Q1.

Kinesics behavior, paralanguage, proximity are some aspects of Non-

Verbal Communication. Discuss all seven aspects of Non-Verbal
Communication.

Ans:Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication (NVC) is usually understood as the process of
communication through sending and receiving wordless messages. i.e., language is not
the only source of communication, there are other means also. NVC can be
communicated through gestures and touch (Haptic communication), by body language or
posture, by facial expression and eye contact. NVC can be communicated through object
communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, symbols and
infographics. Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including
voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm,
intonation and stress. Dance is also regarded as a nonverbal communication. Likewise,
written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of
words, or the use of emoticons.

However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face

interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions
where communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communicators, and
behaviors of communicators during interaction.

Verbal vs. oral communication

Scholars in this field usually use a strict sense of the term "verbal", meaning "of or
concerned with words", and do not use "verbal communication" as a synonym for oral or
spoken communication. Thus, vocal sounds that are not considered to be words, such as a
grunt, or singing a wordless note, are nonverbal. Sign languages and writing are generally
understood as forms of verbal communication, as both make use of words — although
like speech, both may contain paralinguistic elements and often occur alongside
nonverbal messages. Nonverbal communication can occur through any sensory channel
— sight, sound, smell, touch or taste. NVC is important as:

"When we speak (or listen), our attention is focused on words rather than body language.
But our judgment includes both. An audience is simultaneously processing both verbal
and nonverbal cues. Body movements are not usually positive or negative in and of
themselves; rather, the situation and the message will determine the appraisal." (Givens,
2000, p. 4)

History
The first scientific study of nonverbal communication was Charles Darwin's book The
Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). He argued that all mammals
show emotion reliably in their faces. Studies now range across a number of fields,
including , linguistics, semiotics and social psychology.

Arbitrariness
While much nonverbal communication is based on arbitrary symbols, which differ from
culture to culture, a large proportion is also to some extent iconic and may be universally
understood. Paul Ekman's influential 1960s studies of facial expression determined that
expressions of anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness and surprise are universal.
==characteristics of nonverbal communication== the following are its characteristics:-

1) Non-verbal messages primarily communicate emotions,

attitudes.
2) Non-verbal cues substitute for, contradict, emphasize
or regulate verbal messages
3) non-verbal cues are often ambiguous.
4) Non-verbal cues are continuous.
5) non-verbal cues are more reliable.
6) non-verbal cues are culture bound.

Clothing and bodily characteristics

Uniforms have both a functional and a communicative purpose. This man's clothes
identify him as male and a police officer; his badges and shoulder sleeve insignia give
information about his job and rank.

Physical environment
Environmental factors such as furniture, architectural style, interior decorating, lighting
conditions, colors, temperature, noise, and music affect the behavior of communicators
during interaction. The furniture itself can be seen as a nonverbal message.

Proxemics: physical space in communication

Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them.
The space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the
message is interpreted.

The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures and different settings
within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into four main
categories: intimate, social, personal, and public space.
The term territoriality is still used in the study of proxemics to explain human behavior
regarding personal space. Hargie & Dickson identify 4 such territories:

1. Primary territory: this refers to an area that is associated with someone who has
exclusive use of it. For example, a house that others cannot enter without the
owner’s permission.
2. Secondary territory: unlike the previous type, there is no “right” to occupancy, but
people may still feel some degree of ownership of a particular space. For
example, someone may sit in the same seat on train every day and feel aggrieved
if someone else sits there.
3. Public territory: this refers to an area that is available to all, but only for a set
period, such as a parking space or a seat in a library. Although people have only a
limited claim over that space, they often exceed that claim. For example, it was
found that people take longer to leave a parking space when someone is waiting to
take that space.
4. Interaction territory: this is space created by others when they are interacting. For
example, when a group is talking to each other on a footpath, others will walk
around the group rather than disturb it.

Chronemics: time in communication

Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. The way we
perceive time, structure our time and react to time is a powerful communication tool, and
helps set the stage for communication. Time perceptions include punctuality and
willingness to wait, the speed of speech and how long people are willing to listen. The
timing and frequency of an action as well as the tempo and rhythm of communications
within an interaction contributes to the interpretation of nonverbal messages.

Movement and body position

Kinesics

Information about the relationship and affect of these two skaters is communicated by
their body posture, eye gaze and physical contact.

The term was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an anthropologist who wished to
study how people communicate through posture, gesture, stance, and movement. Part of
Birdwhistell's work involved making film of people in social situations and analyzing
them to show different levels of communication not clearly seen otherwise. The study
was joined by several other anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory
Bateson.
Posture

Posture can be used to determine a participant’s degree of attention or involvement, the

difference in status between communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for
the other communicator. Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal
relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person’s left side
is parallel to the other person’s right side, leads to favorable perception of communicators
and positive speech; a person who displays a forward lean or a decrease in a backwards
lean also signify positive sentiment during communication. Posture is understood through
such indicators as direction of lean, body orientation, arm position, and body openness.

Gesture

A gesture is a non-vocal bodily movement intended to express meaning. They may be

articulated with the hands, arms or body, and also include movements of the head, face
and eyes, such as winking, nodding, or rolling ones' eyes. The boundary between
language and gesture, or verbal and nonverbal communication, can be hard to identify.

Haptics: touching in communication

Haptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication. Touches that can be

defined as communication include handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand),
back slapping, high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm.

Humans communicate interpersonal closeness through a series of non-verbal actions

known as immediacy behaviors. Examples of immediacy behaviors are: smiling,
touching, open body positions, and eye contact. Cultures that display these immediacy
behaviors are known to be high contact cultures.

Haptic communication is the means by which people and other animals communicate via
touching. Touch is an extremely important sense for humans; as well as providing
information about surfaces and textures it is a component of nonverbal communication in
interpersonal relationships, and vital in conveying physical intimacy.

Eye gaze
The study of the role of eyes in nonverbal communication is sometimes referred to as
"oculesics". Eye contact can indicate interest, attention, and involvement.Studies have
found that people use their eyes to indicate their interest and with more than the
frequently recognized actions of winking and slight movement of the eyebrows. Eye
contact is an event when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time. It is a
form of nonverbal communication and has a large influence on social behavior.
Frequency and interpretation of eye contact vary between cultures and species. Eye
aversion is the avoidance of eye contact. Eye contact and facial expressions provide
important social and emotional information. People, perhaps without consciously doing
so, probe each other's eyes and faces for positive or negative mood signs. Gaze comprises
the actions of looking while talking, looking while listening, amount of gaze, and
frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate.

Paralanguage: nonverbal cues of the voice

Paralanguage (sometimes called vocalics) is the study of nonverbal cues of the voice.
Various acoustic properties of speech such as tone, pitch and accent, collectively known
as prosody, can all give off nonverbal cues. Paralanguage may change the meaning of
words.

The linguist George L. Trager developed a classification system which consists of the
voice set, voice qualities, and vocalization.

• The voice set is the context in which the speaker is speaking. This can include the
situation, gender, mood, age and a person's culture.
• The voice qualities are volume, pitch, tempo, rhythm, articulation, resonance,
nasality, and accent. They give each individual a unique "voice print".
• Vocalization consists of three subsections: characterizers, qualifiers and
segregates. Characterizers are emotions expressed while speaking, such as
laughing, crying, and yawning. A voice qualifier is the style of delivering a
message - for example, yelling "Hey stop that!", as opposed to whispering "Hey
stop that". Vocal segregates such as "uh-huh" notify the speaker that the listener is
listening.

Appearance
Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also
considered a means of nonverbal communication. Research on color psychology has
demonstrated that different colors can invoke different moods. Appearance can also alter
physiological reactions, judgment, and interpretations.

Functions of nonverbal communication

Argyle (1970) put forward the hypothesis that whereas spoken language is normally used
for communicating information about events external to the speakers, non-verbal codes
are used to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite
or nicer to communicate attitudes towards others non-verbally rather than verbally, for
instance in order to avoid embarrassing situations.

Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in
human communication:

• Express emotions
• Express interpersonal attitudes
 • To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and
listeners
• Self-presentation of one’s personality
• Rituals (greetings)

Concealing deception

Nonverbal communication makes it easier to lie without being revealed. This is the
conclusion of a study where people watched made-up interviews of persons accused of
having stolen a wallet. The interviewees lied in about 50 % of the cases. People had
access to either written transcripts of the interviews, or audio tape recordings, or video
recordings. The more clues that were available to those watching, the larger was the trend
that interviewees who actually lied were judged to be truthful. That is, people that are
clever at lying can use voice tone and face expression to give the impression that they are
truthful

The relative importance of verbal and nonverbal

communication
An interesting question is: When two people are communicating face-to-face, how much
of the meaning is communicated verbally, and how much is communicated non-verbally?
This was investigated by Albert Mehrabian and reported in two papers. The latter paper
concluded: "It is suggested that the combined effect of simultaneous verbal, vocal, and
facial attitude communications is a weighted sum of their independent effects - with
coefficients of .07, .38, and .55, respectively." This "rule" that clues from spoken words,
from the voice tone, and from the facial expression, contribute 7 %, 38 %, and 55 %
respectively to the total meaning, is widely cited. It is presented on all types of popular
courses with statements like "scientists have found out that . . . ". In reality, however, it is
extremely weakly founded. First, it is based on the judgment of the meaning of single
tape-recorded words, i.e. a very artificial context. Second, the figures are obtained by
combining results from two different studies which potentially cannot be combined.
Third, it relates only to the communication of positive versus negative emotions. Fourth,
it relates only to women, as men did not participate in the study.

Since then, other studies have analysed the relative contribution of verbal and nonverbal
signals under more naturalistic situations. Argyle , using video tapes shown to the
subjects, analysed the communication of submissive/dominant attitude and found that
non-verbal cues had 4.3 times the effect of verbal cues. The most important effect was
that body posture communicated superior status in a very efficient way. On the other
hand, a study by Hsee et al. had subjects judge a person on the dimension happy/sad and
found that words spoken with minimal variation in intonation had an impact about 4
times larger than face expressions seen in a film without sound. Thus, the relative
importance of spoken words and facial expressions may be very different in studies using
different set-ups.

Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication

When communicating, nonverbal messages can interact with verbal messages in six
ways: repeating, conflicting, complementing, substituting, regulating and
accenting/moderating.

Repeating
"Repeating" consists of using gestures to strengthen a verbal message, such as pointing to
the object of discussion.

Conflicting
Verbal and nonverbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send opposing
or conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of truth while
simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed message to the
receiver in the interaction. Conflicting messages may occur for a variety of reasons often
stemming from feelings of uncertainty, ambivalence, or frustration. When mixed
messages occur, nonverbal communication becomes the primary tool people use to attain
additional information to clarify the situation; great attention is placed on bodily
movements and positioning when people perceive mixed messages during interactions.

Complementing
Accurate interpretation of messages is made easier when nonverbal and verbal
communication complement each other. Nonverbal cues can be used to elaborate on
verbal messages to reinforce the information sent when trying to achieve communicative
goals; messages have been shown to be remembered better when nonverbal signals affirm
the verbal exchange.

Substituting
Nonverbal behavior is sometimes used as the sole channel for communication of a
message. People learn to identify facial expressions, body movements, and body
positioning as corresponding with specific feelings and intentions. Nonverbal signals can
be used without verbal communication to convey messages; when nonverbal behavior
does not effectively communicate a message, verbal methods are used to enhance
understanding.

Regulating
Nonverbal behavior also regulates our conversations. For example, touching someone's
arm can signal that you want to talk next or interrupt.

Accenting/Moderating
Nonverbal signals are used to alter the interpretation of verbal messages. Touch, voice
pitch, and gestures are some of the tools people use to accent or amplify the message that
is sent; nonverbal behavior can also be used to moderate or tone down aspects of verbal
messages as well. For example, a person who is verbally expressing anger may accent the
verbal message by shaking a fist.

Difficulties with nonverbal communication

People vary in their ability to send and receive nonverbal communication. Thus, on
average, to a moderate degree, women are better at nonverbal communication than are
men.

Measurements of the ability to communicate nonverbally and the capacity to feel

empathy have shown that the two abilities are independent of each other.

For people who have relatively large difficulties with nonverbal communication, this can
pose significant challenges, especially in interpersonal relationships. There exist
resources that are tailored specifically to these people, which attempt to assist those in
understanding information which comes more easily to others. A specific group of
persons that face these challenges are those with autism spectrum disorders, including
Asperger syndrome.

Q2. What makes Rhetorical Theory different from other

communication theories? Explain briefly
Rhetorical theory is based on the available means of persuasion. I.e. A speaker
who is interested in persuading his audience should consider 3 rhetorical proofs.

Why is it important than other theories:

This is important because it give more dimensions in the process of
communication and makes it more clear and considerable. Communication is not
linear but circular, not just sending a message for received but producing a
feedback not static but dynamic. Rhetorical theorists give an Rhetorical theory
provide an important addition to a communication model for business
communicators
Defining Communication Theories

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive Dissonance Theory argues that the experience of dissonance (or
incompatible beliefs and actions) is aversive and people are highly motivated to
avoid it. In their efforts to avoid feelings of dissonance, people will avoid hearing
views that oppose their own, change their beliefs to match their actions, and seek
reassurance after making a difficult decision.
Communication Accommodation Theory
This theoretical perspective examines the underlying motivations and
consequences of what happens when two speakers shift their communication
styles. Communication Accommodation theorists argue that during
communication, people will try to accommodate or adjust their style of speaking
to others. This is done in two ways: divergence and convergence. Groups with
strong ethnic or racial pride often use divergence to highlight ***** identity.
Convergence occurs when there is a strong need for social approval, frequently
from powerless individuals.
Coordinated Management of Meaning
Theorists in Coordinated Management of Meaning believe that in conversation,
people co-create meaning by attaining some coherence and coordination.
Coherence occurs when stories are told, and coordination exists when stories are
lived. CMM focuses on the relationship between an individual and his or her
society. Through a hierarchical structure, individuals come to organize the
meaning of literally hundreds of messages received throughout a day.
Cultivation Analysis
This theory argues that television (and other media) plays an extremely important
role in how people view their world. According to Cultivation Analysis, in
modern Culture most people get much of their information in a mediated fashion
rather than through direct experience. Thus, mediated sources can shape people’s
sense of reality. This is especially the case with regard to violence, according to
the theory. Cultivation Analysis posits that heavy television viewing cultivates a
sense of the world that is more violent and scarier than is actually warranted.
Cultural Approach to Organizations
The Cultural Approach contends that people are like animals who are suspended
in webs that they created. Theorists in this tradition argue that an organization’s
culture is composed of shared symbols, each of which has a unique meaning.
Organizational stories, rituals, and rites of passage are examples of what
constitutes the culture of an organization.
Cultural Studies
Theorists in cultural studies maintain that the media represents ideologies of the
dominant class in a society. Because media are controlled by corporations, the
information presented to the public is necessarily influenced and framed with
profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore, are concerned with media
influenced and framed with profit in mind. Cultural Studies theorists, therefore,
are concerned with media influence and how power plays a role in the
interpretation of culture.
Dramatism
This theoretical position compares life to a drama. As in dramatic action, life
requires an actor, a scene, an act, some means for the action to take place, and a
purpose. A rhetorical critic can understand a speaker’s motives by analyzing these
elements. Further, Dramatism argues that purging guilt is the ultimate motive, and
rhetors can be successful when they provide their audiences with a means for
purging their guilt and a sense of identification with the rhetor.
Expectancy Violations Theory
Expectancy Violation Theory examines how nonverbal messages are structured.
The theory advances that when communicative norms are violated, the violation
may be perceived either favorably or unfavorably, depending on the perception
that the receiver has of the violator. Violating another’s expectations may be a
strategy used over that of conforming to another’s expectations.
Face-Negotiation Theory
Face-Negotiation Theory is concerned with how people in individualistic and
collectivistic cultures negotiate face in conflict situations. The theory is based on
face management, which describes how people from different cultures manage
conflict negotiation in order to maintain face. Self-face and other-face concerns
explain the conflict negotiation between people from various cultures.
Groupthink
The groupthink phenomenon occurs when highly cohesive groups fail to consider
alternatives that may effectively resolve ***** dilemmas. Groupthink theorists
contend that ***** members frequently think similarly and are reluctant to share
unpopular or dissimilar ideas with others. When this occurs, groups prematurely
make decisions, some of which can have lasting consequences.
Muted ***** Theory
Muted ***** Theory maintains that language serves men better than women (and
perhaps European Americans better than African Americans or other groups).
This is the case because the variety of experiences of European American men are
named clearly in language, whereas the experiences of other groups (such as
women) are not. Due to this problem with language, women appear less articulate
than men in public settings. As women have similar experiences, this situation
should change.
The Narrative Paradigm
This theory argues that humans are storytelling animals. The Narrative Paradigm
proposes a narrative logic to replace the traditional logic of argument. Narrative
logic, or the logic of good reasons, suggests that people judge the credibility of
speakers by whether their stories hang together clearly (coherence and whether
their stories ring true (fidelity). The Narrative Paradigm allows for a democratic
judgment of speakers because no one has to be trained in oratory and persuasion
to make judgments based on coherence and fidelity.
Organizational Information Theory
This Theory argues that the main activity of organizations is the process of
making sense of equivocal information. Organizational members accomplish this
sense-making process through enactment, selection, and retention of information.
Organizations are successful to the extent that they are able to reduce equivocality
through these means.
Relational Dialectics Theory
Relational Dialectics suggests that relational life is always in process. People in
relationships continually feel the pull-push of conflicting desires. Basically,
people wish to have both autonomy and connection, openness and protective-ness,
and novelty and predictability. As people communicate in relationships, they
attempt to reconcile these conflicting desires, but they never eliminate their needs
for both of the opposing pairs.

Social Exchange Theory

This theoretical position argues that the major force in interpersonal relationships
is the satisfaction of both people’s self-interest. Theorists in Social Exchange
posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can actually
enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views interpersonal
exchange posit that self-interest is not necessarily a bad thing and that it can
actually enhance relationships. The Social Exchange approach views
interpersonal exchanges as analogous to economic exchanges where people are
satisfied when they receive a fair return on their expenditures.
Social Penetration Theory
This theory maintains that interpersonal relationships evolve in some gradual and
predictable fashion. Penetration theorists believe that self-disclosure is the
primary way that superficial relationships progress to intimate relationships.
Although self-disclosure can lead to more intimate relationships, it can also leave
one or more persons vulnerable.
Spiral of Silence Theory
Theorists associated with Spiral of Silence Theory argue that due to their
enormous power, the mass media have a lasting effect on public opinion. The
theory maintains that mass media work simultaneously with Majority public
opinion to silence minority beliefs on cultural issues. A fear of isolation prompts
those with minority views to examine the beliefs of others. Individuals who fear
being socially isolated are prone to conform to what they perceive to be a majority
view.
Standpoint Theory
This theory posits that people are situated in specific social standpoints-they
occupy different places in the social hierarchy. Because of this, individuals view
the social situation from particular vantage points. By necessity, each vantage
point provides only a partial understanding of the social whole. Yet, those who
occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social whole. Yet,
those who occupy the lower rungs of the hierarchy tend to understand the social
situation more fully than those at the top. Sometimes, Standpoint Theory is
referred to as Feminist Standpoint Theory because of its application to how
women’s and men’s standpoint differ.
Structuration Theory
Theorists supporting the structurational perspective argue that groups and
organizations create structures, which can be interpreted as an organization’s rules
and resources. These structures, in turn, create social systems in an organization.
Structuration theorists posit that groups and organizations achieve a life of their
own because of the way their members utilize their structures. Power structures
guide the decision making taking place in groups and organizations.
Symbolic Interaction Theory
This theory suggests that people are motivated to act based on the meanings they
assign to people, things, and events. Further, meaning is created in the language
that people use both with others and in private thought. Language allows people
to develop a sense of self and to interact with others in community.
Uncertainly Reduction Theory
Uncertainty Reduction Theory suggests that when strangers meet, their primary
focus is on reducing their levels of uncertainty in the situation. Their levels of
uncertainty are located in both behavioral and cognitive realms. That is, they may
be unsure of how to behave (or how the other person will behave), and they may
also be unsure what they think of the other and what the other person thinks of
them. Further, people’s uncertainty is both individual level and relational level.
People are highly motivated to use communication to reduce their uncertainty
according to this theory.
Uses and Gratifications Theory
Uses and Gratifications theorists explain why people choose and use certain
media forms. The theory emphasizes a limited effect position; that is, the media
have a limithe effect on their audiences because audiences are able to exercise
control over their media. Uses and Gratifications Theory attempts to answer the
following: What do people do with the media?
The Rhetoric
Rhetorical theory is based on the available means of persuasion. That is, a speaker
who is interested in persuading his or her audience should consider three
rhetorical proofs: logical, emotional, and ethical. Audiences are key to effective
persuasion as well. Rhetorical syllogism, requiring audiences to supply missing
pieces of a speech, are also used in persuasion.

What Is Rhetorical Theory?

There is a type of the communication theory which is called rhetorical theory.

This provides more dimensions for the communication process to make it clear
and understandable. The writer of this theory says that communication process is
not a single process or it is not a linear process. It is not like just to send message
and receive it but it is a continuous circular process. The whole communication
process is dynamic according to the rhetorical theory. The rhetorical theory adds
more things to the communication process. Many people in the business do not
take care of accuracy of the message which is very important aspect of
communication.

There is a complete process in business communication which starts from the

sender when the sender sends the message through some channel and this
message is received by the receiver and then the receiver interpret it and send it
back to the sender. This way the communication is carried. So this is the
importance of business communication according to the rhetorical theory it
clearly says that it is a circular process which make the communication process
clear to the both parties. So this is the good way to achieve the desired results of
business communications