Dynamics of Structures

14/03/2018
Dynamics of structures
Francisco López Almansa
1
Dynamics of structures. Francesc López Almansa. Barcelona
Objectives
 To present the basic concepts of structural dynamics

oriented to earthquake-resistant design and human-
generated vibrations
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Index
Basic concepts 4
Discretization 9
SDOF models 17
MDOF models 24
Distributed-parameter models 30
Bibliography 32
3
Basic concepts (1)

 Displacement (x), velocity (v = dx / dt = ) and acceleration (a = d2x / dt2 = )
 Acceleration is measured in m/s2, g (g = 9.81 m/s2) or gal (cm/s2).
 Excitation (input): dynamic action (seism)
 Response (output); in terms of displacement, velocity or acceleration
 Signal: any function of time (e.g. accelerogram)
 Harmonic signal: A cos t or A sin t ; A: amplitude; : frequency [rad/s]; f =
 / 2  [Hz: s-1]; period T = 1 / f = 2  /  [s]
 Spectrum (plural is “spectra”): any function of frequency or period
x(t) 0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
tiempo [s]
-0.5
-1
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Basic concepts (2)

 Mass (m). f = m a. Is commonly measured in kg (SI)
 Stiffness (k, C). Can be either f = k x (N/m) or M = C  (Nm)
 Damping (c). Is the capacity of dissipating (absorbing) energy. Refers to viscous
damping (f = c ). Is measured in N s / m
 Model of an (actual) structure. Can be physical, mechanical or numerical
m
k
5
Basic concepts (3)

 The Fourier transform converts a signal (in the time domain) into a spectrum
(in the frequency domain)
 This operation is reversible (through the inverse Fourier transform)
 The Fourier spectrum represents the frequency content of the signal
 The Fourier spectrum of a harmonic signal is a Dirac delta function; conversely,
the Fourier spectrum of a white noise signal is flat
 Do not confuse the Fourier spectrum with the response spectrum (for earthquake
engineering)
0,008
0,03 Fourier Amplitude
Acceleration (m/s2)
0,02 0,006
Amplitude (m/s2)
0,01 0,004
0
18 19 20 21 22 0,002
-0,01
Time (s) 0
-0,02
0 20 40 60 80
-0,03 -0,002 Frequency (Hz)
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Basic concepts (4)

 The Fourier transform is the scalar product of the signal and a harmonic signal:
t t Aω   C 2 ω   S 2 ω 
C ω   cos ωt a (t ) dt S ω    sin ωt a (t ) dt
S ω 
0 0
ω   arctan
C ω
 C(), S(), A() and () are termed cosinus, sinus, amplitude and phase
Fourier transform, respectively
 Direct and inverse Fourier transform: ω e ;

e ω ω

 In general, the phase is not very relevant to us
 Commonly, signals are not analog but digital (discretized), and the Fourier
transform is carried out numerically, providing also discrete spectra; the
implementations usually employ efficient “Fast Fourier Transform” (FFT)
algorithms
 Periods that are shorter than, approximately, 4 t cannot be detected
 In earthquake engineering, periods of interest range between 0.1 and 4 s,
approximately; if we deal with long-span bridges, longer periods can be relevant
 Noticeably, the direct and inverse Fourier transforms are linear; conclusion: the
scaling of signals (typically, inputs) does not modify their frequency content
7
Basic concepts (5)

 This accelerogram depicts the strongest component (NS) of the Lorca
earthquake (11-05-2011)
 This is the most severe seismic input ever recorded in Spain
 Exercise (No. 1): obtain the amplitude Fourier spectrum of this accelerogram in
terms of period
 Select, according your own criterion, the most relevant time window
 I suggest you to use Excel because it will force you to program everything
 You can use also MatLab, SeismoSignal or whatever you wish
 The input Excel file has been uploaded (time step 0.005 s)
4
3
Acceleration (m/s2)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
-1 Time (s)
-2
-3
-4
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Discretization (1)
 The dynamic and static behavior of structures is commonly described with
discrete models
 The continuum is represented by a set of discrete points, termed as nodes
 Each node can move in certain directions, six at most; each component is a
degree-of-freedom (DOF)
 In earthquake engineering, the discrete models are mainly finite elements (or
similar discretization techniques) or lumped-masses
 The lumped masses models are generated by concentrating the (distributed) mass
in the nodes
9
Discretization (2)
 Typically, the 2D horizontal behavior of single-story buildings is described with
SDOF lumped-mass models
 The node corresponds to the roof slab and the degree-of-freedom is its horizontal
displacement
 xg: ground displacement; y: absolute displacement, x: relative displacement
 This discretization involves kinematic and static condensation
 Kinematic condensation: because of the rigid diaphragm effect (axial infinite
rigidity), all the beam sections have the same lateral displacement, and the vertical
displacements of the beam-column joints are zero
 Static condensation: the unused unexcited DOFs (e.g. joint rotations) are condensed
y x = y  xg
x
m x x
c y
xg
k
xg 10
Dynamics of structures. Francesc López Almansa. Barcelona xg
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14/03/2018
Discretization (3)
 The 2D horizontal behavior of multi-story buildings is described with MDOF
lumped-mass models
 xg: ground displacement (input, excitation)
 yk: absolute displacement of k-th story
 xk: relative displacement of k-th story with respect to the base
 k = xk – xk – 1: relative displacement between k and k – 1 stories (interstory
drift)
 The relative displacement and the interstory drift report about structural damage
and in-plane non-structural damage
 : absolute acceleration of k-th story
 The absolute acceleration report about human comfort and out-of-plane non-
structural damage
 Since xk = yk – xg, the relative displacement and the absolute acceleration cannot
be minimized simultaneously; this is relevant to seismic design
yN
N mN xN
N-1 mN-1 xN-1
2 m2 xg x2
1 m1 x1
11
Discretization (4)
Asymmetric!
R●G ●R ●G
R●G
 Symmetric / asymmetric buildings: the centers of mass G and rigidity R are

approximately coincident / eccentric in each floor
 Symmetric buildings provide better seismic performance
 In symmetric buildings, two 2D models (one DOF per node) can be used
 In asymmetric buildings, a single 3D model (three DOFs per node) must be used
 The centers of mass G of each story refer to the supported (above) weight
 Since the horizontal input motions in both directions need to be combined, 2D
modelling would require additional “outer” (e.g. Excel) calculations
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Discretization (5)
 If the input contains torsion components, even symmetric buildings will “twist”
 This applies mainly to symmetric buildings with low torsion strength; therefore,
their seismic performance is rather poor
 In other words, for a proper seismic performance, buildings need not only plan
symmetry but also torsion strength
 In asymmetric buildings, any 3D model has three DOFs (x, y, ) per node: two
horizontal displacements and torsion (twist) angle
N
N xN
N-1
yN
2
1
13
Discretization (6)
 In lumped masses models of buildings, masses are merely concentrated on the floor slabs
 In other cases:  ; m = concentrated mass, L = member length, m0 =
distributed mass (per unit length), x = coordinate along member length,  = assumed
normalized deformation shape (max = 1)
●
 Concentrated mass of a simply supported beam: 1
2
x   x  x  
2 2
x 34
ψ x    L/2
3  4  m 2 m0   3  4   dx  m0 L  0,486 m0 L
L  L 

0
 L   L   70
2
4
16  x  32  x  16 x
3
16  x  4 32  x 3 16 x  3968
ψ x  
L
      m   m0         dx  m0 L  0,504 m0 L
5 L 5 L 5 L 0
 5  L  5 L 5 L  7875
 First/second results correspond to deformation by concentrated/distributed loads

 These results are useful for vertical seismic analysis of beams or building slabs
●
 Concentrated mass of a clamped beam: 1
yx   x  
2 2
x  x  2  x 
ψ x   26
L/2
   12  16  m 2 m0   12  16  dx  m0 L  0,371 m0 L
ymáx  L   L     70

0 L L
yx 
2
x x  2 4
ψ x    16   2  L  x x2 
m   m0 256   2  dx 
128
m0 L  0,406 m0 L
ymáx L L  0
L L  315
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14/03/2018
Discretization (7)
m   m0 ψ x  dx
L
2
0
 Deformed shape of a cantilever with a concentrated (P)
force in its tip: ●
P x2
y x   3L  x 
6E I
P L3 yx  1
ymáx  ψ x    3 x 2 3L  x 
3E I ymáx 2 L
2
 1  33
m   m0  3 x 2 3L  x  dx 
L
m0 L  0,2357 m0 L
0
2 L  140
15
Discretization (8)
 Exercise (No. 2): obtain the stiffness
(k) and the equivalent concentrated
(m) mass of a wind mill (for a
horizontal seismic analysis)
 Height of the tower: 10 m
 The supporting column (tower) is a
steel hollow circular section with 50
cm diameter and 5 mm thickness
 The tower is clamped to the
foundation
 Mass of the top head (rotor blades,
transmission, generator, tail, etc.):
7500 kg
 The use of any structural analysis 10 m
program is prevented; only hand
calculations are permitted
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SDOF models (1)

y
x x
x k m
m
xg y
x = y  xg c
k c
xg x
xg xg
 Equation of motion:
 This equation is linear
 The energy dissipation is described by the viscous damping term (f = c ); this
model was chosen to keep the equation linear (easy), not for describing accurately
the structural behavior
 Input force is proportional to mass: lightweight buildings!
 Free undamped vibrations: 0. Solution: sin  
  ⁄ : (undamped) natural frequency; 2 ⁄ : natural period
 x0: amplitude; : phase angle (not very relevant)
17
SDOF models (2)

 Free damped vibrations: 0. The shape of the y
solution depends on the damping; if c > ccr, it decreases x
monotonically ( 2 2  : critical damping),
otherwise, it decreases oscillating m
 Solution (if c < ccr):   sin  
c
  : damping factor (ratio) 1 0.05 0.999 k

 In earthquake engineering it is commonly assumed that  =
0.05 for buildings and smaller values for bridges (0.02 / 0.05)
   1   : (damped) natural frequency xg
 Frequently, equation of motion is written as 2  

x / x0
time (s)
 Damped response; the higher the damping, the faster the reduction
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SDOF models (3)

 Forced damped vibrations with harmonic input: y
 x
 Solution: transient + steady-state m
 Transient response: solution of the free damped vibrations ( )
 Steady-state response is harmonic with the same frequency c
than the input: 
k
 Absolute value of amplitude is
  
 D is the dynamic amplification factor, xst is the static response xg

and 
20   If   0 (  1) there is an important
D amplification, known as resonance
15 =0  Resonance peak: D = 1 / 2  (1 / 2 × 0.005 = 100)
 Under resonance, the phase angle is 90º
10 >0
5 resonant response
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

β 19
SDOF models (4)

 Forced damped vibrations with arbitrary input: y
x
 The solution is the Duhamel integral:
τ sin  τ    m

 The solution is obtained numerically (with the help of a
computer program) by time discretization; the time step (t) is c
usually constant along the calculation interval k
 The response is obtained by a step-by-step algorithm by
assuming an interpolation criterion in the time interval t; in
other words, any linear time-history analysis involves several
static-like analyses xg
 The most common algorithm is Newmark
 In earthquake engineering, structures are damaged and
performing nonlinear analysis is a must; the equation of motion
becomes
 In nonlinear time-history analysis, the stiffness at the beginning
and the end of the time interval are different, and thus each step
analysis need to be iterative (Newton-Raphson)
 Nonlinear time-history analyses require significantly shorter
time steps (t = 0.001 s, or even less); there are no general
criteria
 Nonlinear time-history analyses are very expensive!
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SDOF models (5)

 Parallel combination of springs (equal  Series combination of springs (equal
displacement, sum of forces): force, sum of displacements):
k1
k  k1  k 2 k1 k2
1
x k
k2 1 1
x 1 1 
k1 k 2
Parallel
Series
21
SDOF models (6)

 Exercise (No. 3): obtain the fundamental period (natural period in horizontal
direction) of a building supported by the following steel frame
5,5 t/m
 The number of C D
parallel frames is
irrelevant
 Beam: A = 62,61
cm2, I = 11770 3,20 m
cm4
 Columns: A = 106
cm2, I = 11260 5,50 m
cm4 B
 Steel unit weight:
7850 kg/m3
7,25 m
22
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SDOF models (7)

W
Impact
h
xst
x
1 2h
W h  xst  x   k  xst  x 
2
W  k xst x  xst 1 
2 xst
 If a rigid object is released suddenly just touching a beam (or similar

element), the maximum deflection doubles the static one:
 If h = 0, x = xst
 If a rigid object is released suddenly on a beam (or similar element)
from a moderate height, the maximum deflection is huge:
 If h = 1000 xst, x = 45 xst
 Therefore, if the human body were infinitely rigid in vertical direction,
any stair step would resist
23
MDOF models (1)

yN 0
N mN xN
⋱
N-1 mN-1 xN-1 0
2 m2 xg x2 ⋮ ⋮
1 m1 x1
1
⋮ ⋮
 Equation of motion: 1
 M, C and K are the mass, damping and stiffness matrices, respectively; these
matrices are square, symmetric and positive-definite (positive eigenvalues)
 The response vectors , and contain the displacements, velocities and
accelerations of the DOFs, respectively
 r is the influence vector
 This equation is linear (the response is proportional to the input)
 The input (excitation) force is mass-proportional: lightweight buildings will
provide better seismic performance
 This formulation assumes that the horizontal input effect is transmitted
instantaneously along the building height; this is not completely correct, given that it
is transmitted along the building height through shear waves
24
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MDOF models (2)

mN xN xN
N
N-1 mN-1 xN-1 xN-1
2 m2 x2 x2
1 m1 x1 x1
 Modal analysis: generalization of the result  ⁄ (natural frequency) for

SDOF models
 Free undamped equation of motion:
 The eigen-solutions are given by  sin  ; : natural frequency, : modal
vector (shape)
   (eigenvalue problem); det  0 (characteristic
polynomial)
 This problem has N pairs of solutions: 1, …, N (natural frequencies) and 1, …,
N (modal vectors)
 The modes are classified as 1  …  N (the first mode is the slowest one)
 The first mode of a multistory building is the most important and is termed as
fundamental; T1 = TF = fundamental period (2  / 1)
25
MDOF models (3)

 The modal vectors are orthogonal to the mass and stiffness matrices:
    0 (i  j)
 Therefore, the modal vectors are linearly independent and the modal N mN
matrix ( = (1N)) is nonsingular N-1 mN-1
 This allows defining modal coordinates: x =   = 11 + … + NN
 T   T   T   T
 ∗
 ∗
 ∗
  T
2 m2
 ∗
, ∗ and ∗ are mass, damping and stiffness matrices in modal 1 m1
coordinates
 Because of the orthogonality among the modal vectors, ∗ and ∗ are
diagonal; as seen next, the damping is defined also as orthogonal
 In modal coordinates, the matrix equation of motion is uncoupled in N xN
scalar equations:  2       (i = 1,..., N)
 ∑  xN-1
  : i-th damping factor,  : i-th natural frequency, 
  ∑ 
i-th modal participation factor x2
 Comparison with a SDOF equation ( 2    ) shows x1
the meaning of 
 ∑ 
 m1 +⋯+ mN = m = m1∗ +⋯+ m∗N ; ∗ : i-th modal
  ∑ 
mass
26
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MDOF models (4)

0 0
m 0.737 0.591
k 0 0
2 0.328 3 0.737
m 0 0 0.328
k 2 0 0.591 0.328
m 1 0.591
k 2 0.737
0
0 0 0.737
    0.328 0.591 0.737 0 0 0.328 0
0 0 0.591
 Example of modal analysis: 2D model of a 3-story shear building
 Beams are infinitely rigid, compared to columns 0.328 0.737 0.591
 The mass and stiffness of each story are m and k  0.591 0.328 0.737
 Mass / stiffness matrices are diagonal / tri-diagonal 0.737 0.591 0.328
 det  0: 1 = 0.445 ⁄ , 2 = 1.247 ⁄ , 3 = 1.802 ⁄
 In 2D regular models of buildings, the modes are shaped that way: same sign, two
signs, three signs, etc.
  
 1.658  0.474  0.182
     
 ∗
 ∗

∗
0.914 3 0.075 3 0.011 3
     
27
MDOF models (5)

 Damping matrix from Rayleigh model (classical damping)
 C =  M +  K;  and  are coefficients to be determined
 Only two modal damping factors (i-th, j-th modes) can be imposed
1 α 2 ω ω
 β ω α 
2 ω ω ω
1 α 2
 β ω β 
2 ω ω ω
 Modal damping factors for higher modes are bigger

 Therefore, for systems with more than three DOFs, 1st and 2nd modes are not a
good choice; better option might be 1st and 4th
 Exercise (No. 4): regarding the example in the previous slide repeat all the
calculations and build damping matrix assuming  =  = 0.05. Obtain  and
verify that it is higher than 0.05
28
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MDOF models (6)

 The shape of the first mode is the “easiest” way to deform a given structure
 The higher modes are similar to the first one, although more windy
29
Distributed-parameter models (1)

 Natural frequencies for bending of constant-section beams:
 i = (ki )2 (E I / m L4)½
 m: mass per unit length. The coefficients ki depend on the number of mode (i)
and the support conditions
 i is proportional to the square root of the inverse of the deflection (e.g. y = 5 q
L4/ 384 E I); hence, limiting the frequency is equivalent to limit the deflection
(to a constant value): for instance, i > 8 rad/s  y < … mm (it depends on
material and support conditions)
(a ) (b ) (c )
(d ) (e) (f)
Supports a b c d e f
Coefficient ki k1 = 1; k1 = k1 = 0.60 k1 = 1.25 k2 = 1.25 k3 =
ki = i 1.50 1.505
 The result for a simply-supported beam (case a) can be also applied for a
continuous beam with uniform span-length
30
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Distributed-parameter models (2)

Natural frequencies of a plate simply-supported on their sides
y
E h3
D
 
h
b
12 1   2
 i  2  j  2 
D
x ij        
2
 a   b  
a m
z  i, j: number of waves along x and y axes; m: mass per unit area
 For other boundary conditions, check the reference Leissa (1969)
Vibration generated by vehicles
v
i v
i 
L
v t
v
d
v
f 
d
31
Bibliography
 Barbat, A.H. Miquel J. Estructuras sometidas a acciones sísmicas.
CIMNE 1994.
 Boore DM, Bommer JJ (2005), Processing of strong-motion
accelerograms: needs, options and consequences, Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering 25:93–115.
 Chopra A.K. Dynamics of structures. Theory and applications to
earthquake engineering. Prentice-Hall 2000.
 Clough, R.W.; Penzien J. Dynamics of Structures. McGraw-Hill 1992.
 García Reyes L.E. Dinámica Estructural Aplicada al Diseño Sísmico.
Universidad de Los Andes. 1998.
 Gould, P.L.; Abu-Sitta S.H. Dynamic response of Structures to Wind
and Earthquake Loading. Pentech Press 1980.
 Leissa A.W. Vibration of plates. NASA SP-160. 1969.
 Paz M. Dinámica estructural. Teoría y cálculo. Reverté. 2002
32
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14/03/2018

 To present the basic concepts of structural dynamics

Basic concepts (1)

Basic concepts (2)

Basic concepts (3)

Basic concepts (4)

Basic concepts (5)

 Symmetric / asymmetric buildings: the centers of mass G and rigidity R are

 First/second results correspond to deformation by concentrated/distributed loads

SDOF models (1)

SDOF models (2)

SDOF models (3)

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

SDOF models (4)

SDOF models (5)

SDOF models (6)

SDOF models (7)

 If a rigid object is released suddenly just touching a beam (or similar

MDOF models (1)

MDOF models (2)

 Modal analysis: generalization of the result  ⁄ (natural frequency) for

MDOF models (3)

MDOF models (4)

MDOF models (5)

 Modal damping factors for higher modes are bigger

MDOF models (6)

Distributed-parameter models (1)

Distributed-parameter models (2)

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