SH1657

Calculating Limits

I. Limits of Algebraic Functions

Theorem 1.1
For any polynomial (!) and a real number ",
lim (!) = (").
#→%
Proof:
Suppose that (!) is a polynomial of degree & ≥ 0,
(!) = *+ ! + + *+-/ ! +-/ + ⋯ + */ ! + *1 .
Then, from (1.1), Theorem 2.1, Theorem 2.2 and (2.10),
lim (!) = lim(*+ ! + + *+-/ ! +-/ + ⋯ + */ ! + *1 )
#→% #→%
= lim(*+ ! + ) + lim(*+-/ ! +-/ ) + ⋯ + lim(*/ !) + lim(*1 )
#→% #→% #→% #→%
= *+ lim(! + ) + *+-/ lim(! +-/ ) + ⋯ + */ lim(!) + *1
#→% #→% #→%
+ +-/
= *+ 2lim!3 + *+-/ 2lim!3 + ⋯ + */ " + *1
#→% #→%
= *+ " + *+-/ " +-/ + ⋯ + */ " + *1
+

= (")
∎

Example 1.1
6
Evaluate lim (!) where (!) = 5 ! 5 − 5! + 4.
#→5
Solution:
Since (!) is a polynomial, we can evaluate by direct substitution.
lim (!) = (3)
#→5
2
= (3)5 − 5(3) + 4
3
=7

Theorem 1.2
Suppose (!) is a polynomial and & is any positive integer. Then
lim > (!) = > (")
? ?

#→%
where for an even &, we must include the assumption that (") ≥ 0.

Example 1.2
C
Evaluate lim A(!) where A(!) = √! 6 + 3.
#→6
Solution:
Let (!) = ! 6 + 3. Since 6 is an even positive integer, we first test if (2) ≥ 0.
(2) = (2)6 + 3
=7
Since (2) ≥ 0, we can apply Theorem 1.2 and proceed to direct substitution.
lim A(!) = lim > (!)
C

#→6 #→6

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= > (2)
C

C
= √7

Theorem 1.2 is a direct consequence of the limit law concerning radical expressions. The
following theorem on the other hand, is a consequence of the limit law concerning quotients
of two (2) functions.

Theorem 1.3
Suppose (!) and A(!) are polynomials and A(") ≠ 0. Then,
(!) (")
lim = .
#→% A(!) A(")

Example 1.3
# G H/
Evaluate lim F(!) where F(!) = # I HJ#HK.
#→1
Solution:
N(#)
Let (!) = ! 6 + 1 and A(!) = ! 5 + 4! + 8. Since F(!) = , we first test if A(0) ≠ 0.
O(#)
A(0) = (0)5 + 4(0) + 8
=8
Since it A(0) ≠ 0, we can apply Theorem 1.3 and proceed to direct substitution.
(0)
lim F(!) =
#→1 A(0)
(0)6 + 1
=
(0)5 + 4(0) + 8
1
=
8

When substitution does not work, a common approach is to manipulate the numerator and
denominator, cancel out common factors, until substitution does work.

Example 1.4
# G H#-6
Evaluate lim # G H6#-5.
#→/
Solution:
We can see if we substitute 1 into the denominator, we get (1)6 + 2(1) − 3 = 0. Hence,
Theorem 1.3 is inapplicable. But, we can see that
!6 + ! − 2 (! − 1)(! + 2) ! + 2
= =
! + 2! − 3 (! − 1)(! + 3) ! + 3
6
If we substitute 1 into the denominator, we get 1 + 3 = 4 ≠ 0. Now, we can apply
Theorem 1.3 and proceed to direct substitution.
!6 + ! − 2 !+2
lim 6 = lim
#→/ ! + 2! − 3 #→/ ! + 3
1+2
=
1+3
3
=
4
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 SH1657

In cases where substitution and factoring neither work, a process called rationalization of
numerator (or denominator) is first done wherein the numerator (or denominator) is first
multiplied by its conjugate.

Example 1.5
√#H6-√6
Evaluate lim #
.
#→1
Solution:
We can see if we substitute 1 into the denominator, we get 0. Hence, Theorem 1.3 is
inapplicable. But, if we rationalize the numerator first,
√! + 2 − √2 √! + 2 − √2 √! + 2 + √2
= ∙
! ! √! + 2 + √2
6 6
Q√! + 2R + Q√! + 2RQ√2R − Q√! + 2RQ√2R − Q√2R
=
!√! + 2 + !√2
(! + 2) − (2)
=
!√! + 2 + !√2
!
=
!Q√! + 2 + √2R
1
=
√! + 2 + √2
we get a new expression wherein if we substitute 0 into the denominator, we get
√0 + 2 + √2 = 2√2 ≠ 0. Hence, Theorem 1.3 can now be applied.
√! + 2 − √2 1
lim = lim
#→1 ! #→1 √! + 2 + √2
1
=
√0 + 2 + √2
1
=
2√2
√2
=
4
Example 1.6
#
Evaluate lim .
#→1 √#HJ-6
Solution:
We see that √0 + 4 − 2 = 0. In this example we rationalize the denominator,
! ! √! + 4 + 2
= ∙
√! + 4 − 2 √! + 4 − 2 √! + 4 + 2
! √! + 4 + 2!
= 6
Q√! + 4R + 2√! + 4 − 2√! + 4 − (2)6
!√! + 4 + 2!
=
(! + 4) − 4

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!Q√! + 4 + 2R
=
!
= √! + 4 + 2
In our example, we obtain a radical expression. Since 0 + 4 = 4 ≥ 0, Theorem 1.2 can be
applied. Hence,
lim √! + 4 + 2 = √0 + 4 + 2
#→1
=4

In computing limits of rational expressions to infinity, we multiply both numerator and

denominator by the reciprocal of the highest degree term on the denominator. Two (2) cases
are considered.

Case 1. Degree of numerator ≤ Degree of denominator

a.
1
! 6 + 3! + 1 (! 6 + 3! + 1) 5
lim = lim !
#→U !5 − 2 #→U 1
(! 5 − 2) 5
!
1 3 1
! + !6 + !5
= lim
#→U 2
1− 5
!
0+0+0 0
= = =0
1−0 1
b.
1
−3! 6 + ! + 1 (−3! 6 + ! + 1) 6
lim = lim !
#→-U !6 − 2 #→-U 1
(! 6 − 2) 6
!
1 1
−3 + ! + 6
= lim !
#→-U 2
1− 6
!
−3 + 0 + 0
= = −3
1−0
Case 2. Degree of denominator < Degree of numerator. In this case, the limit will be ∞ or
−∞.
a.
1
1 − !X (1 − ! X ) 6
lim = lim !
#→U ! 6 + 2 #→U 1
(! 6 + 2) 6
!
1
6−!
5
= lim !
#→U 2
1+ 6
!
The bottom is going to be 1 and the top is going to be −∞ because of the
lingering term −! 5 . Hence,

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1 − !X
lim = −∞
#→U ! 6 + 2
b.
1
!X + !6 + 1 (! X + ! 6 + 1) 5
lim = lim !
#→-U !5 − 3 #→-U 1
(! 5 − 3) 5
!
1 1
! + + 5
6
! !
= lim
#→-U 3
1− 5
!
The bottom is going to be 1 and the top will be ∞ (positive because exponent
of ! 6 is even)
!X + !6 + 1
lim =∞
#→-U !5 − 3

II. Trigonometric, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions

Theorem 2.1
For any real number ", we have
i. lim sin ! = sin ",
#→%

ii. lim cos ! = cos ",

#→%

iii. lim Z # = Z % ,
#→%

iv. lim ln ! = ln " , for " > 0,

#→%

v. lim sin-/ ! = sin-/ " , for − 1 < " < 1,

#→%

vi. lim cos-/ ! = cos-/ " , for − 1 < " < 1,

#→%

vii. lim tan-/ ! = tan-/ " , for − ∞ < " < ∞,

#→%

Theorem 2.2 (Squeeze Theorem)

Suppose that \(!) ≤ ](!) ≤ ℎ(!) for all ! for some interval (*, _), except possibly at
the point " ∈ (*, _ ) and that
lim \(!) = lim ℎ(!) = b,
#→% #→%
for some number b. Then it follows that
lim ](!) = b, also.
#→%
Proof:
To show that lim ](!) = b, we must prove that given any d > 0, ∃ g > 0, such that
#→%
|](!) − b| < d, whenever 0 < |! − "| < g.
Since lim \(!) = b, we are certain that for any d > 0, ∃ g/ > 0, such that
#→%
|\(!) − b| < d, whenever 0 < |! − "| < g/ .

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Likewise, since lim ℎ(!) = b, then for any d > 0, ∃ g6 > 0, such that
#→%
|ℎ(!) − b| < d, whenever 0 < |! − "| < g6 .
Take g = min(g/ , g6 ). Then if 0 < |! − "| < g, it follows that 0 < |! − "| < g/ and 0 <
|! − "| < g6 and
|\(!) − b| < d and |ℎ(!) − b| < d.
Equivalently, we can say that
−d < \(!) − b < d and − d < ℎ(!) − b < d,
or
−d + b < \(!) < d + b and − d + b < ℎ(!) < d + b.
It now follows from our hypothesis that
−d + b < \(!) ≤ ](!) ≤ ℎ(!) < d + b,
which gives us
−d + b < ](!) < d + b,
or
|](!) − b| < d and it follows that lim ](!) = b, as desired.
#→%
∎

Example 2.1
qux p
Prove that lim p = 1.
p→1
Proof:
z
Since we are proving a limit that has y → 0, it’s okay to assume that 0 < y ≤ 6 .
We’re actually going to first prove that the above limit is true if it is the right-hand limit.
Consider the unit circle circumscribed by an octagon with a small slice marked as
shown below.

Points { and } are the midpoints of their

respective sides on the octagon. We’ll call the point
where these two (2) sides meet ~ (corner).
From the figure, we can see that the
circumference of the circle is less than the perimeter
of the octagon. This also means that if we look at
the slice of the figure, then the length of the portion
of the circle included in the slice must be less than
the length of the portion of the octagon included in
the slice.
Now denote the portion of the circle by *F"{}
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/P and the lengths of the two (2) portions of the octagon
by |{~| and |{}|. Then by the observation about
roofTrigDeriv.aspx

lengths we made above, we must have

*F"{} < |{~| + |~}| (1)

Extend the lines {~ and €} as shown in the next figure and call the point that they
meet . The triangle now formed by {€ is a right triangle.

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The triangle ~} is a right triangle with hypotenuse

~ and so we know |~}| < |~|. Also notice that
|{~| + |~| = |{|. If we use these two (2) facts in
(1) we get,

*F"{} < |{~| + |~}|

< |{~| + |~|
= |{| (2)

Next, as noted already, the triangle {€ is a right

triangle and |{€| = 1, and so |{| = tan y. Also
note that since it is nothing more than the radius of the http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/Calc
unit circle, using this information in (2) gives, I/ProofTrigDeriv.aspx

*F"{} < |{|

= tan y (3)

The next thing that we need to recall is that the length of a portion of a circle is given
by the radius of the circle times the angle that traces out the portion of the circle we’re
trying to measure. But since we have a unit circle, this means that *F"{} = y. Putting
this into (3), we see that,

sin y
y = *F"{} < tan y = or
cos y
sin y
cos y <
y (4)

Let’s connect { and } with a line and drop another line straight down from C until it
intersects {€ at a right angle and let’s call the intersection point ‚ as shown below.
The first thing to notice here is that,

|}‚| < |{}| < *F"{} (5)

Also note that triangle ‚€} is a right triangle with a

hypotenuse of |}€| = 1. Using some right triangle
trigonometry, we can see that |}‚| = sin y.
Applying this to (5), we get
sin y = |}‚|
< *F"{} = y or
sin y (6)
<1
y
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/Calc
Combining (4) and (6), we get I/ProofTrigDeriv.aspx

sin y ƒ
cos y < < 1, where 0 < y ≤
y 2

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Note that
lim cos y = 1 = lim„ 1
p→1„ p→1

Hence, by the Squeeze Theorem,

sin y
lim„ =1
p→1 y
However, since sin y is an odd function, it follows that

sin(−y) − sin y sin y

= =
−y −y y
And so,
sin y sin y
lim… = 1 = lim„
p→1 y p→1 y
and so we must also have
sin y
lim =1
p→1 y

Example 2.2
/-†‡q p
Prove lim p = 0.
p→1
Proof:
1 − cos y 1 − cos y 1 + cos y
lim = lim ∙
p→1 y p→1 y 1 + cos y
1 − cos6 y
= lim
p→1 y(1 + cos y)
sin6 y
= lim
p→1 y(1 + cos y)
sin y sin y
= lim ˆ‰ Š‰ Š‹
p→1 y 1 + cos y
sin y sin y
= lim ‰ Š lim ‰ Š
p→1 y p→1 1 + cos y
sin y
= 1 ∙ lim ‰ Š
p→1 1 + cos y
sin y
= lim ‰ Š
p→1 1 + cos y
Since lim sin y and lim (1 + cos y) both exist and lim (1 + cos y) = 1 + cos(0) = 1 +
p→1 p→1 p→1
1 = 2 ≠ 0,
1 − cos y lim sin y
p→1
lim =
p→1 y lim (1 + cos y)
p→1

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0
=
1+1
=0
∎

Theorem 2.3
If is a polynomial and lim \(!) = b, then lim \Q (!)R = b.
#→N(%) #→%

Example 2.3
qux J#
Evaluate lim
#→1 #
Solution:
qux p
We want to get the given expression look something like and apply Theorem 2.3,
p
since the Œ&Z function involves the polynomial 4!. Hence, we multiply the numerator
J
and denominator by 1 = J.
sin 4! 4 4 sin 4!
lim ˆ‰ Š ‰ Š‹ = lim ‰ Š
#→1 ! 4 #→1 4!
sin 4!
= 4 lim ‰ Š
#→1 4!
qux #
Now, if we let (!) = 4!, \(!) = # , and " = 0, we get
sin !
lim \(!) = lim = 1.
#→N(%) #→1 !
Therefore, by Theorem 2.3,
sin 4!
lim \Q (!)R = lim =1
#→% #→1 4!
and therefore,
sin 4! sin 4!
lim = 4 lim ‰ Š = 4(1) = 4.
#→1 ! #→1 4!

Example 2.4
#H/
Evaluate lim sin-/ 2 6 3.
#→1
Solution:
#H/ / /
Let (!) = 6 = 6 ! + 6, \(!) = sin-/ !, and " = 0.
1 ƒ
lim \(!) = lim sin-/ ! = sin-/ =
#→N(%) #→
/ 2 6
6
Therefore,
!+1 ƒ
lim \Q (!)R = lim sin-/ ‰ Š=
#→% #→1 2 6

References:
Coburn, J. (2016). Pre-Calculus. McGraw Hill Education.
Minton, R. & Smith, R. (2016). Basic Calculus. McGraw Hill Education.

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