Eating with Your Eyes: The Chemistry of Food Colorings

Would you drink black water? Clear Pepsi? How about using pink butter or green ketchup?
Believe it or not, these products actually existed, and not that long ago either. But there is a
reason these food fads did not last. Consumers prefer that the color of

food matches its flavor.

The link between color and taste is logical. Since oranges are orange, we expect orange-colored
drinks to be orange-flavored. Red drinks should taste like cherries, and purple drinks should taste
like grapes. If a food is multicolored, it could be moldy and should not be eaten, unless you are
eating blue cheese—which gets its distinct flavor from mold!

An astonishing amount of the foods we eat is processed. These foods are altered from their
natural states to make them safe, say, to remove harmful bacteria, or to make them appealing and
to prolong their shelf life. About 70% of the diet of the average U.S. resident is from processed
foods. Much of what we eat would not look appealing if it was not colored. Think of food
coloring as cosmetics for your food. Without coloring, hot dogs would be gray.

https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/pa
st-issues/2015-2016/october-2015/food-colorings.html

Insights:

People associate certain colors with certain flavors. The color of the food can therefore
influence its perceived flavor in anything from candy to wine. For this reason, food
manufacturers add dyes to their products. One of the reasons this is done is to simulate the
colour the customer expects as natural. An example would be to add red coloring to
glacé cherries. Without coloring, the cherries would be beige. Food coloring can also be done
for effect, such as a green ketchup instead of an expected red. Most people are aware that food
with bright or unnatural colors, such as the green ketchup mentioned, contains food coloring.
Far fewer people know that "natural" foods such as oranges and salmon may also be dyed to
hide natural variations in color. The color of foods varies through the seasons. Processing food
and storing it may change its color. For these reasons, it may give a commercial advantage to
add colors to food, so that it has the color expected or preferred by the customers. Natural
colors are not required to be tested by a number of regulatory bodies throughout the world,
including the United States FDA. The FDA lists "color additives exempt from certification" for
food.

Simultaneous identification of synthetic and natural dyes in different food

samples by UPLC-MS

Fast foods and variety food items are populating among the food lovers. To improve the
appearance of the food product in surviving gigantic competitive environment synthetic or
 natural food dyes are added to food items and beverages. Although regulatory bodies permit
addition of natural colorants due to its safe and nontoxic nature in food, synthetic dyes are
stringently controlled in all food products due to their toxicity by regulatory bodies. Artificial
colors are need certification from the regulatory bodies for human consumption. To analyze
food dyes in different food samples many analytical techniques are available like high pressure
liquid chromatography (HPLC), thin layer chromatography (TLC), spectroscopic and gas
chromatographic methods. However all these reported methods analyzed only synthetic dyes or
natural dyes. Not a single method has analyzed both synthetic and natural dyes in a single run.
In this study a robust ultra-performance liquid chromatographic method for simultaneous
identification of 6 synthetic dyes (Tartrazine, Indigo carmine, Briliant blue, Fast green,
malachite green, sunset yellow) and one natural dye (Na-Cu-Chlorophyllin) was developed using
acquitic UPLC system equipped with Mass detector and acquity UPLC HSS T3 column (1.8 μm,
2.1 × 50 mm, 100Å). All the dyes were separated and their masses were determined through
fragments' masses analyses.
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1757-899X/263/2/022011

Insights:

A color additive is any dye, pigment or substance which when added or applied to a food,
is capable of imparting color. It is used to restore or reinforce color lost during processing or storage or to
give desired color to food or to ensure uniformity from batch to batch.

FAO is responsible for regulating all color additives to ensure that foods containing color additives
are safe to eat contain only approved ingredients and are accurately labeled. Without color additives, colas
wouldn’t be brown and margarine wouldn’t be yellow. Color additives are now recognized as an important
part of practically all processed foods we eat. Color has always had an important implication on the minds
of people as far as food is concerned. Cuisines prepared in attractive colors have immensely lured men folk
in all the quarters of the world. It is therefore very necessary to preserve the natural or maintain the
characteristic color of a food product while it is manufactured or stored for future use. A non-attractive
color however makes the food look unfresh and is likely to be rejected.

The color of food is a significant factor in determining its acceptance. We expect to see food looking natural.
Many consumers associate natural products with superior quality.

Food Texture: Pleasure and Pain

Food texture provides sensory signals to the consumers. Most of these signals stimulate responses
from consumers, both good and bad, because of the expected pleasure − from creamy puddings
and ice cream to crispy crackers and snacks. One critical role that texture plays in the success of
products is its indication of the freshness and stability of the food product. The mechanical properties
of food texture, such as hardness, cohesiveness, crispness, crunchiness, and denseness, are easy
indicators of a product’s freshness and wholesomeness. Although texture is often considered to be
secondary to flavor in evaluating a product's success and acceptability, texture will tip the scales for
the consumer, if the texture does not meet the consumer’s expectation. Two case studies
demonstrate the different texture properties of foods, how they function to generate consumer likes
and dislikes, and how texture is key in determining food staleness versus freshness.Texture is an
important indicator of a food's fat content. If we can figure out how to trick our tongues into
sensing more fat than is actually present in a food, we can increase satiation while decreasing a
food’s calorie count. That's why some researchers are finally turning their attention to these
taste-making sensations.
https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jf100219

Insights:
 Texture is important in determining the eating quality of foods and can have a strong
influence on food intake and nutrition. Perceived texture is closely related to the structure and
composition of the food, and both microscopic and macroscopic levels of structure can influence
texture. A complete description of food texture can only be achieved using sensory methods, but
difficulties associated with such methods have led to the development of rapid, inexpensive but
less satisfactory instrumental methods. New techniques based on instrumental measurement
made on human subjects during chewing promise to open up a new understanding of food
texture. Food texture reflects the sensory perception of humans when taking actions on a food
item, primarily in the form of biting, chewing, grinding, etc., to destroy or change its overall
structural form, so as to make it suitable for transfer to the stomach. The texture of food is thus
closely related to the physical structures and mechanical properties, and it directly affects the
acceptability and repeat purchase of a product by the consumer. Consumers generally have
varying expectations of texture for different types of food. For instance, they would prefer apples
to be crispy and firm, while demanding peaches and mangos to be juicy and melting.

Improved thermal processing for food texture modification

S.U. Kadam, ... C.P. O’Donnell, in Modifying Food Texture, 2015

Food texture has been defined by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in their
standard vocabulary for sensory analysis as ‘All the rheological and structure (geometrical and
surface) attributes of a food product perceptible by means of mechanical, tactile, and where
appropriate, visual and auditory receptors’ (ISO, 2008). Texture of food materials plays a key
role in consumer acceptance and market value. Texture features are considered important from
both quality assurance and food safety perspectives (Wilhelm et al., 2004). Smith (1947) listed
nine specific parameters contributing to overall food quality, of which five are linked to the
concept of food texture (Kramer, 1975). Texture is a key quality parameter used in the fresh and
processed food industry to assess consumer acceptability. Among the texture characteristics,
hardness (firmness) is one of the most important parameters, which is often used to determine the
freshness of food. Springiness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness and gumminess are significant
properties for the texture evaluation for meat-based products. Textural quality attributes of food
may be evaluated by descriptive sensory or instrumental analyses (Chen and Opara, 2013a).
Although flavour is commonly found to be an important sensory factor responsible for the
preference of foods, texture is often cited by consumers as the reason for not liking certain foods
(Cardello, 1996).
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/food-texture

Insights:

Food texture is a collective term of sensory experiences originated from visual, audio and
tactile stimuli. The sensation of food texture eplays a crucial role in influencing consumers’
liking and preference of a food product. Consumer concern and interest of food texture vary from
one type of food to another. For solid foods, sensory experience associated with fracture and
breaking could be the most relevant textural features, whereas the sensation of flow behaviour
could be the most critical texture-related feature for fluid foods. For semisolid or soft solid foods,
different patterns of stress–strain deformation provide key information for the delicate texture
variation among this type of food.
Food texture and food structure are the two internally linked properties. Although food structure
influences textural properties of a food, it is regarded as material property of the food. The
term food texture has a strong inclusion of sensory experience. Ingredient interactions and food
processing and preparation are the most important industrial approaches for food texture (or food
structure) creation or modification. Moisture content and fat content are the two key determining
factors for texture creation. Content of air, as expressed as structure openness, also plays a
critical role in texture creation.

What are food additives?

Substances that are added to food to maintain or improve the safety, freshness, taste, texture, or
appearance of food are known as food additives. Some food additives have been in use for
centuries for preservation – such as salt (in meats such as bacon or dried fish), sugar (in
marmalade), or sulfur dioxide (in wine).

Many different food additives have been developed over time to meet the needs of food
production, as making food on a large scale is very different from making them on a small scale
at home. Additives are needed to ensure processed food remains safe and in good condition
throughout its journey from factories or industrial kitchens, during transportation to warehouses
and shops, and finally to consumers.

The use of food additives is only justified when their use has a technological need, does not
mislead consumers, and serves a well-defined technological function, such as to preserve the
nutritional quality of the food or enhance the stability of the food.

Food additives can be derived from plants, animals, or minerals, or they can be synthetic. They
are added intentionally to food to perform certain technological purposes which consumers often
take for granted. Other food additives are used for a variety of reasons, such as preservation,
colouring, and sweetening.

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food-additives

Insights:

Food additives are chemicals added to foods to keep them fresh or to enhance their colour,
flavour or texture. They may include food colourings (such as tartrazine or cochineal), flavour
enhancers (such as MSG) or a range of preservatives.

Most food additives are listed on the product label, along with other ingredients, in a descending
order by weight (flavours are an exception and do not need to be identified). Sometimes, the
additive is spelt out in full. At other times, it is represented by a code number: for example,
cochineal may be listed as coloring; sodium sulphite may be shown as preservative. For most
people, additives are not a problem in the short term. However, 50 of the 400 currently approved
additives in Australia have been associated with adverse reactions in some people. Some food
additives are more likely than others to cause reactions in sensitive people. Many of the food
additives used by the food industry also occur naturally within foods that people eat every day.
For example, MSG is found naturally in parmesan cheese, sardines and tomato in significantly
greater quantities than the MSG present as a food additive. People with food allergies and
intolerances are also often sensitive to chemicals found naturally in certain foods, such as nuts or
shellfish.
Do food additives cause hyperactivity?
In the 1970s, some researchers suggested that changes in diet had coincided with a rise in the
number of children with behaviour problems. The idea that food additives, and food colours in
particular, could be linked to hyperactivity generated much interest and considerable
controversy.

In 2007, a study by researchers at the University of Southampton linked increased levels of

hyperactivity in young children with consuming mixtures of some artificial food colours and the
preservative sodium benzoate.

The results of the Southampton study show that when the children were given the drinks
containing the test mixtures, in some cases their behaviour was significantly more hyperactive.

In 2008, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) evaluated the study against the background
of previous studies, going back to the 1970s, on the effect of food additives on behaviour and
acknowledged that it was the largest study carried out on a suggested link between food additives
and hyperactivity in the general population. The scientific assessment panel was assisted by
experts from the fields of behaviour, child psychiatry, allergy and statistics. The panel noted that
the majority of the previous studies used children described as hyperactive and these were
therefore not representative of the general population.

Chinafooding.com

Insights:

Food additives include artificial colors, artificial sweeteners and preservatives. There's no solid
evidence that food additives cause attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However,
the topic of food additives and their possible effects is controversial.
Some studies indicate that certain food colorings and preservatives may increase hyperactive
behavior in some children. But the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Food Advisory
Committee determined that studies to date have not proved there's a link between food colorings
and hyperactivity.
Countries differ on which food color additives, sometimes called food dyes, they'll allow in food
and drinks and how they're labeled. For example, the European Union (EU) requires that foods
containing certain food color additives include a statement on the label that this color "may have
an adverse effect on activity and attention in children." The FDA only requires that FDA-
certified color additives be listed on the food label. Food additives include artificial colors,
artificial sweeteners and preservatives. There's no solid evidence that food additives cause
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, the topic of food additives and their
possible effects is controversial.
The best approach for overall health and nutrition is a diet that limits sugary and processed foods
and is rich in fruits, vegetables, grains, and healthy fats such as omega-3 fatty acids found in
certain types of fish, flaxseed and other foods.

Where the flavor in food comes from?

The taste of the average apple is determined by 29 different substances, while a decent cup of
coffee is made up of around 100.
The profession of flavorist appeared quite recently, when freezers became common in almost ev-
ery home, and food had to preserve its taste even after long freezing. A flavorist is a chemist who
adjusts and modifies the flavor and aroma of food. Although most of the training takes place in
practice, a novice flavorist is helped considerably by an education in chemistry, and especially
by a knowledge of organic chemistry. Before they create a certain flavor, chemists study its nat-
ural prototypes. They use several methods: from ordinary distillation to more hi-tech spec-
troscopy, taking into account differences in the behavior of various chemical bonds when they
are hit by infrared and ultraviolet light, and chromatography, which detects the components of
complex mixtures. All of this helps to find an impressive amount of substances, which determine
tastes and aromas. Now you’d think that all you have to do is to mix the right molecules in the
right proportion to get the ideal flavor. Perhaps this is because the tests have yet to be perfected,
and omit some important details which are difficult to notice.

Insights:

Flavor (American English) or flavour (British English; see spelling differences) is the
sensory impression of food or other substances, and is determined primarily by the chemical senses
of taste and smell. The "trigeminal senses", which detect chemical irritants in the mouth and throat,
as well as temperature and texture, are also important to the overall gestalt of flavor perception. The
flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorants which affect these
senses.
A "flavorant" is defined as a substance that gives another substance flavor, altering the
characteristics of the solute, causing it to become sweet, sour, tangy, etc.[1] A flavor is a quality of
something that affects the sense of taste.[2]
Of the three chemical senses, smell is the main determinant of a food item's flavor. Five basic
tastes – sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami (savory) are universally recognized, although some
cultures also include pungency[3] and oleogustus ("fattiness")[4]. The number of food smells is
unbounded; a food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its
taste similar. This is exemplified in artificially flavored jellies, soft drinks and candies, which, while
made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different
scents or fragrances.

Flavour formation in meat and meat products: a review

The characteristic flavour of cooked meat derives from thermally induced reactions
occurring during heating, principally the Maillard reaction and the degradation of lipid. Both
types of reaction involve complex reaction pathways leading to a wide range of products, which
account for the large number of volatile compounds found in cooked meat. Heterocyclic
compounds, especially those containing sulfur, are important flavour compounds produced in the
Maillard reaction providing savoury, meaty, roast and boiled flavours. Lipid degradation
provides compounds which give fatty aromas to cooked meat and compounds which determine
some of the aroma differences between meats from different species. Compounds formed during
the Maillard reaction may also react with other components of meat, adding to the complexity of
the profile of aroma compounds. For example, aldehydes and other carbonyls formed during
lipid oxidation have been shown to react readily with Maillard intermediates. Such interactions
give rise to additional aroma compounds, but they also modify the overall profile of compounds
contributing to meat flavour. In particular, such interactions may control the formation of sulfur
There are strong indications that in cases in which the flavour elements are treated
independently, for example, as in the analytical approach used by trained panellists, these
interactions do not occur. compounds, and other Maillard-derived volatiles, at levels which give
the optimum cooked meat flavour characteristics.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030881469800
0764

Environmental Chemical Contaminants in Food: Review of a Global

Problem

The contamination by chemicals from the environment is a major global food safety
issue, posing a serious threat to human health. These chemicals belong to many groups,
including metals/metalloids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), persistent
organic pollutants (POPs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), pharmaceutical and
personal care products (PPCPs), radioactive elements, electronic waste, plastics, and
nanoparticles. Some of these occur naturally in the environment, whilst others are
produced from anthropogenic sources. They may contaminate our food—crops, livestock,
and seafood—and drinking water and exert adverse effects on our health. It is important
to perform assessments of the associated potential risks. Monitoring contamination levels,
enactment of control measures including remediation, and consideration of sociopolitical
implications are vital to provide a safer food globally.

Chemical contamination is a global food safety issue. There are many potentially toxic
substances in the environment which may contaminate foods consumed by people. They include
inorganic and organic substances and may originate from a wide range of sources. It is useful to
consider the sources of contaminants in order to understand their pathway into food and water
sources for consumption. Factors such as soil properties, activities by people, and point sources
affect the accumulation of metals in the environment.

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jt/2019/2345283/

Insights:

Food contaminants are any harmful substances unintentionally added to

food, which may be chemicals from natural sources, environmental pollution, or
formed during food processing. Have you ever been eating and had the unfortunate
experience of finding a hair in your food? Or perhaps you have found some bugs in your lettuce?
These are both examples of food contamination, but they are only one type of food contamination:
physical contamination..
Food contamination is anything in food that reduces the safety or quality and is not supposed to be
there. Food may be contaminated intentionally or accidentally. As a consumer, we never want to see
our food to be contaminated but often the contamination we can see doesn't actually harm us, it is
more often the unseen contamination that is most harmful.
One type of food contamination is physical contamination. There can also be chemical and biological
contamination food contaminants, such as hair in the food, are not regulated by the FDA, and food
recalls will not be issued for products with these kinds of food contaminants. Hair may be gross to
find in your food, but unless that hair has another biological or physical contamination on it, then it
won't harm you. It may also represent a lack of good manufacturing practices at that production
facility.

Potential application of lactic acid starters in the reduction of aflatoxin contamination in

fermented sorghum-millet beverages

Aflatoxins are toxic, carcinogenic and immunosuppressive metabolites of various strains

of Aspergillus (A.), mainly A. flavus, A. parasiticus, A. nomius and A. tamarii(Udovicki
et al. 2018a; Iyanda et al. 2014; Black et al. 2013). The major aflatoxins are B1 (AFB1) -
the most lethal, B2 (AFB2), G1 (AFG1) and G2 (AFG2) (Romani 2004). Aflatoxin
contamination outbreaks cause fatalities. An outbreak in India caused 106 fatalities in
1974 (Reddy and Raghavender 2007). Another in Kenya led to 317 cases and 125 deaths
in 2014 (Probst et al. 2007). In Tanzania, it led to 68 cases and 20 deaths in 2016
(Kamala et al. 2018). The outbreaks were linked to consumption of aflatoxin
contaminated maize.

Cereal-based fermented beverages such as beers and non-alcoholic lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) fermented beverages are popular around the world. Although the non-alcoholic
fermented beverages are more common in rural areas, particularly in low-income
countries, commercialization has resulted in a renewed interest among urban populations.
The beverages are popular for their social, religious, nutritional and therapeutic benefits
(Aka et al. 2008). Cereal-based fermented beverages are mainly made from maize,
sorghum, millet and barley (Aka et al. 2014; Osamwonyi and Wakil 2012). The cereals
often contain aflatoxins which end up in the beverages (Ezekiel et al. 2018; Garrido et
al. 2012; Warth et al. 2012).)

https://foodcontaminationjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40550-019-0074-9

Insights:

The presence of aflatoxins in cereals and traditional fermented cereal beverages such
as Obushera is of public health concern considering the adverse effects of these toxins.
Therefore, an integrated approach should be considered to mitigate aflatoxin
contamination in raw materials and in the subsequent products. Different actors in the
value chains of cereals such as sorghum and millet that are used for producing fermented
traditional products should be sensitized on appropriate practices for preventing aflatoxin
contamination in grain. Processors of traditional fermented products should also ensure
that they use cereal grains or flours that meet specifications for aflatoxin content.
Furthermore, processors should also consider using starter cultures such as Lb.
plantarum MNC 21, L. lactisMNC 24 and W. confusa MNC 20 to bind residual
aflatoxins. Future studies should evaluate the potential of spontaneous
fermentations, Obushera lactic starters and Lb. rhamnosus yoba 2012 in reducing
aflatoxin contamination in spiked samples. Additionally, the stability of the LAB-AFB1
complex should be evaluated under gastro intestinal conditions. flatoxin contamination in
traditionally fermented cereal-based beverages is a serious food safety challenge
considering that commercialization of these products is rising. The challenge is
aggravated by the fact that aflatoxin elimination from the food chain is almost
impossible. This paper focuses on Obushera, a popular traditional spontaneously
fermented sorghum – millet beverage from Uganda.