1.

Periodic Classification of Elements

1.1 Introduction
In this lesson we shall study about the earlier attempts for classification, the
first successful classification which included all the known elements at that time
namely Mendeleev’s periodic table, and about the long form of modern periodic
table which is an improvement over Mendeleev’s work. Finally we shall learn about
some properties of elements and their variations in the periodic table.

▪ What are the types of matter?

▪ What are the types of elements?
▪ What are the smallest particles of matter called?
▪ What is the difference between the molecules of elements and compounds?
- Matter : Anything which has mass and occupies space is called matter.
Matter is made of tiny little particles. The particles that make up matter are
called atoms.
- Mixture : A mixture contains two or more substances present in it (in any
ratio) which are called its components. Mixtures are two types -
Homogeneous mixtures : The components completely mix with each other
and its composition is uniform throughout.
Heterogeneous mixtures : The composition is not uniform throughout and
sometimes the different components can be observed.
- Pure substances : They have fixed composition. Constituents components of
pure substances cannot be separated by simple physical methods. Pure
substances are two types -
Elements : An element consists of only one type of particles. The three main
classes of elements are metals, metalloids and nonmetals.
Compound : When two or more atoms of different elements combine, the
molecule of a compound is
obtained. The atoms of different
elements are present in a
compound in a fixed and definite
ratio and this ratio is
characteristic of a particular
compound. The properties of a
compound are different from
those of its constituent elements.
Constituent particles can be
separated by chemical methods.
Compounds are two types –
Molecule of element is made up
of only one kind of atoms and Molecules of compound in made up of two or
more kind of atoms.

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1.2 Classification of Elements
The earliest attempt to classify the elements resulted in grouping the then
known elements as metals and non-metals. This served only limited purpose
mainly because of two reasons:
▪ All the elements were grouped in to these two classes only. Moreover the
group containing metals was very big.
▪ Some elements showed properties of both-metals and non-metals and they
could not be placed in any of the two classes.
After this, scientists made attempts to recognize some pattern or regularity
in variation of properties of elements.

1.2.1 Dobereiner’s triads

In 1817, Dobereiner, a German scientist made some groups of three
elements each and called them triads. All three elements of a triad were similar in
their properties. He arranged the three elements in a triad in an increasing order of
atomic mass and showed that the atomic mass of the middle element was
approximately equal to the mean of
the atomic masses of the other two
elements.
Let us take the example of
three elements lithium, sodium and
potassium. They form a Dobereiner’s
triad.
Mean of the atomic masses of the
first (Li) and the third (K) elements:
7+39
= 23 u.
2
The atomic mass of the middle
element, sodium, Na is equal to 23 u.
Dobereneir’s idea of classification of
elements into triads did not receive
wide acceptance as he could arrange only a few elements in this manner.

1.2.2 Newland’s law of Octaves

In 1866 John Alexander Newland, an English chemist noticed that “when
elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic masses every eighth
element had properties similar to the first element.” Newland called it the Law of
Octaves.
It was due to its similarity with musical notes where, in every octave, after
seven different notes the eighth note is repetition of the first one as shown below.

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Limitations
▪ It was found that the Law of Octaves was applicable only upto calcium, as
after calcium every eighth element did not possess properties similar to that
of the first.
▪ It was assumed by Newlands that only 56 elements existed in nature and no
more elements would be discovered in the future. But, later on, several new
elements were discovered, whose properties did not fit into the Law of
Octaves.
▪ Newlands adjusted two elements in the same slot, but also put some unlike
elements under the same note. Note that cobalt and nickel are in the same
slot and these are placed in the same column as fluorine, chlorine and
bromine which have very different properties than these elements. Iron,
which resembles cobalt and nickel in properties, has been placed far away
from these elements.
The properties of the new elements discovered later on did not fit in the Newlands’
law of octaves.

1.2.3 Mendeleev’s Periodic Law and Periodic Table

In1869, Dmitry Mendeleev a Russian chemist while trying to classify
elements discovered that on arranging in the increasing order of atomic mass,
elements with similar chemical properties occurred periodically. A periodic function
is the one which repeats itself after a certain interval. Thus, according to the
periodic law the chemical and physical properties of elements repeat themselves
after certain intervals when they are arranged in the increasing order of their
atomic mass. Now we shall learn about the arrangement of elements on the basis of
the periodic law.
“The chemical and physical properties of elements are a periodic function of
their atomic masses”
A tabular arrangement of the elements based on the periodic law is called
periodic table. When Mendeleev started his work, 63 elements were known. He
examined the relationship between the atomic masses of the elements and their

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physical and chemical properties. Among chemical properties, Mendeleev
concentrated on the compounds formed by elements with oxygen and hydrogen. He
selected hydrogen and oxygen as they are very reactive and formed compounds
with most elements. The formulae of the hydrides and oxides formed by an element
were treated as one of the basic properties of an element for its classification.
Main features of Mendeleev’s periodic table
▪ The horizontal rows present in the periodic table are called periods. You can
see that there are seven periods in the periodic table. These are numbered
from 1 to 7.
▪ The vertical columns present in it are called groups. You must have noticed
that these are nine in number and are numbered from I to VIII and Zero.
▪ Groups I to VII are subdivided into A and B subgroups. Groups Zero and VIII
don’t have any subgroups.
▪ All the elements in a particular group are chemically similar in nature. They
show regular gradation in their physical properties and chemical reactivities
while Properties of elements in a particular period show regular gradation
(i.e. increase or decrease) from left to right.
Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic classification
▪ Systematic study of elements : He arranged known elements in order of their
increasing atomic masses considering the fact that elements with similar
properties should fall in the same vertical column.
▪ Correction of atomic masses : The mendeleev’s periodic table could predict
errors in the atomic masses of certain elements were corrected. For example,
atomic mass of beryllium was corrected from 13.5 to 9.01. Similarly, with
the help of this table, atomic masses of indium, gold, platinum etc. were
corrected.
▪ Prediction of new elements : Mendeleev’s periodic table had some blank
spaces in it. These vacant spaces were for elements that were yet to be
discovered.
Eka-boron (scandium)
Eka-aluminium (gallium)
Eka-manganese (technetium)
Eka-silicon (germanium)
▪ Position of noble gases : Noble gases were discovered very late because they
are very inert and present in extremely low concentrations in our
atmosphere. One of the strengths of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table was that,
when these gases were discovered, they could be placed in a new group
without disturbing the existing order.
Defects in Mendeleev’s periodic table
▪ Position of hydrogen : Position of hydrogen in the periodic table is uncertain.
It has been placed in 1A group with alkali metals, but certain properties of
hydrogen resemble those of halogens. So, it may be placed in the group for
halogens as well.
▪ Position of isotopes : Isotopes are the atoms of the same element having
different atomic masses. Therefore, according to Mendeleev’s classification

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 these should be placed at different places depending upon their atomic
masses.
▪ Anomalous pairs of elements : “ In certain pair of elements, the increasing
order of atomic masses was not obeyed. In these, Mendeleev placed elements
according to similarities in their properties and not in increasing order of
their atomic masses.
- Atomic mass of argon (Ar) is 39.9 and that of potassium (K) 39.1 but argon is
placed before potassium in the periodic table.
- Cobalt (Co) 58.9 is placed before nickel (Ni) 58.7
- Tellurium (Te) 127.6 is placed before iodine (I) 126.9
▪ Some similar elements are separated, in the periodic table.
- Copper (Cu) and mercury (Hg), barium (Ba) and lead (Pb).
On the other hand some dissimilar elements have been placed together in
the same group.

▪ Write the molecular formulae of oxides of the following elements by referring

to the Mendeleev’s periodic table. Na, Si, Ca, C, Rb, P, Ba, Cl, Sn, Ca
- The element sodium belongs to group I of Mendeleev's periodic table in
which the general formula of oxides of elements is R2O.
So formula of oxide of Sodium is Na2O.
- Rb element also belongs to Group I so formula of oxide is Rb2O.
- The element Silicon belongs to Group IV of Mendeleev's periodic table in
which the general formula is RO2.
So, the formula for oxide of Si is SiO2.
- Sn belongs same group so formula of its oxide is SnO2.
- C belongs to same group so formula of oxide is CO2.
- Ca belongs to group II of Mendeleev's periodic table. The general formula of
Oxide is RO.
So formula for Oxide of Ca is CaO.
- Ba belongs to this group, so formula of oxide is BaO.
- Phosphorous belongs to group V. so general formula of oxide is R2O5.
So formula of oxide is P2O5.
- Cl belongs to group VII with general formula R2O7.
So formula of their oxide is Cl2O7
▪ Write the molecular formulae of the compounds of the following elements with
hydrogen by referring to the Mendeleev’s periodic table. C, S, Br, As, F, O, N, Cl
- CH4 methane
- H2S hydrogen sulphide
- HBr hydrogen bromide/hydrobromic acid
- AsH3 arsenic hydride
- HF hydrogen fluoride/hydrofluoric acid
- H2O dihydrogen oxide
- NH3 ammonia
- HCl hydrogen chloride/hydrochloric acid

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1.2.4 Modern Periodic Law
In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that the atomic number of an element is a
more fundamental property than its atomic mass. Accordingly, Mendeleev’s
Periodic Law was modified and atomic number was adopted as the basis of Modern
Periodic Table and the Modern Periodic Law can be stated as follows :
“The chemical and physical properties of elements are a periodic function of
their atomic numbers”
The atomic number gives us the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom and this number increases by one in going from one element to the next. The
properties of elements can be predicted more accurately with the help of the
modern periodic table formed on the basis of atomic numbers.
Features of Modern Periodic Table
- The arrangement of the elements is based on a more fundamental property
namely atomic number.
- In this periodic table the position of an element is related to the electronic
configuration of its atom.
- The greatest advantage of this periodic table is that this be divided into four
block elements namely s-, p-, d-, and f-block elements.
- There are 18 vertical columns in the periodic table. Each column is called a
group. The groups have been numbered from 1 to 18 from left to right.
- There are seven rows in the periodic table. Each row is called a period. The
periods have been numbered from 1 to 7
- The first period is the shortest period of all and contains only 2 elements, H
and He.
- The second and third periods are called short periods and contain 8
elements each.
- Fourth and fifth periods are long periods and contain 18 elements each.
- Sixth and seventh periods are very long periods containing 32 elements
each.
- Seventh period is incomplete period.
- Elements present in groups 1 and 2 on left side and groups 13 to 17 on the
right side of the periodic table are called normal elements or representative
elements, it belongs to s-, p-block. Their outermost one shell is incomplete.
- Elements present in groups 3 to 12 in the middle of the periodic table are
called transition elements; it belongs to d- block. Their two outermost shells
are incomplete.
- The lanthanoids and actinoids have been given a separate place at the
bottom of the periodic table due to their analogous chemical behavior. 14
elements with atomic numbers 58 to 71 (Ce to Lu) are called lanthanides
while 14 elements with atomic numbers 90 to103 (Th to Lr) are called
actinides both series belongs to f- block.
- Group 1 elements called alkali metals and group 2 elements called Alkaline
Earth Metals.
- Elements such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine belong to
Group 17, called halogen group.

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 - The metalloid elements lie along the border of this zig-zag line. All the metals
lie on the left side of the zig-zag line while all the nonmetals lie on the right
side.
- The inert gases/noble gases having completely filled electron shells have
been placed at the end of each period. Their outermost shells contain 8
electrons.

Merits of modern periodic table over Mendeleev’s periodic table

The modern periodic table is based on atomic number which is more
fundamental property of an atom than atomic mass. The modern periodic table is
therefore free of main defects of Mendeleev’s periodic table.
▪ Position of isotopes : All isotopes of the same elements have different atomic
masses but same atomic number. Therefore, they occupy the same position
in the modern periodic table which they should have because all of them are
chemically similar.
▪ Anomalous pairs of elements : When elements are arranged in the periodic
table according to their atomic numbers the anomaly regarding certain pairs
of elements in Mendeleev’s periodic table disappears. Atomic numbers of
argon and potassium are 18 and 19 respectively. Therefore, argon with
smaller atomic number comes before potassium although its atomic mass is
greater and properties of both the elements match with other elements of
their respective groups.

▪ How is the problem regarding the position of cobalt (Co 59) and nickel (Ni59) in
Mendeleev’s periodic table resolved in modern periodic table?
- According to modern periodic law, elements are arranged in the order of
increasing atomic number. The atomic no. of cobalt is 27 and that of nickel

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 is 28. In this way, the position of cobalt and nickel were resolved in the
modern periodic table.
35 37
▪ How did the position of Cl17 and Cl17 get fixed in the modern periodic table?
- Isotopes Cl17 & Cl17 occupy the same position in the modern periodic table.
35 37

Both isotopes have the same atomic number. In the modern periodic table,
the elements are arranged in the order of their increasing atomic numbers,
that the problem of difference in the pairs of isotopes elements observed in
the Mendeleev's periodic table was solved.
▪ Can there be an element with atomic mass 53 or 54 in between the two
elements, chromium Cr24 52
and manganese Mn55 25 ?
- It is not possible. Since their atomic numbers are continuous, there cannot
be an element between chromium and manganese.
▪ Hydrogen should be placed in which group and which period ? Give reasons.
- Hydrogen has a single electron in its valence shell. Thus it can lose an
electron to achieve a stable configuration like alkali metals and hence can be
placed in group 1 (alkali metals). However, it can also gain an electron to
achieve a noble gas arrangement and hence can be placed along with group
17 (halogen family) elements. However, it is generally placed along group 1
elements, as it readily forms H+ ions by losing one electron.
1.3 Electronic Configuration
Recall that the maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in
a shell depends on the formula 2n2 where ‘n’ is the number of the given shell from
the nucleus.
The number of elements in the first three periods is determined by the
electron capacity of the shells and the law of electron octet. As per the electron
holding capacity of shells 2 elements are present in the first period and 8 elements
in the second period. The third period also contains only eight elements due to the
law of electron octet. The chemical reactivity of an element is determined by the
number of valence electrons in it and the shell number of the valence shell.

▪ What are the values of ‘n’ for the shells K, L and M?

▪ What is the maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a
shell? Write the formula.
▪ Deduce the maximum electron capacity of the shells K, L and M.
-

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 ▪ The table on the next page is made on the basis of the modern periodic table.
Write in it the electronic configuration of the first 18 elements below the
symbol, and write the valency.

Groups and electronic configuration

▪ Go through the modern periodic table and write the names one below the
other of the elements of group 1.
- Hydrogen (H), Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb),
Caesium (Cs), Francium (Fr)
▪ Write the electronic configuration of the first four elements in this group.
- Hydrogen-1, Lithium-2,1, Sodium-2,8,1, Pottasium -2,8,8,1
▪ Which similarity do you find in their configuration?
- One similarity found between these configurations is all the elements
contain 1 electron in its last shell.
▪ How many valence electrons are there in each of these elements?
- Each element having 1 valence electron.

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Periods and electronic configuration

▪ Ongoing through the modern periodic table it is seen that the elements Li,
Be, B, C, N, O, F and Ne belong to the period-2. Write down electronic
configuration of all of them.
- Lithium – 2,1 Beryllium – 2,2 Boron – 2,3
Carbon – 2,4 Nitrogen – 2,5 Oxygen – 2,6
Fluorine – 2,7 Neon – 2,8
▪ Is the number of valence electrons same for all these elements?
- No, it is gradually increased.
▪ Is the number of shells the same in these ?
- Yes

1.4 Periodic Properties

1.4.1 Valency
The combining power of an element, called Valency.
Valency in a period : You have already learnt in the previous section that the
number of valence electrons increases in a period. In normal elements it increases
from 1 to 8 in a period from left to right. It reaches 8 in group 18 elements (noble
gases) which show practically no chemical activity under ordinary conditions and
their valency is taken as zero.
Valency in a group : All the elements of a group have the same number of valence
electrons. Therefore, they all have the same valency. Thus valency of all group 1
elements, alkali metals is 1.

▪ What is the relationship between the electronic configuration of an element

and its valency?
- The electronic configuration of an atom also helps in determining the
number of electrons present in each sub-shell. With the help of electronic
configuration we can determine the number of electrons present in
outermost shell while valency of an atom helps in determining whether the
atom has lost or gained electrons.
▪ The atomic number of beryllium is 4 while that of oxygen is 8. Write down
the electronic configuration of the two and deduce their valency from the
same.
- Electronic configuration of beryllium - 2,2
2 electrons are in the outermost shell so to complete its duet it will donate 2
electrons. hence its valency is +2
Electronic configuration of oxygen - 2,6
6 electrons are in the outermost shell and to complete its octet it needs 2
electrons. hence its valency is -2.
▪ What is the periodic trend in the variation of valency while going from left to
right within a period?

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 - Going from left to right in a period, the atomic number increases one by one,
meaning positive charge on the nucleus increases by one unit at a time.
However, the additional electron gets added to the same outermost shell.
Due to the increased nuclear charge the electrons are pulled towards the
nucleus to a greater extent and there by the size of the atom decreases.
▪ What is the periodic trend in the variation of valency while going down a
group? Explain your answer with reference to the group 1, group 2 and
group 18.
- Valency doesn't change while going down a Group due to the same number
of Valence electrons. Group 1 elements have valency 1, group 2 elements
have the valency 2 and group 18 elements have their valency is 0.
1.4.2 Atomic size
The term atomic size refers to the radius of an atom. The atomic size may be
visualized as the distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost
shell of an isolated atom. The atomic radius of hydrogen atom is 37 pm (picometre,
1 pm = 10–12m).
Let us study the variation of atomic size in a group and in a period.
Atomic size in a period : The atomic radius decreases in moving from left to right
along a period. This is due to an increase in nuclear charge which tends to pull the
electrons closer to the nucleus and reduces the size of the atom.
Atomic size in a group : The atomic size increases down the group. This is because
new shells are
being added as we
go down the
group. This
increases the
distance between
the outermost
electrons and the
nucleus so that
the atomic size
increases in spite
of the increase in nuclear charge.

▪ Look at the elements of the third period. Classify them into metals and
nonmetals.

▪ On which side of the period are the metals? Left or right?

- Left-hand side of the period
▪ On which side of the period did you find the nonmetals?
- Right-hand side of the period

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1.4.3 Metallic- Nonmetallic Character
Metallic character refers to the level of reactivity of a metal. Metals tend to
lose electrons in chemical reactions, as indicated by their low ionization energies.
Within a compound, metal atoms have a relatively low attraction for electrons. This
is indicated by their low electronegativity.
Nonmetals tend to gain
electrons in chemical reactions
and have a high attraction for
electrons within a compound.
The most reactive nonmetals
reside in the upper right portion
of the periodic table. The noble
gases are a special group because
of their lack of reactivity.
However, the element fluorine is
the most reactive nonmetal. It is
not found in nature as a free
element.
The elements which have a tendency to gain electrons are known as non-
metals. The tendency to gain electrons increases on moving across a period due to
an increase in the nuclear charge and decrease in the atomic size. Hence, the non-
metallic character increases across a period. As we move down the group, the non-
metallic character decreases due to increase in the atomic size.

▪ What is the cause of nonmetallic character of elements?

- On moving from left to right in a period nonmetallic character increase
because, we move from left to right in a period the nuclear charge increases.
Due to the increase in nuclear charge, the valence electrons are pulled more
strongly by the nucleus and it becomes more difficult for atoms to lose
electrons. Hence nonmetallic character increases.
▪ What is the expected trend in the variation of nonmetallic character of
elements from left to right in a period?
- Nonmetallic character increases from left to right in a period.
▪ What would be the expected trend in the variation of nonmetallic character
of elements down a group?
- Nonmetallic character decreases down the group.
1.5 Gradation in Halogen Family
The non-metallic elements Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I)
and Astatine (At) are grouped together to form group 17 of the Periodic Table. Their
salts are present in sea-water and hence they are collectively known as halogens
(Greek, Halos means sea salt producers). The group collectively is called halogen
family. Fluorine (F2) and chlorine (Cl2) are gases; bromine (Br2) is a liquid while
iodine (I2) is a solid.
KUSHAL KHOLGADE
MOB. – 9049449404
kushalkholgade@rediffmail.com
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