization.

Job Opportunities
RESEARCH ASSOCIATE-POLICY, PEW CENTER ON GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

30
The Pew Center is a non-profit, non-partisan, and independent organization dedicated to providing credible
information, straight answers, and innovative solutions in the effort to address global climate change. For
more information about the Pew Center,

visit www.pewclimate.org.

The Pew Center is looking to hire a Research Associate to work with the Director of Policy Analysis (see
descriptions below). Pew Center on Global Climate Change, Research Associate-Policy

Start date: Immediately

Duties:

1. Research, maintain, and communicate to staff updated information on domestic climate change policy
and related legislation;

2. Work with Policy Director in oversight/editing of Policy series reports;

3. Attend and report on climate change meetings, conferences, and hearings on Capitol Hill; and

4. Help organize workshops and briefings for stakeholders on climate change issues.

Desired qualifications:

Undergraduate degree or higher in environmental studies, environmental policy or related field;

understanding of the climate change issue-science, politics, economics; well developed writing/editing
skills; attention to detail; willingness to learn and pitch in at all levels. Send resume and cover letter to:
Vicki Arroyo Cochran at the Pew Center on Global Climate Change, 2101 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 550,
Arlington, VA 22201, or electronically in a Word Document to cochranv@pewclimate.org.

Consultancy Announcement
Renewable Energy Specialist-UN/DESA

The UN is seeking the services of a consultant for the job described below. If you have or know a qualified
candidate who is interested, please submit his CV. Thanks and regards.

Yehia Abu-Alam

UN/DESA - Energy and Transport Branch

New York

Phone 212 963 8599

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Fax 212 963 4340

Terms of Reference for Renewable Energy Specialist

Post title: Renewable Energy Specialist

Duty station: Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire (with travel, as appropriate)

Duration: 1 year initially (with the possibility of extension for another 2 years)

Starting date: August/September 2001

Duties

Under the supervision of the Chief of the Energy and Transport Branch of UN/DESA, upon advice from the
head of the African Development Bank (AfDB), Environmental and Sustainable Development Unit
(OESU), the renewable energy specialist shall initiate, co-ordinate and undertake activities as outlined
below for solar (electric and thermal), wind (electric and shaft power) and small hydro (electric and shaft
power) energy resources and technologies (hereafter referred to as renewable energy):

* Carry out economic and sector work, including identifying policy /institutional issues to provide the
framework for the AfDB assistance in the area of renewable energy;

* Prepare training material, training programs and provide training for AfDB staff, notably the project
officers in the country departments to create awareness and sensitise them on potential investments in
renewable energy activities;

* Prepare training material, training programs and provide training for in-country personnel (National
Banks, Ministry of Energy, Electric Utilities, Private Sector, NGO's) on the identification, preparation and
evaluation of renewable energy projects in those countries targeted by AfDB for investment;

* Co-ordinate the identification and preparation of feasibility studies (business plans) for renewable energy
projects to be included in the AfDB lending portfolio;

* Assist in the project appraisal process of renewable energy investments, to be undertaken by AfDB.
Project appraisal will be carried out on the basis of the business plans developed and needs to address the
financial, economic, institutional and socio- technical issues;

* Implement and supervise renewable energy investments to be undertaken by ADB; and

* Co-ordinate with ongoing programs in the Africa region to avoid overlap and identify complementary
activities, especially those where making investment capital available will accelerate the development of
renewable energy activities. Furthermore, co- ordinate with donor agencies and mobilising resources (grants
and/or buy-downs) to be packaged with AfDB renewable energy loans.

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 Research Grants and Fellowships
POSTGRADUATE TRAINING FELLOWSHIPS

THIRD WORLD ORGANISATION FOR WOMEN IN SCIENCE (TWOWS)

Postgraduate Training Fellowships for Women Scientists in Sub-Saharan Africa and Least Developed
Countries (LDCs) at Centres of Excellence in the South.

DEADLINE OCT. 31, 2001

TWOWS in collaboration with the Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) and with funds generously
provided by the Department for Research Cooperation of the Swedish International Development
Cooperation Agency (Sida) has instituted a fellowships programme forfemale students in Sub-Saharan
African and Least Developed Countries (LDCs) who wish to pursue postgraduate training leading to a
doctorate degree at centres of excellence in the South (developing countries) outside their own country. The
general purpose of the scheme is to contribute to the emergence of a new generation of women leaders in
science and technology and to promote their effective participation in the scientific and technological
development of their countries. The specific aims of the scheme are:

- To improve access to educational and training opportunities in science and technology for young and
talented women graduates from Sub-Saharan Africa and LDCs

- To increase the scientific productivity and creativity of women scientists in sub-Saharan Africa and LDCs.
-To empower a new generation of talented women to assume a leadership role in science and technology
and their application to sustainable development.

Closing date: 31 Oct 2001.

ENQUIRIES:

Leena Mungapen, TWOWS

Tel: (+39) (40) 224-0321

Fax: (+39) (40) 224-4559

E-mail: info@twows.org

WWW: http://www.twows.org

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